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Author(s): Murtha Baca
ISBN(s): 9780892368969, 0892368969
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 2.71 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english

Introduction to Metadata 3.0 ©2008 J. Paul Getty Trust
Introduction to
Metadata
Second Edition
Edited by Murtha Baca
The Getty Research Institute

© 2008 J. Paul Getty Trust
Second Edition, 2008
Version 3.0
Published by the Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles
Getty Publications
1200 Getty Center Drive, Suite 500
Los Angeles, CA 90049-1682
www.getty.edu/publications
Gregory M. Britton, Publisher
The Getty Research Institute
Publications Program
Thomas Gaehtgens, Director, Getty Research Institute
Gail Feigenbaum, Associate Director, Programs
Julia Bloomfield, Head, Publications Program
Introduction to Metadata
Second Edition
Murtha Baca, Series Editor
Patrick E. Pardo, Project Editor
Sheila U. Berg, Manuscript Editor
Elizabeth Zozom, Production Coordinator
Designed by Hespenheide Design, Newbury Park, California
Printed and bound by Odyssey Press Inc.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Introduction to metadata / edited by Murtha Baca. — 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-89236-896-9 (pbk.)
1. Database management. 2. Metadata. 3. World Wide Web.
4. Information organization. I. Baca, Murtha. II. Getty Research Institute.
QA76.9.D3I599 2008
025.3—dc22
2008007871
Cover image: Art primitif (detail),
plate 1, from Auguste Racinet, L’ornement
polychrome (Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1869–
1887, volume 1). Research Library,
The Getty Research Institute, 84-B13277
Reader’s Note: The editor and authors
of this publication are aware that the
noun “metadata” (like the noun “data”) is
plural and, therefore, should take a plural
verb form. However, in order to avoid
awkward locutions, it has been treated here
throughout as singular.
This volume was published in September
2008. Updated print editions will be
offered periodically. An online version of
this edition is also available at:
www.getty.edu/research/
conducting_research/standards/
intrometadata

Contents
iv Introduction
Murtha Baca
1 Setting the Stage
Anne J. Gilliland
20 Metadata and the Web
Tony Gill
38 Crosswalks, Metadata Harvesting,
Federated Searching, Metasearching:
Using Metadata to Connect Users and Information
Mary S. Woodley
63 Rights Metadata Made Simple
Maureen Whalen
71 Practical Principles for Metadata Creation
and Maintenance
73 Glossary
80 Selected Bibliography
81 Contributors

Introduction
Murtha Baca
Like metadata itself, the realm of online resources is constantly and rapidly
evolving. Much has changed in the digital information landscape since
the first print edition of this book was published in 1998 and the revised
online version appeared in 2000. The time is right for an updated edition
of this text, intended to give a general introduction to metadata and to
explain some of the key tools, concepts, and issues associated with using
metadata to build authoritative, reliable, and useful digital resources.
Metadata creation is—or should often be—a collaborative effort,
as is this book. For this edition, the three contributors to the 2000 version
wrote updated chapters, and I was fortunate to find a new contributor to
address the crucial issue of rights metadata.
In the first chapter, Anne Gilliland provides an overview of

metadata—its types, roles, and characteristics—as well as facts about
metadata that belie several common misconceptions. She also addresses
current trends in metadata, especially that of metadata created by users
rather than trained information professionals. Activities such as social
tagging, social bookmarking, and the resulting forms of user-created

metadata such as “folksonomies” are playing an increasingly important
role in the realm of digital information.
In the second chapter, Tony Gill discusses metadata as it relates
to resources on the Web. He explains how Web search engines work and
how they use metadata, data, links, and relevance ranking to help users
find what they are seeking and discusses in detail the commercial search
engine that as of this writing has dominated the Web for several years:
Google. He explains the difference between the Visible Web and the
Hidden Web and the important implications and issues relating to making
resources reachable from commercial, publicly available search engines
versus systems that have one or more “barriers” to access—because they
are fee based or password protected or require a particular IP address, or
simply because they are not technically exposed to commercial search
engines. Gill also raises issues relating to open access to digitized materials
and legal obstacles that currently prevent open access to many materials.
iv of vi

