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Introduction to Power Generation Technologies, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
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ENERGY SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SERIES
INTRODUCTION TO POWER
GENERATION TECHNOLOGIES
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ENERGY SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SERIES
INTRODUCTION TO POWER
GENERATION TECHNOLOGIES
ANDREAS POULLIKKAS
Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
New York
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Copyright © 2009 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Poullikkas, Andreas.
Introduction to power generation technologies / author, Andreas Poullikkas.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-61728-525-7 (E-Book)
1. Electric power production. I. Title.
TK1001.P596 2009
621.31'21--dc22
2009032474
Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.  New York
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CONTENTS
Preface vii
About the Author ix
1. Introduction. 1
1.1. Definition of Thermodynamics 2
1.2. Energy Balance Approach 3
1.3. Heat and Work 5
1.4. First Law of Thermodynamics 7
1.5. Second Law of Thermodynamics 9
1.6. Fuels 11
1.7. Combustion 17
1.8. Pollution and the Environment 18
1.9. Alternative Energy Sources 25
1.10. Future Sustainable Energy Systems 29
2. Power Plants 33
2.1. The Rankine Cycle 33
2.2. The Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine 37
2.3. The Gas to Gas Recuperation Cycle 38
2.4. The Combined Cycle 39
2.5. The Brayton - Kalina Cycle 41
2.6. The Brayton – Brayton Cycle 42
2.7. The Brayton – Diesel Cycle 44
2.8. The Brayton – Stirling Cycle 44
2.9. The Brayton – Fuel Cell Cycle 45
2.10. The Chemical Recuperation Cycle 46
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Contents
vi
2.11. MAST Cycles 48
2.12. Nuclear Power 60
2.13. The Internal Combustion Engine 63
3. Carbon Capture and Storage Technologies 67
3.1. The Pulverized Coal Technology with CCS 69
3.2. The IGCC Cycle 70
3.3. The Natural Gas Combined Cycle Technology with CCS 76
3.4. Oxyfuel Combustion 79
3.5. Comparison of CO2 Capture Technologies 82
4. Direct Solar RES Technologies 85
4.1. The Photovoltaic Technology 86
4.2. Solar Thermal 98
5. Indirect Solar RES Technologies 111
5.1. The Wind Turbine Technology 111
5.2. Biomass Energy 118
5.3. Geothermal Energy 120
5.4. Hydropower 122
5.5. Tidal energy 124
5.6. Wave Energy 128
6. Distributed Generation 133
6.1. DG Definition 133
6.2. The Fuel Cell Technology 135
7. Storage Technologies 141
7.1. Flywheel Storage Technologies 142
7.2. Battery Storage Technologies 144
7.3. Supercapacitor Storage Technologies 149
7.4. Hydrogen Storage Technologies 152
7.5. Pneumatic Storage Technologies 154
7.6. Pumped Storage Technology 159
7.7. Overall Comparison 161
References 163
Index 173
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PREFACE
Introduction to Power Generation Technologies provides an insight to the
wide range of electricity generating technologies available today or under
development. Also, provides an overview of the energy storage technologies
which are expected to play an important role in the future sustainable energy
systems. The technologies are presented in an easily digestible form. The book
gives a clear, unbiased review and comparison of the different types of power
generation technologies available.
The book is divided into seven chapters as follows:
Chapter 1: Introduction: including the basic laws of thermodynamics, the different
fossil fuels and their combustion, the related primary emissions and
greenhouse gas emissions, as well as, a background on alternative energy
sources and the future sustainable energy systems,
Chapter 2: Power plants: analysis of the most important conventional
technologies for power generation that are currently used or under
development, such as, the Rankine cycle, the simple cycle gas turbine, the
combined cycle technologies, nuclear power, etc.,
Chapter 3: Carbon capture and storage technologies: an overview of the most
common power generation technologies which can incorporate carbon capture
and storage systems, such as pulverised coal technologies, natural gas
combined cycle technologies, etc.,
Chapter 4: Direct solar RES technologies: analysis of solar thermal power
generation technologies and photovoltaic systems,
Chapter 5: Indirect solar RES technologies: an overview of indirect solar RES
technologies, such as, wind, biomass, hydropower, etc., including advantages,
disadvantages and future technological developments,
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Preface
viii
Chapter 6: Distributed generation: including definition and overview of fuel cells
technology,
Chapter 7: Storage technologies: an overview of various energy storage
technologies currently in use or under development, such as, flywheels,
batteries, hydrogen storage devices, etc.
Introduction to Power Generation Technologies is not by any means
exhaustive, nor is it intended to be. In the more than two decades I’ve worked
with power generation technologies, the field has grown so vast that it’s no longer
possible to confine the technologies within the covers of one book, even after
limiting it to the most important systems.
The book is partly based on lecture notes provided in two different courses
for a number of years and is intended as an introductory textbook for courses in
the field of engineering, environmental pollution and public health. Also,
Introduction to Power Generation Technologies can serve as a reference text for
power generation planners, electric utility managers, energy regulators, electricity
transmission system operators, consultants, policy makers and economists.
This book is dedicated to my wife Rania and daughter Agnes whose love and
support sustained me throughout the preparation of this book.
Dr. Andreas Poullikkas
Nicosia, Cyprus
2009
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Andreas Poullikkas holds a B.Eng. degree in mechanical engineering, an
M.Phil. degree in nuclear safety and turbomachinery, and a Ph.D. degree in
numerical analysis from Loughborough University, UK. His present employment
is with the Electricity Authority of Cyprus where he holds the post of Assistant
Manager of Research and Development.
Dr. Poullikkas is, also, a Visiting Fellow at the University of Cyprus and at
the Cyprus International Institute for the Environment and Public Health in
association Harvard School of Public Health, USA. In his professional career he
has worked for academic institutions, before joining the Electricity Authority of
Cyprus. He has over 20 years experience on research and development projects
related to the numerical solution of partial differential equations, the mathematical
analysis of fluid flows, the hydraulic design of turbomachines, the nuclear power
safety, the analysis of power generation technologies and the power economics.
Dr. Poullikkas is the author of various peer reviewed publications in scientific
journals, book chapters and conference proceedings. He is, also, a referee for
various international journals, serves as a reviewer for the evaluation of research
proposals related to the field of energy and a coordinator of various funded
research projects. He is a member of various national and European committees
related to energy policy issues. He is the developer of various algorithms and
software for the technical, economic and environmental analysis of power
generation technologies, desalination technologies and renewable energy systems.
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Chapter 1
1. INTRODUCTION
The availability of energy and people’s ability to harness that energy in useful
ways has transformed our society. A few hundred years ago, the greatest fraction
of the population struggled to subsist by producing food for local consumption.
Now, in many countries a small fraction of the total workforce produces abundant
food for the entire population and much of the population is thus freed for other
pursuits. We are able to travel great distances in short times by using a choice of
conveyances (including trips to earth orbit as well as to our nearest natural
satellite). We can communicate instantaneously with persons anywhere on earth
and we control large amounts of energy at our personal whim in the form of
automobiles, electric tools and appliances, and comfort conditioning in our
dwellings.
These changes resulted from a combination of inventiveness and ingenuity,
coupled with a painstaking construction of theory by some of the great scientist
and engineers throughout the years. As a result of the science and application of
thermodynamics, our ability to obtain energy, transform it and apply it to
society’s needs has brought about the change from agrarian to modern society.
Because of its generality, thermodynamics is the underlying science that
forms the framework for the study of most other engineering subjects. The most
obvious are heat transfer, the study of how energy is transferred from a material or
location at a certain temperature to another material or location at a different
temperature, and fluid mechanics, which deals with the motion of fluids under
externally applied forces and the transformation of energy between mechanical
and thermal forms during this motion.
Another way of seeing pervasiveness of thermodynamics in studies of interest
to engineers is to examine the many and diverse areas of application. These
include power plants (fossil fuel, nuclear fission, nuclear fusion, solar, thermal,
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Andreas Poullikkas
2
geothermal, etc.), engines (steam, gasoline, diesel, stationary and propulsion gas
turbines, rockets, etc.), air conditioning and refrigeration systems, furnaces,
heaters, chemical process equipment, the design of electronic equipment (for
example, to avoid overheating and failure of individual components, circuit
boards, etc.), design of mechanical equipment (for example in lubrication of
bearings to predict the overheating and subsequent failure due to excessive
applied loads and in break design to predict lining wear rates due to frictional
heating and erosion) and in manufacturing processes (for example, the wear of
tool bits is often due to frictional heating of the cutting edge). Indeed, it is fairly
easy to make a case that thermodynamics in its broadest sense is the underlying
science in most fields of engineering. Even the fields of pure mechanics use
energy conservation relations which are subsets of more general thermodynamic
principles.
1.1. DEFINITION OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is defined as the study of energy, its forms and
transformations, and the interaction of energy with matter. The most important
application of thermodynamics concerns the conversion of one form of energy
into another, especially the conversion of heat into other forms of energy. These
conversions are governed by the two fundamental laws of thermodynamics. The
first of these is essentially a general statement of the law of conservation of
energy and the second is a statement about the maximum efficiency attainable in
the conversion of heat into work.
The study of thermodynamics was inaugurated by nineteenth century
engineers who wanted to know what ultimate limitations the laws of physics
impose on the operation of steam engines and other machines that generate
mechanical energy. They soon recognized that perpetual motion machines are
impossible. A perpetual motion machine of the first kind is a (hypothetical) device
that supplies an endless output of work without any input of fuel or any other
input of energy. As we will see later, the First Law of Thermodynamics, or the
law of conservation of energy, directly tells us of the failure of this machine since
after one revolution of the wheel, the masses all return to their initial positions,
their potential energy returns to its initial value, and they will not have delivered
any net energy to the motion of the wheel.
A perpetual motion machine of the second kind is a device that extracts
thermal energy from air or from the water of the oceans and converts it into
mechanical energy. Such a device is not forbidden by conservation laws. The
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Introduction 3
oceans are an enormous reservoir of thermal energy; if we could extract this
thermal energy, a temperature drop of just 1°C of the oceans would supply the
energy needs of the United States for the next 50 years. But, as we will see, the
Second Law of Thermodynamics tells us that conversion of heat into work
requires not only a heat source, but also a heat sink. Heat flows out of a warm
body only if there is a colder body that can absorb it. If we want heat to flow from
the ocean into our machine, we must provide a low-temperature heat sink toward
which the heat will tend to flow spontaneously. Without a low-temperature sink,
the extraction of heat from the oceans is impossible. We cannot build a perpetual
motion engine of the second kind.
1.2. ENERGY BALANCE APPROACH
The principle “energy can be neither created nor destroyed” is one of the
conservation relations which, when carefully expanded and explored, forms the
basis for a good deal for the study of thermodynamics. The conservation of energy
principle can be made true in any situation by simply changing or redefining what
we mean by energy, so that it is indeed conserved in all situations. The basic
conservation principle has two important suppositions. The first is that energy is
something that is “contained”. A certain defined system has “energy”. The second
supposition is that there is a well specified system where the energy is contained.
To apply the energy conversation principle the user must define the space or
material of interest that “has” the energy.
Without worrying at this point about how energy is classified we can apply
the conversation of energy principle to a power plant used for the production of
electricity. For example a power plant uses 1 unit of fuel energy to produce 0.4
energy units of electricity. We need to determine the net energy transferred to the
environment during the conversion of fuel to electricity.
For this type of problem, the energy inside the power plant boundary remains
constant according to the conservation of energy principle (since it cannot created
or destroyed). We could write in this case that:
0
=
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
+
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
out
d
transferre
Energy
in
d
transferre
Energy
, (1)
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Andreas Poullikkas
4
where in and out refer to the direction in which the energy is crossing the plant
boundary. Now we can expand these terms to include each of the energy transfer
processes, or
0
=
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
+
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
+
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
+
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
+
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
gases
stack
water
cooling
water
cooling
y
electricit
fuel
out
d
transferre
Energy
out
d
transferre
Energy
in
d
transferre
Energy
out
d
transferre
Energy
in
d
transferre
Energy
, (2)
or
0
unit
4
.
0
unit
1 =
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
+
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
+
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
+
−
gases
stack
water
cooling
water
cooling out
d
transferre
Energy
out
d
transferre
Energy
in
d
transferre
Energy
(3)
or finally,
unit
6
.
0
−
=
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
+
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
+
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
=
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
⎞
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
⎛
gases
stack
water
cooling
water
cooling
t
environmen
out
d
transferre
Energy
out
d
transferre
Energy
in
d
transferre
Energy
out
d
transferre
Energy
(4)
This very simple analysis illustrates a number of points about the energy
conservation principle. First, we must carefully defined the location to which the
principle will be applied, in this case the power plant. Second we must define a
convention for how we assign the sign of the energy transfers. Here we simply
chose energy transfers into the plant as carrying a positive sign, so that energy
transferred out is negative. Finally we have tacitly kept the units (dimensions) of
each quantity in the energy balance consistence.
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Introduction 5
In more practical applications the energy transfers in the various terms of the
energy balance have different forms. For example, in the problem above, the
energy transferred it might be chemical energy in a fossil fuel such as coal, oil or
natural gas. It might be the binding energy of the nuclei of atoms for a nuclear
plant or the energy transfer from the sun in a solar power plant. The electric
energy is in the form of an electric current carried by the transmission lines
leaving the plant. The energy transfer to the cooling water is usually in the form of
thermal energy added to cooling water or the atmosphere, which then leaves the
plant. Finally, the energy from the stack is transported in the hot flowing gas from
the plant to the atmosphere. Thus, we need to classify the energy transfer across
the plant boundary so that we can properly set up our energy accounting system.
One additional point is that we assumed (without stating the assumption) that
the energy entering the plant was exactly balanced at each instant by the energy
leaving. However, this is not always the case. Consider a new system boundary
for a coal-fired power plant that includes a coal stockpile, where coal is often
delivered to the plant for later use at periods of high electrical demands. In such a
case, our energy conservation equation must be extended to account for an energy
storage term. Alternatively, the boundary could be redrawn to include only the
powerhouse itself, excluding the coal pile, so that the original conservation
equation could still be used.
1.3. HEAT AND WORK
Heat, Q, is a form of energy which is transferred from one body to another
body at a lower temperature by virtue of the temperature difference between the
bodies.
Referring to Figure 1, provided the temperature, T, of body A is greater than
the temperature of body B, i.e., B
A T
T , heat is flowing from body A to body B
until thermal equilibrium is reached, that is B
A T
T = . Work, W, is defined as the
product of a force, F, and distance, d, moved in the direction of the force, as
indicted in Figure 2. In mathematical form,
d
F
WAB ×
= (5)
Both heat and work can never be contained in a body or possessed by a body.
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6
A B
Q
surroundings
Thermal insulation
Figure 1. Heat transfer from body A to body B.
F
A B
d
Figure 2. Work from point A to point B.
A system may be defined as a collection of matter within prescribed and
identifiable boundaries. A closed system is presented in Figure 3, in which there is
no mass transfer across the boundary.
system
surroundings
piston
boundary
Figure 3. Closed system.
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Introduction 7
An open system is one where material can flow across the boundaries of the
system, as well as heat and work. In the process shown in Figure 4, gas is entering
the system and being heated in the heat exchanger where its temperature pressure
and volume increase. The gas then passes through an expansion turbine, where it
cools down and the pressure decreases. During the expansion process work is
extracted from the gas.
inlet
turbine
outlet
generator
~
surroundings
boundary
Figure 4. Open system (mass transfer).
1.4. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net heat supplied
to the system from its surroundings is equal to the net work done by the system on
its surroundings. We can express this change of energy as:
dW
dQ ∑
=
∑ (6)
Note that the first law simply states that energy is conserved, that is the
change of the internal energy equals the input of heat and work. By this the
unknown amount of heat or work required for a process, if the amount of heat and
work for a different process that takes the system from the same initial state to the
same final state are known can be calculated.
1.4.1. The Non-Flow Equation
Consider a process or a series of processes between state 1 and state 2
provided there is no flow of fluid into or out of the system as indicated in Figure
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Andreas Poullikkas
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3. The intrinsic energy of the system is finally greater than the initial intrinsic
energy, that is, the gain in intrinsic energy equals the net heat supplied minus the
net work output. The non-flow equation is given algebraically by:
( ) W
U
U
Q +
−
= 1
2 , (7)
where Q is the heat in kJ, U is the internal energy in kJ and W is the work in kJ.
1.4.2. The Steady Flow Energy Equation
When 1 kg of a fluid with specific internal energy, u, is moving with a
velocity C and is at a height Z above datum level as indicated in Figure 5, then it
possesses a total energy of ( ) Zg
C
u +
+ 2
/
2
where ( )
2
/
2
C is the kinetic energy of
1kg of the fluid and Zg is the potential energy of the fluid.
Since there is a steady flow of fluid into and out of the system and there are
steady flows of heat and work, then the energy entering must exactly equal the
energy leaving:
w
P
g
Z
C
u
q
P
g
Z
C
u +
+
+
+
=
+
+
+
+ 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
υ
υ , (8)
where u is the specific internal energy in kJ/kg, C is the velocity in m/s, Z is the
level height in m, g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
, P is the pressure in
N/m2
, υ is the specific volume in m3
/kg, q is the specific heat in kJ/kg and w is the
specific work in kJ/kg.
Also, the potential energy is negligible and the enthalpy, h, is defined as
υ
P
u
h +
= , therefore,
w
C
h
q
C
h +
+
=
+
+
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1 . (9)
The above is known as the steady flow energy equation.
Copyright
©
2009.
Nova
Science
Publishers,
Incorporated.
All
rights
reserved.