Introduction v of vi
In the third chapter, Mary Woodley examines the methods,
tools, standards, and protocols that can be used to publish and disseminate
digital collections in a variety of online venues. She shows how “seamless
searching”—integrated access to a variety of resources residing in different
information systems and formulated according to a range of standard
and nonstandard metadata schemes—is still far from a reality. Woodley
contrasts the method of “federation” by means of the building of union
catalogs of digital collections by aggregating metadata records from diverse
contributors into a single database with metasearching—real-time searching
of diverse resources that have not been aggregated but rather are searched
in situ by means of one or more protocols. Each method requires specific
skills and knowledge; particular procedures, protocols, and data standards;
and the appropriate technical infrastructure. Creating union resources via
physical aggregation of metadata records or via metadata harvesting is a
good thing, but we should keep in mind that it does not necessarily solve
the Hidden Web problem enunciated by Gill. If resources are publicly
available but users cannot reach them from Google, instead having to find
the specific search page for the particular union resource, we cannot say
that we have provided unfettered access to that resource. Woodley also
stresses the importance of data value standards—controlled vocabularies,
thesauri, lists of terms and names, and folksonomies—for enhancing end-
user access. She points out that mapping of metadata elements alone is not
sufficient to connect all users with what they seek; the data values, that is,
the vocabularies used to populate those elements, should also be mapped.
Maureen Whalen’s new chapter, “Rights Metadata Made
Simple,” argues that the research and capture of standards-based rights
metadata should be core activities of memory institutions and offers
practical, realistic options for determining and recording core rights meta-
data. If institutions would commit the effort and resources to following
Whalen’s advice, many of the legal obstacles mentioned by Gill in his
discussion of libraries and the Web could be surmounted.
In another new section in this edition, “Practical Principles for
Metadata Creation and Maintenance,” we again emphasize that institu-
tions need to change old paradigms and procedures. They need to make a
lasting commitment to creating and continually updating the various types
of core metadata relating to their collections and the digital surrogates of
collection materials that we all seem to be in such a hurry to create.
Our slim volume concludes with a glossary and a selected bibli-
ography. The glossary is not intended to be comprehensive; rather, its
purpose is to explain the key concepts and tools discussed in this book.
The bibliography, too, is deliberately restricted to a few relevant publi-
cations and resources. The footnotes in each of the chapters provide

numerous additional references to publications and online resources

relevant to the topic of metadata and digital libraries.
At the end of her chapter, Gilliland compares metadata to an
investment that, if wisely managed, can deliver a significant return on
intellectual capital. I would venture to expand on her financial metaphor
and say that metadata is one of our most important assets. Hardware and
software come and go—sometimes becoming obsolete with alarming
rapidity—but high-quality, standards-based, system-independent metadata
can be used, reused, migrated, and disseminated in any number of ways,
even in ways that we cannot anticipate at this moment.
Digitization does not equal access. The mere act of creating
digital copies of collection materials does not make those materials find-
able, understandable, or utilizable to our ever-expanding audience of
online users. But digitization combined with the creation of carefully
crafted metadata can significantly enhance end-user access; and our users
are the primary reason that we create digital resources.
Introduction
vi of vi
http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/standards/intrometadata/

Setting the Stage
Anne J. Gilliland
Metadata, literally “data about data,” has become a widely used yet still
frequently underspecified term that is understood in different ways by the
diverse professional communities that design, create, describe, preserve,
and use information systems and resources. It is a construct that has been
around for as long as humans have been organizing information, albeit
transparently in many cases, and today we create and interact with it in
increasingly digital ways. For the past hundred years at least, the creation
and management of metadata has primarily been the responsibility
of information professionals engaged in cataloging, classification, and
indexing; but as information resources are increasingly put online by the
general public, metadata considerations are no longer solely the province
of information professionals. Although metadata is arguably a much less
familiar term among creators and consumers of networked digital content
who are not information professionals per se, these same individuals are
increasingly adept at creating, exploiting, and assessing user-contributed
metadata such as Web page title tags, folksonomies, and social bookmarks.
Schoolchildren and college students are taught in information literacy
programs to look for metadata such as provenance and date information
in order to ascertain the authoritativeness of information that they retrieve
on the Web. Thus it has become more important than ever that not only
information professionals but also other creators and users of digital
content understand the critical roles of different types of metadata in
ensuring accessible, authoritative, interoperable, scaleable, and preservable
cultural heritage information and record-keeping systems.
Until the mid-1990s, metadata was a term used primarily by
communities involved with the management and interoperability of
geospatial data and with data management and systems design and main-
tenance in general. For these communities, metadata referred to a suite
of industry or disciplinary standards as well as additional internal and
external documentation and other data necessary for the identification,
representation, interoperability, technical management, performance, and
use of data contained in an information system.
Setting the Stage 1 of 19

Perhaps a more useful, “big picture” way of thinking about
metadata is as the sum total of what one can say about any information
object at any level of aggregation.¹ In this context, an information object
is anything that can be addressed and manipulated as a discrete entity
by a human being or an information system. The object may comprise a
single item, it may be an aggregate of many items, or it may be the entire
database or record-keeping system. Indeed, in any given instance one can
expect to find metadata relevant to any information object existing simul-
taneously at the item, aggregation, and system levels.
In general, all information objects, regardless of the physical or
intellectual form they take, have three features—content, context, and
structure—all of which can and should be reflected through metadata.
• Content relates to what the object contains or is about and is
intrinsic to an information object.
• Context indicates the who, what, why, where, and how aspects
associated with the object’s creation and is extrinsic to an infor-
mation object.
• Structure relates to the formal set of associations within or among
individual information objects and can be intrinsic or extrinsic
or both.
Cultural heritage information professionals such as museum
registrars, library catalogers, and archival processors often apply the term
metadata to the value-added information that they create to arrange,
describe, track, and otherwise enhance access to information objects
and the physical collections related to those objects. Such metadata is
frequently governed by community-developed and community-fostered
standards and best practices in order to ensure quality, consistency, and
interoperability. The following Typology of Data Standards organizes
these standards into categories and provides examples of each. Markup
languages such as HTML and XML provide a standardized way to struc-
ture and express these standards for machine processing, publication, and
implementation.
Library metadata development has been first and foremost about
providing intellectual and physical access to collection materials. Library
metadata includes indexes, abstracts, and bibliographic records created
according to cataloging rules (data content standards) such as the Anglo-
2 of 19
¹
An information object is a digital item or group of items, regardless of type or format, that
can be addressed or manipulated as a single object by a computer. This concept can be
confusing in that it can be used to refer both to digital “surrogates” of original objects or
items (e.g., digitized images of works of art or material culture, a PDF of an entire book)
and to descriptive records relating to objects and/or collections (e.g., catalog records or
finding aids).

American Cataloguing Rules (AACR) and data structure standards such as
the MARC (Machine-Readable Cataloging) format, as well as data value
standards such as the Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) or the
Art Architecture Thesaurus (AAT). Such bibliographic metadata has
been systematically and cooperatively created and shared since the 1960s
and made available to repositories and users through automated systems
such as bibliographic utilities, online public access catalogs (OPACs), and
commercially available databases. Today this type of metadata is created
not only by humans but also in automated ways through such means as
metadata mining, metadata harvesting, and Web crawling. Automation of
metadata will inevitably continue to expand with the development of the
Resource Description Framework (RDF) and the Semantic Web, which
are discussed later in this book.
A large component of archival and museum metadata creation
activities has traditionally been focused on context. Elucidating and
preserving context is what assists with identifying and preserving the
evidential value of records and artifacts in and over time; it is what facili-
tates the authentication of those objects, and it is what assists researchers
with their analysis and interpretation. Archival and manuscript metadata
(more commonly referred to as archival description) includes accession
Table 1. A Typology of Data Standards
Type Examples
Data structure standards (metadata element sets, schemas). These
are “categories” or “containers” of data that make up a record or other
information object.
The set of MARC (Machine-Readable Cataloging format) fields,
Encoded Archival Description (EAD), Dublin Core Metadata Element
Set (DCMES), Categories for the Description of Works of Art
(CDWA), VRA Core Categories
Data value standards (controlled vocabularies, thesauri, controlled
lists). These are the terms, names, and other values that are used to
populate data structure standards or metadata element sets.
Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH), Library of Congress
Name Authority File (LCNAF), LC Thesaurus for Graphic Materials
(TGM), Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), Art Architecture
Thesaurus (AAT), Union List of Artist Names (ULAN), Getty
Thesaurus of Geographic Names (TGN), ICONCLASS
Data content standards (cataloging rules and codes). These are
guidelines for the format and syntax of the data values that are used to
populate metadata elements.
Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules (AACR), Resource Description
and Access (RDA), International Standard Bibliographic Description
(ISBD), Cataloging Cultural Objects (CCO), Describing Archives: A
Content Standard (DACS)
Data format/technical interchange standards (metadata standards
expressed in machine-readable form). This type of standard is often
a manifestation of a particular data structure standard (type 1 above),
encoded or marked up for machine processing.
MARC21, MARCXML, EAD XML DTD, METS, MODS, CDWA Lite
XML schema, Simple Dublin Core XML schema, Qualified Dublin
Core XML schema, VRA Core 4.0 XML schema
Note: This table is based on the typology of data standards articulated by Karim Boughida, “CDWA Lite for Cataloging Cultural Objects (CCO): A New XML Schema
for the Cultural Heritage Community,” in Humanities, Computers and Cultural Heritage: Proceedings of the XVI International Conference of the Association for
History and Computing: 14–17 (September 2005) (Amsterdam: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2005). Available at http://www.knaw.nl/
publicaties/pdf/20051064.pdf.