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It is a common saying now in the family of some dear friends, where
punctuality is not quite so well observed, “What would Mr. Dickens
have said to this?” or, “Ah! my dear child, I wish you could have
been at Gad's Hill to learn what punctuality means!”
Charles Dickens was very fond of music, and not only of classical
music. He loved national airs, old tunes, songs, and ballads, and was
easily moved by anything pathetic in a song or tune, and was never
tired of hearing his special favorites sung or played. He used to like
to have music of an evening, and duets used to be played for hours
together, while he would read or walk up and down the room. A
member of his family was singing a ballad one evening while he was
apparently deep in his book, when he suddenly got up, saying, “You
don't make enough of that word,” and he sat down by the piano,
showed her the way in which he wished it to be emphasized, and did
not leave the instrument until it had been sung to his satisfaction.
Whenever this song was sung, which it often was, as it became a
favorite with him, he would always listen for that word, with his
head a little on one side, as much as to say, “I wonder if she will
remember.”
There was a large meadow at the back of the garden in which,
during the summer-time, many cricket matches were held. Although
never playing himself, he delighted in the game, and would sit in his
tent, keeping score for one side, the whole day long. He never took
to croquet; but had lawn-tennis been played in the Gad's Hill days,
he would certainly have enjoyed it. He liked American bowls, at
which he used constantly to play with his male guests. For one of his
“improvements” he had turned a waste piece of land into a croquet-
ground and bowling-green.
In the meadow he used to practice many of his “readings;” and any
stranger passing down the lane and seeing him gesticulating and
hearing him talking, laughing, and sometimes it may be weeping,
must surely have thought him out of his mind! The getting up of
these “readings” gave him an immense amount of labor and fatigue,
and the sorrowful parts tried him greatly. For instance, in the reading