records, finding aids, and catalog records. Archival data structure stan-
dards that have been developed in the past three decades include the
MARC Archival and Manuscripts Control (AMC) format, published
by the Library of Congress in 1984 (now integrated into the MARC21
format for bibliographic description); the General International Standard
Archival Description (ISAD (G)), published by the International Council
on Archives in 1994; Encoded Archival Description (EAD), adopted as
a standard by the Society of American Archivists (SAA) in 1999, and its
companion data content standard, Describing Archives: A Content Standard
(DACS), first published in 2004. The Metadata Encoding and Transmis-
sion Standard (METS), developed by the Digital Library Federation and
maintained by the Library of Congress, is increasingly being used for
encoding descriptive, administrative, and structural metadata and digital
surrogates at the item level for objects such as digitized photographs,
maps, and correspondence from the collections described by finding aids
and other collection- or group-level metadata records. While archival
metadata was primarily only available locally at individual repositories
until the late 1990s, it is now distributed online through resources such as
OCLC (Online Computer Library Center),² Archives USA,³ and EAD-
based resources such as the Online Archive of California and the Library
of Congress’s American Memory Project.⁴
Consensus and collaboration have been slower to build in the
museum community, where the benefits of standardization of description
such as shared cataloging and exchange of descriptive data were less readily
apparent until relatively recently. Since the late 1990s, tools such as Cate-
gories for the Description of Works of Art (CDWA), Spectrum, the CIDOC
Conceptual Reference Model, Cataloging Cultural Objects (CCO), and the
CDWA Lite XML schema have begun to be considered and implemented
by museums. Initiatives such as Museums and the Online Archive of
California (MOAC)⁵ have examined the applicability and extensibility of
descriptive standards developed by archives and libraries such as EAD and
METS to museum holdings in order to address the integration of cultural
information across repository types, as well as the educational needs of
users visiting online museum resources.
Although it would seem to be a desirable goal to integrate
materials of different types that are related by provenance or subject but
distributed across museum, archives, and library repositories, initiatives
such as MOAC have met with only limited success. As MOAC and the
4 of 19
² http://www.oclc.org/.
³ http://archives.chadwyck.com/.
⁴ http://www.oac.cdlib.org/ and http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/index.html.
⁵ http://www.bampfa.berkeley.edu/moac/.

Setting the Stage
mid-1980s development of the now-defunct MARC AMC format have
demonstrated, the distinctiveness of the various professional and object-
based approaches (e.g., widely differing notions of provenance and collec-
tivity as well as of structure) and the different institutional cultures have
left many professionals feeling that their practices and needs have been
shoehorned into structures that were developed by another community
with quite different practices and users. As enunciated in Principle 6 of
“Practical Principles for Metadata Creation and Maintenance” (p. 72),
there is no single metadata standard that is adequate for describing all
types of collections and materials; selection of the most appropriate suite
of metadata standards and tools, and creation of clean, consistent meta-
data according to those standards, not only will enable good descriptions
of specific collection materials but also will make it possible to map meta-
data created according to different community-specific standards, thus
furthering the goal of interoperability discussed in subsequent chapters of
this book.
An emphasis on the structure of information objects in metadata
development by these communities has perhaps been less overt. However,
structure has always been important in information organization and
representation, even before computerization. Documentary and publica-
tion forms have evolved into industry standards and societal norms and
have become an almost transparent information management tool. For
example, when users access a birth certificate they can predict its likely
structure and content. When academics use a scholarly monograph, they
understand intuitively that it will be organized with a table of contents,
chapter headings, and an index. Archivists use the physical structure of
their finding aids to provide visual cues to researchers about the structural
relationships between different parts of a record series or manuscript
collection. Archival description also exploits the hierarchical arrangement
of records according to the bureaucratic hierarchies and business practices
of the creators of those records. However, in recent years there has been
increasing criticism that while valuable for retaining context and original
order, collection-level, hierarchical metadata as exemplified in archival
finding aids privileges the scholarly user of the archive (and those who are
familiar with the structure and function of archival finding aids) while
leaving the nonexpert user baffled, as well as unnecessarily perpetuating a
paper-based descriptive paradigm.⁶ In the online world, multiple descrip-
tive relationships between objects can be supported simultaneously, and
some of these may more effectively support new types of users and uses in
⁶ Anne J. Gilliland-Swetland, “Popularizing the Finding Aid: Exploiting EAD to Enhance
Online Browsing and Retrieval in Archival Information Systems by Diverse User Groups,”
Journal of Internet Cataloging 4, nos. 3–4 (2001): 199–225.

an environment that is not mediated by a reference archivist. Archives and
other collecting institutions are beginning to explore methods of descrip-
tion that exploit item-level metadata for digitized objects so that users can
search for specific items, navigate through a collection “bottom-up” as
well as “top-down,” and collate related collection materials through lateral
searching across collections and repositories.
The role of structure has been growing as computer-processing
capabilities become increasingly powerful and sophisticated. Information
communities are aware that the more highly structured an information
object is, the more that structure can be exploited for searching, manipu-
lation, and interrelating with other information objects. Capturing,
documenting, and enforcing that structure, however, can only occur if
supported by specific types of metadata. In short, in an environment
where a user can gain unmediated access to information objects over a
network, metadata
• certifies the authenticity and degree of completeness of the
content;
• establishes and documents the context of the content;
• identifies and exploits the structural relationships that exist
within and between information objects;
• provides a range of intellectual access points for an increasingly
diverse range of users; and
• provides some of the information that an information profes-
sional might have provided in a traditional, in-person reference
or research setting.
But there is more to metadata than description and resource
discovery. A more inclusive conceptualization of metadata is needed as
we consider the range of activities that may be incorporated into digital
information systems. Repositories also create metadata relating to the
administration, accessioning, preservation, and use of collections. Acquisi-
tion records, exhibition catalogs, licensing agreements, and educational
metadata are all examples of these other kinds of metadata and data. Inte-
grated information resources such as virtual museums, digital libraries, and
archival information systems include digital versions of actual collection
content (sometimes referred to as digital surrogates), as well as descriptions
of that content (i.e., descriptive metadata, in a variety of formats). Incorpo-
rating other types of metadata into such resources reaffirms the importance
of metadata in administering collections and maintaining their intellectual
integrity both in and over time. Paul Conway alludes to this capability of
metadata when he discusses the impact of digitization on preservation:
6 of 19

The digital world transforms traditional preservation concepts
from protecting the physical integrity of the object to specifying
the creation and maintenance of the object whose intellectual
integrity is its primary characteristic.⁷
When applied outside the original repository, the term metadata
acquires an even broader scope. An Internet resource provider might use
metadata to refer to information that is encoded in HTML meta tags for
the purposes of making a Web site easier to find. Individuals who are digi-
tizing images might think of metadata as the information they enter into
a header field for the digital file to record information about the image
file, the imaging process, and image rights. A social science data archivist
might use the term to refer to the systems and research documentation
necessary to run and interpret a magnetic tape containing raw research
data. An electronic records archivist might use the term to refer to all
the contextual, processing, preservation, and use information needed to
identify and document the scope, authenticity, and integrity of an active
or archival record in an electronic record-keeping or archival preservation
system. Metadata is crucial in personal information management and
for ensuring effective information retrieval and accountability in record
keeping—something that is becoming increasingly important with the rise
of electronic commerce and the use of digital content and tools by govern-
ments. In all these diverse interpretations, metadata not only identifies
and describes an information object; it also documents how that object
behaves, its function and use, its relationship to other information objects,
and how it should be and has been managed over time.
As this discussion suggests, theory and practices vary consider-
ably due to the differing professional and cultural missions of museums,
archives, libraries, and other information and record-keeping communities.
Information professionals have a bewildering array of metadata standards
and approaches from which to choose. Many highly detailed metadata
standards have been developed by individual communities (e.g., MARC,
EAD, the Australian Recordkeeping Metadata Schema, RKMS, and some
of the standards for Geographic Information Systems) that attempt to
articulate their mission-specific differences as well as to facilitate mapping
between common data elements. If used appropriately and to their fullest
extent, these standards have the potential to create extremely rich metadata
that would provide detailed documentation of record-keeping creation and
⁷ Paul Conway, Preservation in the Digital World (Washington, DC: Commission on Preserva-
tion and Access, 1996). http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/conway2/index.html.
⁸ Sue McKemmish, Glenda Acland, Nigel Ward, and Barbara Reed, “Describing Records in
Context in the Continuum: The Australian Recordkeeping Metadata Schema,” Archivaria 48
(Fall 1999): 3–37.