of “Little Dombey,” it was hard work for him so to steel his heart as
to be able to read the death without breaking down or displaying too
much emotion. He often told how much he suffered over this story,
and how it would have been impossible for him to have gone
through with it had he not kept constantly before his eyes the
picture of his own Plorn alive and strong and well.
His great neatness and tidiness have already been alluded to, as also
his wonderful sense of order. The first thing he did every morning,
before going to work, was to make a complete circuit of the garden,
and then to go over the whole house, to see that everything was in
its place. And this was also the first thing he did upon his return
home, after long absence. A more thoroughly orderly nature never
existed. And it must have been through this gift of order that he was
enabled to make time—notwithstanding any amount of work—to
give to the minutest household details. Before a dinner-party the
menu was always submitted to him for approval, and he always
made a neat little plan of the table, with the names of the guests
marked in their respective places, and a list of “who was to take in
who” to dinner, and had constantly some “bright idea” or other as to
the arrangement of the table or the rooms.
Among his many attributes, that of a doctor must not be forgotten.
He was invaluable in a sick room, or in any sudden emergency;
always quiet, always cheerful, always useful and skilful, always doing
the right thing, so that his very presence seemed to bring comfort
and help. From his children's earliest days his visits, during any time
of sickness, were eagerly longed for and believed in, as doing more
good than those even of the doctor himself. He had a curiously
magnetic and sympathetic hand, and his touch was wonderfully
soothing and quieting. As a mesmerist he possessed great power,
which he used, most successfully, in many cases of great pain and
distress. He had a strong aversion to saying good-bye, and would do
anything he possibly could to avoid going through the ordeal. This
feeling must have been natural to him, for as early as the “Old
Curiosity Shop” he writes: “Why is it we can better bear to part in

spirit than in body, and while we have the fortitude to bid farewell
have not the nerve to say it? On the eve of long voyages, or an
absence of many years, friends who are tenderly attached will
separate with the usual look, the usual pressure of the hand,
planning one final interview for the morrow, while each well knows
that it is but a feint to save the pain of uttering that one word, and
that the meeting will never be! Should possibilities be worse to bear
than certainties?” So all who love him, and who know the painful
dislike he had to that word, are thankful that he was spared the
agony of that last, long Farewell.
Almost the pleasantest times at Gad's Hill were the winter gatherings
for Christmas and the New Year, when the house was more than full,
and the bachelors of the party had to be “put up” in the village. At
these times Charles Dickens was at his gayest and brightest, and the
days passed cheerily and merrily away. He was great at games, and
many of the evenings were spent in playing at Yes and No, Proverbs,
Russian Scandal, Crambo, Dumb Crambo—in this he was most
exquisitely funny—and a game of Memory, which he particularly
liked.
The New Year was always welcomed with all honors. Just before
twelve o'clock everybody would assemble in the hall, and he would
open the door and stand in the entrance, watch in hand—how many
of his friends must remember him thus, and think lovingly of the
picture!—as he waited, with a half-smile on his attentive face, for the
bells to chime out the New Year. Then his voice would break the
silence with, “A Happy New Year to us all.” For many minutes there
would be much embracing, hand-shaking, and good-wishing; and
the servants would all come up and get a hearty shake of the hand
from the beloved “master.” Then hot spiced wine would be
distributed, and good-health drunk all round. Sometimes there
would be a country dance, in which the host delighted, and in which
he insisted upon every one joining, and he never allowed the
dancing—and real dancing it was too—to flag for an instant, but kept
it up until even he was tired and out of breath, and had at last to