use in situations in which such activities may be challenged or audited for
their comprehensiveness and accuracy.⁸
Creation and ongoing maintenance
of such metadata, however, is complex, time consuming, and resource
intensive and may only be justifiable when there is a legal mandate or other
risk management incentive or when it is envisaged that the content and
metadata may be reused or exploited in previously unanticipated ways,
such as in digital asset management systems. By contrast, the Dublin Core
Metadata Element Set (DCMES) identifies a relatively small, generic set of
metadata elements that can be used by any community, expert or nonex-
pert, to describe and search across a wide variety of information resources
on the World Wide Web. Such metadata standards are necessary to ensure
that different kinds of descriptive metadata are able to interoperate with
one other and with metadata from nonbibliographic systems of the kind
that the data management communities and information creators are
generating. Relatively lean metadata records such as those created using
the DCMES have the advantage of being cheaper to create and maintain,
but they may need to be augmented by other types of metadata in order to
address the needs of specific user communities and to adequately describe
particular types of collection materials.⁹
Another form of metadata that has recently begun to appear is
user created; user-created metadata has been gathering momentum in a
variety of venues on the Web. Just as many members of the general public
have participated in the development of Web content, whether through
personal Web pages or by uploading photos onto Flickr or videos onto
YouTube, they have also increasingly been getting into the business of
creating, sharing, and copying metadata (albeit often unknowingly). Folk-
sonomies that are created using specialized tagging tools in various Web-
based communities in order to identify, retrieve, categorize, and promote
Web content and the sharing of bookmarks through the practice of social
bookmarking are examples of the burgeoning user-created metadata on
the Web. Among the advantages of these approaches is that individual
Web communities such as affinity groups or hobbyists may be able to
create metadata that addresses their specific needs and vocabularies in ways
that information professionals who apply metadata standards designed to
cater to a wide range of audiences cannot. User-generated metadata is also
a comparatively inexpensive way to augment existing metadata, with the
cost and the sense of ownership shared among more parties than just those
who create information repositories. The disadvantages of user-generated
metadata relate to quality control (or lack thereof) and idiosyncrasies
8 of 19
⁹ See Roy Tennant, “Metadata’s Bitter Harvest,” Library Journal, August 15, 2004, available
at http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/CA434443.html; and the Digital Library Feder-
ation’s Multiple Metadata Formats page at http://webservices.itcs.umich.edu/mediawiki/
oaibp/index.php/MultipleMetadataFormats.

that can impede the trustworthiness of both metadata and the resource it
describes and negatively affect interoperability between metadata and the
resources it is intended to describe. Issues of interoperability are discussed
in some detail in the third chapter of this book.
Categorizing Metadata
All these perspectives on metadata should be considered in the develop-
ment of networked digital information systems, but they lead to a very
broad and often confusing conception. To understand this conception
better, it is helpful to separate metadata into distinct categories—adminis-
trative, descriptive, preservation, use, and technical metadata—that reflect
key aspects of metadata functionality. Table 2 defines each of these meta-
data categories and gives examples of common functions that each might
perform in a digital information system.
Table 2. Different Types of Metadata and Their Functions
Type Definition Examples
Administrative Metadata used in managing and
administering collections and
information resources
• Acquisition information
• Rights and reproduction tracking
• Documentation of legal access requirements
• Location information
• Selection criteria for digitization
Descriptive Metadata used to identify and
describe collections and related
• Cataloging records
• Finding aids
• Differentiations between versions
• Specialized indexes
• Curatorial information
• Hyperlinked relationships between resources
• Annotations by creators and users
Preservation Metadata related to the preserva-
tion management of collections
and information resources
• Documentation of physical condition of resources
•
Documentation of actions taken to preserve physical and digital versions of
resources, e.g., data refreshing and migration
•
Documentation of any changes occurring during digitization or preservation
Technical Metadata related to how a system
functions or metadata behaves
• Hardware and software documentation
•
Technical digitization information, e.g., formats, compression ratios, scaling
routines
• Tracking of system response times
•
Authentication and security data, e.g., encryption keys, passwords
Use Metadata related to the level and
type of use of collections and
• Circulation records
• Physical and digital exhibition records
• Use and user tracking
• Content reuse and multiversioning information
• Search logs
• Rights metadata

10 of 19
Table 3. Attributes and Characteristics of Metadata
Attribute Characteristics Examples
Source of metadata Internal metadata generated by the creating agent for an
information object at the time when it is first created or
digitized
Metadata intrinsic to an item or work
• File names and header information
• Directory structures
• File format and compression scheme
• A title or other inscription added to an art work by its creator
• A title or subtitle on the title page of a manuscript or printed book
External metadata relating to an original item or informa-
tion object, that is created later, often by someone other
than the original creator
• URLs and other digital statements of provenance
• “Tracked changes”
• Registrarial and cataloging records
• Rights and other legal information
Method of metadata
creation
Automatic metadata generated by a computer • Keyword indexes
• User transaction logs
• Audit trails
Manual metadata created by humans • Descriptive metadata such as catalog records, finding aids, and
specialized indexes
Nature of metadata Nonexpert metadata created by persons who are neither
subject specialists nor information professionals, e.g.,
the original creator of the information object or a folk-
sonomist
• meta tags created for a personal Web page
• Personal filing systems
• Folksonomies
Expert metadata created by subject specialists and/or
information professionals, often not the original creator of
the information object
• Specialized subject headings
• MARC records
• Archival finding aids
• Catalog entries for museum objects
• Ad hoc metadata created by subject experts, e.g., notations by
scholars or researchers
Status Static metadata that does not or should not change once
it has been created
• Technical information such as the date(s) of creation and modifica-
tion of an information object, how it was created, file size
Dynamic metadata that may change with use, manipula-
tion, or preservation of an information object
Long-term metadata necessary to ensure that the informa-
tion object continues to be accessible and usable
Short-term metadata, mainly of a transactional nature
• Directory structure
• User transaction logs
• Technical format and processing information
• Rights information
• Preservation management documentation
• Interim location information
Structure Structured metadata that conforms to a predictable stan-
dardized or proprietary structure
Unstructured metadata that does not conform to a predict-
able structure
• MARC
• TEI
• EAD
• CDWA Lite
• Local database formats
• Unstructured note fields and other free-text annotations

In addition to its different types and functions, metadata exhibits
many different characteristics. Table 3 presents some key characteristics of
metadata, with examples.
Metadata creation and management have become a complex mix
of manual and automatic processes and layers created by many different
functions and individuals at different points during the life cycle of an
information object. One emergent area is metadata management, the
aim of which is to ensure that the metadata we rely on to validate Web
resources is itself trustworthy and that the large volume of metadata that
potentially can accumulate throughout the life of a Web resource is subject
to a summarization and disposition regime.¹⁰
Figure 1 illustrates the different phases through which infor-
mation objects typically move during their life cycles in today’s digital
environment.¹¹ As they move through each phase in their life cycles,
information objects acquire layers of metadata that can be associated with
them in several ways. Different types of metadata can become associated
with an information object by a variety of processes, both human and
¹⁰ See Anne J. Gilliland, Nadav Rouche, Joanne Evans, and Lori Lindberg, “Towards a
Twenty-first Century Metadata Infrastructure Supporting the Creation, Preservation and Use
of Trustworthy Records: Developing the InterPARES2 Metadata Schema Registry,”Archival
Science 5, no. 1 (March 2005): 43–78.
¹¹ Modified from Information Life Cycle, Social Aspects of Digital Libraries: A Report of the
UCLA-NSF Social Aspects of Digital Libraries Workshop (Los Angeles, CA: Graduate School of
Education and Information Studies, November 1996), p. 7.
Attribute Characteristics Examples
Semantics Controlled metadata that conforms to a standardized
vocabulary or authority form, and that follows standard
content (i.e., cataloging) rules
Uncontrolled metadata that does not conform to any stan-
dardized vocabulary or authority form
• LCSH, LCNAF, AAT, ULAN, TGM, TGN
• AACR (RDA), DACS, CCO
• Free-text notes
• HTML meta tags and other user-created tags
Level Collection-level metadata relating to collections of
original items and/or information objects
Item-level metadata relating to individual items
and/or information objects, often contained within
collections
•
Collection- or group-level record, e.g., a MARC record for
a group or collection of items; a finding aid for an intact
archival collection
• Specialized index
•
Catalog records for individual bibliographic items or unique
cultural objects
• Transcribed image captions and dates
•
“Tombstone” information for works of art and material
culture
• Format information

automated. These layers of accrued metadata can be contained within the
same “envelope” as the information object—for example, in the form of
header information for an image file or through some form of metadata
bundling, for example via METS, which packages structural, descriptive,
administrative, and other metadata with an information object or digital
surrogate and indicates the types of relationships among the various parts
of complex information objects (e.g., a digital surrogate consisting of a
series of images representing the pages in a book or in an album of illus-
trations, or the constituent parts of a decorative arts object such as a tea
service). Metadata can also be attached to the information object through
bidirectional pointers or hyperlinks, while the relationships between meta-
data and information objects, and between different aspects of metadata,
can be documented by registering them with a metadata registry. However,
in any instance in which it is critical that metadata and content coexist, it
is highly recommended that the metadata become an integral part of the
information object, that is, that it be “embedded” in the object and not
stored or linked elsewhere.
12 of 19
INFORMATION
SYSTEM
Validation
Creation,
Multiversioning,
and Reuse
Searching and
Retrieval
Organization and
Description by Creators,
Information Professionals,
Content Experts, Users
Disposition
Utilization and Preservation
(continuous processes)
Figure 1. The Life Cycle of an Information Object