clap his hands, and bring it to an end. His thorough enjoyment was
most charming to witness, and seemed to infect every one present.
One New Year's Day at breakfast, he proposed that we should act
some charades, in dumb show, that evening. This proposal being
met with enthusiasm, the idea was put into train at once. The
different parts were assigned, dresses were discussed, “properties”
were collected, and rehearsing went on the whole day long. As the
home visitors were all to take part in the charades, invitations had to
be sent to the more intimate neighbors to make an audience, an
impromptu supper had to be arranged for, and the day was one of
continual bustle and excitement, and the rehearsals were the
greatest fun imaginable. A dear old friend volunteered to undertake
the music, and he played delightfully all through the acting. These
charades made one of the pleasantest and most successful of New
Year's evenings spent at Gad's Hill.
But there were not only grown-up guests invited to the pretty
cheerful home. In a letter to a friend Charles Dickens writes:
“Another generation begins to peep above the table. I once used to
think what a horrible thing it was to be a grandfather. Finding that
the calamity falls upon me without my perceiving any other change
in myself, I bear it like a man.” But as he so disliked the name of
grandfather as applied to himself, those grandchildren were taught
by him to call him “Venerables.” And to this day some of them still
speak of him by this self-invented name.
Now there is another and younger family who never knew
“Venerables,” but have been all taught to know his likeness, and
taught to know his books by the pictures in them, as soon as they
can be taught anything, and whose baby hands lay bright flowers
upon the stone in Westminster Abbey, every June 9 and every
Christmas Eve. For in remembrance of his love for all that is gay in
color, none but the brightest flowers, and also some of the gorgeous
American leaves, sent by a friend for the purpose, are laid upon the
grave, making that one spot in the midst of the vast and solemn
building bright and beautiful.

In a letter to Plorn before his departure for Australia, Charles
Dickens writes: “I hope you will always be able to say in after life,
that you had a kind father.” And to this hope, each one of his
children can answer with a loving, grateful heart, that so it was.—
Cornhill Magazine.

THE SUMMER PALACE, PEKING.
BY C. F. GORDON CUMMING.
I think the only enjoyable time of the day, during the burning
summer in dusty, dirty, dilapidated Peking, is the very early morning,
before the sun rises high, and while the air still feels fresh, and one
can enjoy sitting in the cool courts which take the place of gardens,
and listen to the quaint music of the pigeons as they fly overhead.
This is no dove-like cooing, but a low melodious whistle like the
sighing of an Eolian harp or the murmur of telegraph wires thrilled
by the night wind. It is produced by the action of cylindrical pipes
like two finger-ends, side by side, about an inch and a half in length.
These are made of very light wood and filled with whistles. Some
are globular in form and are constructed from a tiny gourd. These
little musical boxes are attached to the tail feathers of the pigeon in
such a manner that as he flies the air shall blow through the whistle,
producing the most plaintive tones, especially as there are often
many pigeons flying at once—some near, some distant, some just
overhead, some high in the heavens; so the combined effect is really
melodious. I believe the Pekingese are the only people who thus
provide themselves with a dove orchestra, though the use of pigeons
as message-bearers is common to all parts of the Empire.
There is one form of insect life here which is a terrible nuisance—
namely, the sand-flies, which swarm in multitudes. They are too
cruel, every one is bitten, and the irritation is so excessive that few
people have sufficient determination to resist scratching. So of
course there is a most unbecoming prevalence of red spots,
suggestive of a murrain of measles!
I have been told that I am singularly unfortunate in the season of
my visit, and that if only I had come in September I should have

found life most enjoyable (I recollect some of the residents at Aden
likewise assuring me that they really learnt to think their blazing rock
quite pleasant!) I suppose that I am spoilt by memories of green
Pacific isles and sweet sea breezes, so I can only compassionate
people who, till two months ago, were ice-bound—shut off from the
world by a frozen river—and now are boiled and stifled!
Such of them, however, as can get away from their work in the city
have the delightful resource of going to the hills, and establishing
themselves as lodgers at one of the many almost forsaken temples,
where a few poor priests are very glad to supplement their small
revenues by a sure income of barbaric coin. The Pekingese
themselves are in the habit of thus making summer trips to the hills
—so many of the temples have furnished rooms to let—with a view
to encouraging the combination of well-paid temple service with this
pleasant change of air.
I am told that many of these temples are charmingly situated, and
have beautifully laid-out grounds. A group called “The Eight Great
Temples” is described as especially attractive. They are dotted on
terraces along the face of the western mountains, about twelve
miles from the city, and among their attractions are cool pools in
shady grottoes all overgrown with trailing vines and bright blossoms;
stone fountains, where numberless gold-fish swim in crystalline
water, which falls from the mouth of a great marble dragon; curious
inscriptions in Thibetan and Chinese characters, deeply engraven on
the rocks and colored red; fine groups of Scotch firs, and old walnut-
trees; and in springtime I am told that our dear familiar lilac
blossoms in perfection. Then there are all manner of quaintly
ornamental pagodas and temples, great and small, with innumerable
images and pictures, and silken hangings, and all the paraphernalia
so attractive to the artistic eye.
Among the points of chief interest in the immediate neighborhood of
Peking, the Summer Palace of course holds a foremost place, and
there I found my way yesterday by paying the penalty of eight hours
of anguish in a hateful springless cart, which is the cab of Peking,

and the only mode of locomotion for such as are not the happy
possessors of horses.
The manifold interests of the day, however, far more than
compensated for the drawbacks of even dust and bumping, which is
saying a great deal. A member of one of the Legations had kindly
undertaken to show me the various points of interest to the north-
west of the city, and we agreed to try and escape some heat by
starting at 3.30 A.M., at which hour I was accordingly ready, waiting
in the courtyard to open the gate. It was a most lovely morning, the
clear moonlight mingling with the dawn, and the air fresh and
pleasant. I had full leisure to enjoy it, for the carter, who had
promised to be at the Japanese Legation by three, was wrapped in
slumber. So my companion had to begin his day's work by a two
miles' walk to fetch me. Luckily, my carter had been more faithful, so
we started in very fair time; indeed, I profited by the delay, for as
we passed through the great northern gate, there on the dusty plain
—just outside the walls—we came in for a grand review of the Eight
Banners, by Prince Poah of the Iron Crown. Such a pretty, animated
scene, with all these Tartar regiments galloping about, and their gay
standards flashing through the smoke of artillery and the dust-
clouds, which seem to blend the vast plain with the blue distant hills
and the great gray walls and huge three-storied keep which forms
the gateway.
The latter is that Anting Gate of which we heard so much at the time
when it was given up to the British army after the sacking of the
Summer Palace; not, however, till their big guns were planted on the
raised terraces within the sacred park of the Temple of Earth, all
ready to breach the walls.
The Prince's large blue tent was pitched on a slightly rising ground
apart from the others, and was constantly surrounded by gorgeous
officers in bright yellow raiment, with round, flat black hats and long
feathers, who were galloping to and fro, directing grand charges of
cavalry. It did seem so funny to see a whole army of ponies; for

there are no horses here, unless the foreign residents chance to
import any.
These Eight Banners are all Manchus or Mongol Tartars, or at any
rate are descended from such, Chinese troops being ranged under
the green standard. These Eight Banners which, as I have said, are
multiplied, are plain white, red, blue, and yellow, and the same
colors repeated, and distinguished by a white edge and white spot.
These companies are supposed to defend different sides of the city,
the colors having some mystic relation to the points of the compass;
except that yellow is in the middle, where it guards the Imperial
Palace. Red guards the south, blue the north, and white the west,
whilst the east is nominally given up to the green standard, which,
however, being composed of Chinamen, is not admitted to the honor
of guarding the forbidden city. I am told that the Banner Army
numbers upwards of a hundred thousand men, who supply Tartar
garrisons for the principal cities of the Empire.
We got out of the cart and secured a good position on a small
hillock, whence we had a capital view. A number of Tartar soldiers
who were off duty gathered round, and were quite captivated by the
loan of my opera-glasses. Then they showed us their wretched
firearms (which certainly did not look as if any European could have
superintended the arsenal where they were manufactured), and also
their peculiar belts, containing charges of powder only, and yet we
are told that in addition to first-class firearms, which are being
ceaselessly manufactured at the Government arsenals at Tientsin,
Shanghai, Canton, Foochow, Nankin, and other less important
places, the Chinese Government spares no expense in buying both
ammunition and firearms of European manufacture. I suppose they
are kept in reserve for real war!
A picturesque company of archers rode by on stout ponies, holding
their bridles in the right hand, and in the left their bows, the arrows
being cased in a leathern quiver, slung across the shoulders. As to
their swords, instead of hanging from the waist, they are stuck
under the saddle-flap; each man's cap is adorned with the tails of