As systems designers increasingly respond to the need to incorpo-
rate and manage metadata in information systems and to address how to
ensure the ongoing viability of both information objects and their associ-
ated metadata forward through time, many additional mechanisms for
associating metadata with information objects are likely to become avail-
able. Metadata registries and schema record-keeping systems are also more
likely to develop as it becomes increasingly necessary to document schema
evolution and to alert implementers to version changes.¹²
Primary Functions of Metadata
• Creation, multiversioning, reuse, and recontextualization of
information objects. Objects enter a digital information system
by being created digitally or by being converted into digital
format. Multiple versions of the same object may be created
for preservation, research, exhibit, dissemination, or even
product-development purposes. Some administrative and
descriptive metadata may and indeed should be included by
the creator or digitizer, especially if reuse is envisaged, such as
in a digital asset management (DAM) system.
• Organization and description. A primary function of metadata
is the description and ordering of original objects or items in
a repository or collection, as well as of the information objects
relating to the originals. Information objects are automatically or
manually organized into the structure of the digital information
system and may include descriptions generated by the original
creator. Additional metadata may be created by information
professionals through registration, cataloging, and indexing
processes or by others via folksonomies and other forms of user-
contributed metadata.
• Validation. Users scrutinize metadata and other aspects of
retrieved resources in order to ascertain the authoritativeness and
trustworthiness of those resources.
• Searching and retrieval. Good descriptive metadata is essential to
users’ ability to find and retrieve relevant metadata and informa-
tion objects. Locally stored as well as virtually distributed infor-
mation objects are subject to search and retrieval by users, and
information systems create and maintain metadata that tracks
retrieval algorithms, user transactions, and system effectiveness in
storage and retrieval.
¹² See Gilliland et al., “Towards a Twenty-first Century Metadata Infrastructure.”

Discovering Diverse Content Through
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rot the sod, and then there is not a better manure, and more than
pays the charge of digging and carrying it.
2. You gain the making of stews, and, it may be, other ponds for
the convenience of your cattle, all under one charge: for if you must
dig clay and earth for your bank, it is as easily taken where it doth
this, as otherwise.
3. If the soil about the waters be any thing moorish, it may be
planted with osiers, which yield a certain yearly crop.
4. The feed of the pond when laid dry, or the corn, that is, oats,
which you may have upon the bottom, though mere mud, is very
considerable. This hath been touched before.
5. You will invite all manner of help to your fishing, by the fry
given among those who assist you; and though you pay them, they
will expect fish; and with expectations of carrying home a dish of
fresh fish, men will work in wet and dirt, to a wonder, without other
pay.
6. If you graze cattle near your great waters, they will delight to
come and stand in the water; and it conduceth much to the thrift of
your cattle, as well as the feed of your fish, which is much supplied
by the dunging of the cattle; and therefore it is good to have ponds
in cow-pastures and grazing grounds.
As to the sowing of oats in the bottom of a pond, observe to dry
your great water once in three, or at most four years, and that at
the end of January, or beginning of March; which, if not a very
unreasonable year, will be time enough. After Michaelmas following,
you may put in a very great stock; and thin them in following years,
as the feed will decline.
The Conclusion.

Thus I have given, as short and intelligibly as conveniently I could,
the best of my knowledge, contracted by twenty years practice and
experience, of fish and waters: and if I am so happy thereby, to
contribute in the least to the satisfaction or diversion of my friends,
it will extremely content, if not encourage me to add somewhat
farther concerning the nature of the several sorts of fish I deal in,
the ways of taking them, of nets, angling, engines for clearing
waters, and other particularities that I have proved. In the mean
time, they may command these as myself, both being alike open,
considerable, and at their service.

INDEX.
The Barbel Page 5
Carp 7
The Chub 11
The Cod Fish 13
The Haddock 14
The Herring 16
The Mackarel 20
The Mullet 21
The Pearch, or Perch, 23
The Pike 24
The Roach 25
The Shad 26
The Tench 28
The Trout 29
The Whiting 31
A Discourse of Fish and Fish Ponds 33
Of the Situation and Disposition of the Principal Waters 35
Of the Manner of making and raising Pond Heads 33
The Dimensions of Pond Heads 34
Of securing your Banks 35
Of Sluices 37
Of the Manner of Working to raise a Pond Head 39
Of Auxiliary Waters 42
Of Stews 43
Of Moats 45
Of other Auxiliary Waters 49
The Course of laying the great Waters dry 51

Of Breeding of Fish 53
The Manner of Stocking Waters 55
Of the Manner of feeding Fish 60
Of disposing your Increase of Fish 64
Of fishing for Carriage 66
Of Nurseries to Ponds and Fish 69
Of Frosts, and the Way to save the Fish in them ib.
Of the ordinary Benefits and Improvements by Fish 73
Of Benefits besides the main Design 76
The Conclusion 78
FINIS.

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