two squirrels, which is the correct military decoration. Now though
we Scots are quite ready to believe that blackcocks were created for
the express purpose of bequeathing their tails to adorn the caps of
the London Scottish (the said tails having very much the jovial,
independent character of the bird itself), it really is impossible to see
the fitness of things in selecting poor little squgs as military
emblems, unless to suggest the wisdom of he who fights and runs
away! Anyhow, it now seems as if we might find a profitable market
for all the thousands of squirrel's tails which are annually wasted in
our north-country woods. I quite forgot to take note of the fan and
the pipe, which I am told are invariable items in the accoutrements
of the Chinese soldiers.26
Returning to our cart we next drove to the Ta-tsoon-tsu, or Temple
of the Great Bell. It is a large Buddhist monastery. The priests, who
occupy separate houses, are a civil, kindly lot, very different from
the Lamas of the Yung-ho-Kung! There are curious paintings of
Buddhist saints in the halls; but the great object of interest is the
huge bell, which is said to be the largest hanging bell in the world.
Anyhow, it is a wonderful piece of casting, being nearly eighteen feet
high and forty-five feet in circumference, and is of solid bronze four
inches thick. It is one of eight great bells which were cast by
command of the Emperor Yung-lo about A.D. 1400, and this giant is
said to have cost the lives of eight men, who were killed during the
process of casting. The whole bell, both inside and out, is covered
with an inscription in embossed Chinese characters about half an
inch long, covering even the handle, the total number being 84,000!
I am told that this is a whole classic.
This gigantic bell hangs in a two-storied pagoda, and underneath the
beam from which it is suspended hangs a little bell, and a favorite
amusement of Chinese visitors to the temple is to ascend to a
gallery, whence they throw small coins at the little bell, in hopes of
hitting it, on the same principle, I suppose, that they spit chewed
prayer-papers at certain gods in the hope of hitting them! The
throwing of cash is certainly more profitable to the priests, as the

coins fall into a rim round the great bell and become temple
property. This great bell, which is struck on the outside by a
suspended ram of wood, is only sounded when—in times of drought
—the Emperor in person or the Imperial Princes as his deputies
come to this temple to pray for rain. Theoretically, they are supposed
not to rise from their knees till the rain falls in answer to their prayer,
and responsive to the vibrations of the mighty bell.
There is sore need of rain now, so I suppose the bell will be struck
ere long. Apparently it is reserved as a last resource, for already the
little Emperor and the Empresses Regent have been pleading for rain
in the gorgeous yellow tiled temple at the entrance to the Forbidden
City, and Prince Yeh, as the Emperor's deputy, has been repeatedly
sent to pray for rain in a most strange open-air temporary sanctuary
close to the Bell Temple. We discovered this quite by chance, having
observed a large circular inclosure in the middle of a field of standing
corn.
We halted and went to see what it was, and we found that it
consisted of eight screens of coarse yellow mats, with great yellow
dragons designed on them. Four of the screens form a circle having
four gaps. The other four are straight, and are placed outside, so as
to guard and conceal the entrances. In the centre a square raised
platform of earth forms a rude altar, at the four corners of which are
four vases of the coarsest pottery, containing plants; straggling and
much trampled corn grows between and around them, as in the field
outside. In a small tent close by we found a sleepy watchman, who
told us about the Prince's devotional visits to this very primitive
oratory.
After four hours of intolerably weary jolting in our dreadful cart, we
arrived at Wan-Shu-Shan, which is the only portion of the grounds of
the Summer Palace (the Yuen-Ming-Yuen) to which foreigners are
still admitted, as they have there wrought such hopeless ruin that I
suppose it is not thought worth while to shut them out; and truly it
is sickening even now to look on such a scene of devastation. The
park, which is now once more closed to the barbarians, contains fine

palatial buildings, faced with colonnades and altogether of a very
Italian type, having been built under the direction of the Jesuits, but
the beautiful pleasure grounds, where we wandered over wooded
hills all strewn with beautiful ruins, is purely Chinese, and as such is
to me far more interesting.
Our first halt was beside a well whose waters are so deliciously
crystalline and cold that they seemed to our parched and dusty
throats as a true elixir. So famous is this pure spring that the daily
supply for the Imperial Palace is brought thence in barrels, in a cart
flying a yellow flag, with an inscription in black characters stating
that it travels on the Emperor's business—a warning to all men to
make way for it. The water near the city is all bad and brackish, so
such a spring as this is a priceless boon.
This wonderland has been so often described since its destruction,
that in its present aspect the whole seems familiar ground; but it is
new to me to learn anything concerning it in its palmy days, from
the pen of an eyewitness, and so I have been much interested in
reading a curious account of these Imperial pleasure-grounds written
in 1743 by Mons. Attiret, a French missionary, whose talent for
painting led to his receiving an order to make drawings for the
Emperor at the Summer Palace.
He tells how he and his companions were conducted to Peking by a
Chinese official, who would on no account allow them to look out of
the windows of their covered boats to observe the country, still less
to land at any point. The latter part of the journey they were carried
in litters, in which they were shut up all the day long, only halting at
wretched inns. Naturally, when they were released from this tedious
captivity and beheld these beautiful grounds—the Yuen-Ming-Yuen—
the Garden of gardens, they supposed themselves in Paradise, and
here they seem to have remained for a considerable time.
M. Attiret describes the ornamental buildings, containing the most
beautiful and valuable things that could be obtained in China, the
Indies, and even Europe—ancient vases of fine porcelain, silk cloths

of gold and silver, carved furniture of valuable wood, and all manner
of rare objects. He counted no less than two hundred of these
palaces, each of which he declared to be large enough to
accommodate the greatest nobleman in Europe with all his retinue.
Some of these towns were built of cedar-wood, brought at great
expense from a distance of fifteen hundred miles; some were gilded,
painted, and varnished. Many had their roofs covered with glazed
tiles of different colors, red, yellow, blue, green, and purple,
arranged in patterns.
What chiefly astonished the artist was the variety which had been
obtained in designing these pleasure houses, not only as regarded
their general architecture but such minor details as the forms of the
doors and windows, which were round, oval, square, and of all
manner of angled figures, while some were shaped like fans, others
like flowers, vases, birds, beasts, and figures.
In the courts and passages he saw vases of porcelain, brass, and
marble filled with flowers, while in the outer courts stood
mythological figures of animals, and urns with perfumes burning in
them, resting on marble pedestals.
Most of these buildings were but one story high, and, being built on
artificially raised ground, were approached by rough steps of
artificial rock work. Some of these were connected one with another
by fanciful winding porticoes or colonnades, which in places were
raised on columns, and in others were so led as to wind by the side
of a grove or by a river bank.
Wonderful ingenuity was displayed in so placing these houses as to
secure the greatest possible variety of situation, and to command
the most varied views. Every natural feature of the ground had been
elaborated, so as to produce charming landscapes, which could
scarcely be recognised as artificial; hills, of from ten to sixty feet in
height, were constructed, divided by little valleys and watered by
clear streams forming cascades and lakes, one of which was five
miles in circumference. On its calm waters floated beautiful pleasure-

boats, including one magnificent house-boat for the amusement of
the ladies of the palace.
In every direction, winding paths led to quaint little pavilions and
charming grottoes, while artificial rock-work was made the nursery
for all manner of beautiful flowers, much care being bestowed on
securing a great variety for every season of the year. Flowering trees
were scattered over the grassy hills, and their blossoms perfumed
the air. Each stream was crossed at frequent intervals by most
picturesque and highly ornamental bridges of wood, brick or
freestone adorned with fanciful kiosks, in which to repose while
admiring the view. He says the triumph of art was to make these
bridges twist about in such an extraordinary manner that they were
often three times as long as if they had been led in a direct line.
Near some of them were placed some very remarkable triumphal
arches, either of elaborately carved wood or of marble.
M. Attiret awards the palm of beauty to a palace of a hundred
apartments, standing in an island in the middle of the large lake, and
commanding a general view of all the other palaces, which lay
scattered round its shores, or half concealed among the groves,
which were so planted as to screen them from one another.
Moreover, from this point all the bridges were visible, as each rivulet
flowed to the lake, round which the artificial hills rose in a series of
terraces, forming a sort of amphitheatre.
On the brink of the lake were network houses for all manner of
strange waterfowl, and in a large reservoir, inclosed by a lattice work
of fine brass wire, were a multitude of beautiful gold and silver fish.
Other fish there were of all manner of colors—red, blue, green,
purple, and black—these were likewise inclosed. But the lake must
have been well stocked, as fishing was one of the favorite
recreations of the nobles.
Sometimes there were mimic sea-fights and other diversions for the
entertainment of the Court, and occasionally illuminations, when
every palace, every boat, almost every tree was lighted up, and

brilliant fireworks, which M. Attiret declared far exceeded anything of
the sort he had witnessed in France or Italy.
As to the variety of lanterns displayed at the great Feast of Lanterns,
it was altogether amazing. From the ceiling of every chamber in
every palace, they were suspended from the trees on the hills, the
kiosks on the bridges. They were shaped like fishes, birds, and
beasts, vases, fruits, flowers, and boats of different form and size.
Some were made of silk, some of horn, glass, mother-of-pearl, and a
thousand other materials. Some were painted, some embroidered,
some so valuable that it seemed as if they could not have been
produced under a thousand crowns. On every rivulet, river, and lake
floated lanterns made in the form of little boats, each adding
something to the fairy-like scene.
At the time when the Barbarian army so ruthlessly forced their way
into this Chinese paradise it was in the most perfect order—a feature
by no means common even in the houses of the greatest mandarins.
Forty small palaces, each a marvel of art, occupied beautiful sites
within the grounds, and the footpaths leading from one to another
were faultlessly neat. The sheets of ornamental water, lakes, and
rivers were all clean, and each marble bridge was a separate object
of beauty, while from out the dense foliage on the hill, yellow tiled
roofs, curled up at the ends, gleamed like gold in the sunlight.
Within the palace were stored such treasures of exquisitely carved
jade, splendid old enamels, bronzes, gold and silver, precious jewels
of jade and rubies, carved lapis lazuli, priceless furs and richest silks,
as could only have been accumulated by a long dynasty of Celestial
rulers.
Cruel indeed was the change when a few hours later the allied
forces arrived. The English cavalry was the first to reach the ground,
but did not enter. The French quickly followed by another approach,
and at once proceeded to sack the palace; so that when the British
were allowed to join in the work of devastation and indiscriminate

plunder, all the most obviously valuable treasure had already been
removed, while the floors were strewn knee-deep with broken
fragments of priceless china, and every sort of beautiful object too
cumbersome or too fragile for rough and ready removal, and
therefore ruthlessly smashed with the butt ends of muskets, to say
nothing of the piles of most gorgeous silks and satins and gold
embroideries, which lay unheeded among the ruins.
Then when the best of the steeds had been stolen, the doors were
locked and Indian troops were posted to guard the treasures that
remained (no easy task), till it should be possible to divide them
equally between the forces. When this had been done the share
apportioned to the British was at once sold by public auction, in
order that an immediate distribution of prize money might allay the
very natural jealousy which would otherwise have been aroused by
the sight of French soldiers laden with the Sycee silver and other
treasures which they had appropriated.
But though wagon-loads of what seemed the most precious objects
were removed, these were as nothing compared with what was left
and destroyed, when the order was given to commence the actual
demolition of the principal buildings: a work on which two regiments
were employed for two whole days, ere the hand of the destroyer
was stayed by a treaty of peace, and so happily a few wonderful and
unique buildings still remain as a suggestion of vanished glories.
Of course all this was done with the best possible intentions, by way
of punishing the Emperor himself and his great nobles for the official
deeds of treachery, rather than injure the innocent citizens of
Peking. Yet it seems that these would have accepted any amount of
personal loss and suffering rather than this barbarous destruction of
an Imperial glory—an act which has so impressed the whole nation
with a conviction that all foreigners are barbarous Vandals, that it is
generally coupled with their determined pushing of the opium trade.
These two crimes form the double-barrelled weapon of reproach
wherewith Christian missionaries in all parts of the Empire are
assailed, and their work grievously hindered.

We devoted about three hours to exploring these beautiful grounds,
of which might well be said, “Was never scene so sad so fair!” Even
the ornamental timber was cut for firewood by the allied barbarians,
though enough remains to beautify the landscape.
The grounds are enclosed by a handsome wall of dark-red sandstone
with a coping of glazed tiles, and its warm color contrasts pleasantly
with the rich greens of the park and the lovely blue lake with its
reedy shores, and floating lotus blossoms. One of the most
conspicuous objects is a very handsome stone bridge of seventeen
arches, graduated from quite small arches on either side to very high
ones in the centre. It is commonly called the marble bridge, because
of its beautiful white marble balustrades with about fifty pillars on
either side, on each of which sits a marble lion, and of all these I am
told that no two are quite alike. Each end of this bridge is guarded
by two large lions, also of marble. This bridge connects the mainland
with an island about a quarter of a mile in circumference; it is
entirely surrounded with a marble balustrade like that of the bridge.
In the centre of the isle is an artificial mound, on which, approached
by flights of steps, and enclosed by yet another marble balustrade,
are the ruins of what must have been a beautiful temple.
Another very striking bridge, which spans a stream flowing into the
lake, is called the Camel's Hump, and has only one very steep arch,
about forty feet high. What makes this look so very peculiar is the
fact that the banks on either side are almost level with the stream,
so the elevation is purely fanciful. The bridge also has a beautiful
marble balustrade.
A third, very similar to this last, crosses another winding of the
stream, where it flows through flooded rice-fields, and so appears
like an extension of the lake. Along this stream there is a fine
avenue of willow-trees fully a mile in length.
Ascending a wooded hill, which is dotted all over with only partially
destroyed buildings, we thence had a most lovely view of all the
park, looking down on the blue lake, the winding streams, the

various bridges, the blue mountain range, and the distant city of
Peking with a foreground of most picturesque temple buildings and
fine Scotch firs, dark rocks and green creepers.
Though the general feeling is one of desolation (as one climbs
stairways, passing between numberless mounds of rubble, entirely
composed of beautifully glazed tiles of every color of the rainbow,
and all in fragments), there are, nevertheless, some isolated
buildings which happily have quite escaped. Among these are
several most beautiful seven-story pagodas. Of one, which is
octagonal, the lower story is adorned with finely sculptured Indian
gods. Two others are entirely faced and roofed with the loveliest
porcelain tiles—yellow gold, bright green, and deep blue. They are
exquisitely delicate and are quite intact; even the tremulous bells
suspended from the leaves still tinkling with every breath of air.
Another building, which is still almost perfect, is a beautiful little
bronze temple, near to which is a fine triple pai-low, or
commemorative arch, and there are others of indescribable form,
such as a little globe resting on a great one, and the whole
surmounted by a spire representing fourteen canopies. But nothing
save colored sketches (of which I secured a few) could really give
any idea of this strange place or of these singular buildings.
On the summit of the hill there still stands a very large two-storied
brick building, entirely faced with glittering glazed tiles of dazzling
yellow, emerald green, and blue, with a double roof of yellow
porcelain tiles; among its decorations are a multitude of images of
Buddha in brown china. It is approached by a grand triple gateway
of white marble and colored tiles, like one we saw at the Confucian
temple in the city of Peking.
There are also a great variety of huge stone pillars and tablets, all
highly sculptured; the dragon and other mythical animals appearing
in all directions. There are bronze beasts and marble beasts, but
only those of such size and weight as to have baulked all efforts of

thieving visitors, whether native or foreign, whose combined efforts
have long since removed every portable image and ornament.
To me the most interesting group of ruins is a cluster of very
ornamental small temple buildings, some with conical, others, with
tent-shaped roofs, but all glazed with the most brilliantly green tiles,
and all the pillars and other woodwork painted deep red. On either
side of the principal building are two very ornamental pagoda-
shaped temples, exactly alike, except that the green roof of one is
surmounted by a dark-blue china ornament, the other by a similar
ornament in bright yellow.
Each is built to contain a large rotatory cylinder on the prayer-wheel
principle, with niches for a multitude of images. In fact they are
small editions of two revolving cylinders with five hundred disciples
of Buddha, which attracted me at the great Lama temple as being
the first link to Japanese Scripture-wheels, or Thibetan prayer-
wheels which I have seen in China, and the existence of which has
apparently passed unnoticed. It is needless to add that of course
every image has been stolen, and only the revolving stands now
remain in a most rickety condition.
When we could no longer endure the blazing heat, we descended
past what appears to have been the principal temple, of which
absolutely nothing remains standing—only a vast mound of brilliant
fragments of broken tiles, lying on a great platform; steep zigzag
stairs brought us to the foot of the hill, where great bronze lions still
guard the forsaken courts.
Parched with thirst, we returned to the blessed spring of truly living
water, and drank and drank again, cup after cup, till the very coolies
standing by laughed. Then once again climbing into the horrible
vehicle of torture, we retraced our morning route, till we reached a
very nice clean restaurant, where we ordered luncheon. We were
shown into a pretty little airy room upstairs, commanding a very fine
view of the grounds we had just left. After the preliminary tiny cup
of pale yellow tea, basins of boiling water were brought in, with a bit

of flannel floating in each, that we might wash off the dust in
orthodox Chinese fashion. The correct thing is to wring out the
flannel, and therewith rub the face and neck with a view to future
coolness.
Luncheon (eaten with chop sticks, which I can now manage
perfectly) consisted of the usual series of small dishes, little bits of
cold chicken with sauce, little bits of hot chicken boiled to rags,
morsels of pork with mushrooms, fragments of cold duck with some
other sort of fungus, watery soup, scraps of pigs' kidneys with boiled
chestnuts, very coarse rice, pickled cucumber, garlic and cabbage,
patty of preserved shrimps, all in infinitesimal portions, so that, but
for the plentiful supply of rice, hungry folk would find it hard to
appease the inner wolf. Tiny cups of rice wine followed by more tea
completed the repast for which a sum equivalent to sixteen shillings
was demanded, and of course refused; nevertheless, necessitating a
troublesome argument.
We hurried away as soon as possible, being anxious to visit a very
famous Lama temple, the “Wang-Tzu,” or Yellow Temple. As we
drove along I was amazed to notice how singularly numerous
magpies are hereabouts. They go about in companies of six or eight,
and are so tame and saucy that they scarcely take the trouble to
hop aside as we pass.
Though the drive seemed very long still, we never suspected
anything amiss till suddenly we found ourselves near the gates of
the city; when we discovered that our worthy carter, assuming that
he knew the time better than we did, and that we should be locked
out of the city at sunset, had deliberately taken a wrong road, and
altogether avoided the Yellow Temple. Reluctantly yielding to British
determination, he sorrowfully turned, and we had to endure a long
extra course of bumping ere we reached the temple, which is glazed
with yellow tiles (an Imperial privilege which is conceded to Lamas).
This is a very large Lama monastery, full of objects of interest, of
which the most notable is a very fine white marble monument to a

grand Lama who died here. It is of a purely Indian design, and all
round it are sculptured scenes in the life and death of Buddha, Of
course, having lost so much time, we had very little to spare here,
so once more betook us to the cart and jolted back to Peking.
As we crossed the dreary expanse of dusty plain, a sharp wind
sprang up, and we had a moderate taste of the horrors of a dust-
storm, and devoutly hope never to be subjected to a real one.
The dread of being locked out is by no means unfounded. Punctually
at a quarter to six, one of the soldiers on guard strikes the gong
which hangs at the door, and continues doing so for five minutes
with slow regular strokes. Then a quickened beat gives notice that
only ten minutes' grace remains, then more and more rapidly fall the
strokes, and the accustomed ear distinguishes five varieties of beat,
by which it is easy to calculate how many minutes remain. From the
first stroke every one outside the gate hurries towards them, and
carts, foot passengers, and riders stream into the city with much
noise and turmoil. At six o'clock precisely the guard unite in a
prolonged unearthly shout, announcing that time is up. Then the
ponderous gates are closed, and in another moment the rusty lock
creaks, and the city is secure for the night.
Then follows the frightful and unfragrant process of street watering,
of which we had full benefit, as our tired mule slowly dragged us
back to our haven of rest under the hospitable roof of the London
Missionary Society.—Belgravia.

THE CAMORRA.
Most foreign visitors to Naples are inclined to think that the Camorra
is as entirely a thing of the past as the Swiss guards that used to
protect the King of the Two Sicilies, or the military pageant that was
formerly held in honor of Santa Maria Piedigrotta, the Madonna who
was once nominated commander-in-chief of the Neapolitan armies,
and led them to victory. Young men with gorgeous, if somewhat
tawdry, caps and jewelry are no longer to be seen sauntering
through the streets and markets with an insolent air of mastery
which no one dares to question; and the old man who used to
collect money for the lamps of the Madonna—a request which,
somehow, no coachman ever refused—have vanished from the
cabstands. The outward glory of the Camorra has passed away; it is
anxious now to conceal instead of displaying its power; but among
the older residents in Naples there are many who believe that this
strange secret society has never exercised a greater influence than it
does at present, though it is possible that the interest it is said to
have lately taken in politics may lead to its fall. In fact, such an
interference in public affairs is a distinct departure from the
principles on which the earlier traditions of the association were
founded.
The whole subject is of course shrouded in mystery. There are
important points connected with it on which it is impossible to obtain
trustworthy information, as all who have any real knowledge of the
facts have the strongest personal reasons for concealing them. Still,
the organization of the lower ranks of the society is well known to
the police, and it is by no means impossible to form a clear
conception of its real character and aims, though it is necessary to
sift every statement made about them with unusual care, as the
inquirer must be on his guard not only against the romance and
exaggeration of popular fancy, but also against a desire to mislead.

It is only by inadvertence that any correct information is likely to be
given, and as soon as the stranger exhibits an interest in the
subject, he is supplied with a splendid stock of pure inventions. He
must look and listen, and refrain from questioning as much as
possible, unless he has the good fortune to meet an intelligent
official connected with the police, or still better one who served the
deposed dynasty. Before entering on the subject itself, however, a
digression will be necessary in order to explain to English readers
how such an association could be formed, and what were the
circumstances that favored its growth and have hitherto secured its
existence.
With respect to Sicily, Dr. Franchetti tells us that, whenever several
men combine to support their own interests in opposition to those of
their neighbors, that is Mafia. Where the condition of society is
favorable, such combinations become exceedingly powerful. The
strongest, the most enterprising, and the most violent inhabitants
unite together. The will of each member is law in as far as the
outside world is concerned; in executing it his companions will shrink
neither from force nor fraud, and all they expect is that he should be
ready to render similar services in his turn. When such a body has
been formed in a district where the law is not powerful enough to
hold it in check, the other members of the community must either
tamely submit to its oppressions, put themselves under its
protection, or form a new Mafia of their own. Now the Camorra is
only a fully-developed and highly-organized Mafia.
It owes its long existence and its great influence chiefly to two
circumstances. Family feeling in Naples is much stronger than in the
North. Not only do parents and children, brothers and sisters cling
together through life, but even distant cousins are recognized as
relations whose interests must be guarded and advanced. If your
cook's uncle happens to have a friend who is a butcher, nothing will
induce him to buy your meat at any other shop; if your boy is sent
to fetch a cab, he will waste half an hour looking for some distant
acquaintance of his aunt's. As soon as you take a servant your

custom becomes the property of his family connections. If you
attempt to prevent this, you only embitter your life with a vain
endeavor to thwart petty intrigues. If you dismiss your man, you
only change your set of tradesmen; if you submit good humoredly,
you soon begin to be regarded as a patron of the whole family, and
will therefore be treated with all fitting consideration and esteem.
The single members will serve you honestly, and even go out of their
way to please you. It is clear that a society so clannish is excellently
suited for a Mafia.
On the other hand, the uncertainty of the law under the old dynasty
might well serve as an excuse for a good deal of self-assertion and
self-defence. The tyranny of the Bourbons, it is true, was chiefly
exercised upon the educated members of the middle class, whom
they suspected, not unjustly, of designs against their rule. For the
poor and the uneducated they did a good deal, often in a rather
unwise way, and they never seem intentionally to have oppressed
them. But the police are generally said to have been corrupt, the
influence of the man of birth and wealth was great, and it was
doubtless at times capriciously exercised. Against this the individual
was powerless; when a large number were bound together by secret
pledges, they could ensure respect and consideration.
It must not, however, be thought that there was anything heroic
even in the old Camorra. It was not a league of justice and freedom,
but simply an association which was pledged to advance the
interests of its members, to right their wrongs, and to protect them
to the utmost against every external power, including that of the law.
And it has always maintained this character. Though it has
occasionally done acts of justice and mercy, these are by no means
its chief, or even an important, object; though many of its members
belong to the criminal classes, it is not a society for the furtherance
of crime. It pays no respect to the law except from prudential
motives, and, as it has often dirty work to do, it makes use of dirty
hands; but many men in all classes who are otherwise perfectly

honest and respectable belong to it, and find their advantage in
doing so.
To a certain extent, however, the aims of the Camorra have grown
with the growth of its power. In the face of so powerful an
association, it became necessary for those who did not belong to it
to take steps to guard their own interests, and most of them did so
by seeking its protection. This could be obtained by the payment of
a tribute which consisted either of a fixed tax or of a percentage on
profits. Thus the association claims, and has long claimed, a right to
levy an impost on all meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables exposed for
sale in the markets, on all goods sold in the streets, on the winnings
in all games of chance played in public, and on all cab hire. Very
stringent laws have been enacted against this practice, and the
Government has from time to time made energetic efforts to
suppress it, but without success. The peasants and fishermen are
eager to pay the illegal tax. The threat not to accept it will awe the
most refractory among them into obedience to the other regulations
of the Association, for they know that if the countenance of the
Society is withdrawn, it will soon become impossible for them to visit
the market. For a week or two they may thrive under the exceptional
care of the police, but as soon as the attention of the authorities
relaxes, customers will be crowded away from their stalls, their
goods will be pilfered, and their boats or carts, as the case may be,
either seriously injured or put vexatiously out of gear. The mere fact
that the Camorra has ceased to favor So-and-so is enough to expose
him to the violence and the wiles of half the roughs and thieves of
the district, as well as to the tricks and torments of the most impish
crowd of street boys that any European town can show.
The Camorra dues are, therefore, an insurance against theft and
annoyance. Those who pay them are not members of the fraternity,
they for the most part know nothing of its constitution, and they can
make no claim upon it, except for protection, on their way from the
gates of the town to the market-place, and during their stay there.
This, however, is highly valuable, and it is honestly exercised. Some

years ago a party of fishermen brought a rather unusual supply to
market, and left their wares standing at the accustomed place while
they went into a neighboring coffee-house to breakfast. They were
stolen, and the men applied to the official representative of the
Camorra as naturally an Englishman would to the police. He asked
some questions, took a few notes, and then bid them leave the
market for a time, and come back at a certain hour. They did so, and
on their return found their fish standing where they had originally
left it, “not a sardine was missing.” Such events are constantly
occurring.
The almost unlimited influence which the association exercises over
the criminal classes is due less to the fact that many of them are
enrolled among its members than to the extraordinary information it
can command as to any detail of city life. In every district it has a
body of highly-trained agents, as to whose education and
organization we may perhaps have an opportunity of saying
something in a future number. These men are all eye and ear, and if
a question is proposed to them by their superiors as to the private
life of any one who resides in their district, it will go hard if they are
not able to supply a trustworthy answer in a few days. Hence it
would be almost impossible for a criminal to escape the officers of
justice if the Camorra sincerely desired his arrest. It never interferes
in such matters, however, except when one of its members or
tributaries has been wronged, and compensation is refused. This
rarely happens; but when it does it is said that its vengeance is swift
and implacable, while it takes the perfectly legal form of a judicial
sentence. Nor does the victim escape from its power when the
prison gates close upon him. Some members of the association are
almost sure to be confined within the same gloomy precincts, and
they spare no pains to render the life of the foe of their society
intolerable by a thousand petty vexations which the gaolers could
not prevent, even if they cared to incur the personal danger of
endeavoring to do so. As a rule, they prefer to stand on a good
footing with the Camorrists, and to employ their influence in keeping
the other prisoners in order.

When a dispute arises, either in the streets or market-places,
between persons who have purchased the protection of the
association, it is usually referred to one of its agents whose decision
is regarded as final, and so great is the reputation of many of these
men for justice and fair play, that they are frequently requested to
arbitrate on matters with which they have officially no concern
whatever. On such occasions it is usual to make a present to the
amateur judge, proportionate in worth to the matter he has settled,
or at least to invite him to a sumptuous dinner. In a similar way
these Camorrists form the court of honor of the lazzaroni. All
questions of vendetta which have their origin in a sense of honor
rather than personal hatred are submitted to them, and it is only just
to recognize that they almost invariably do their best to bring about
a reconciliation, though they themselves are notoriously ready to use
their knives. In a word, whatever the ultimate purposes of the
Camorra may be—they are doubtless always lawless, and not
unfrequently criminal—its influence over the poorer classes is not an
unmixed evil. It is unscrupulous both in forming and executing its
designs, but when its own interests are not involved, it can be both
just and merciful. There are honest and well-to-do tradesmen in
Naples who would never have risen from the gutter, if, in their
boyhood, the Camorra had not given them a fair start and something
more.—Saturday Review.

THE DECAY OF IRISH HUMOR.
The above heading was suggested to us by a friend as the subject of
a paper some months back, but it was not until much time had
elapsed, and not a little reflection had been devoted to the matter,
that we felt ourselves constrained to admit its unwelcome truth. For
to acknowledge that Irish humor is on the wane is a serious
admission at the present day, when we are suffering from an
undoubted dearth of that commodity on this side of the Channel;
when laughter has been effectually quenched at St. Stephen's; when
our interest in the best comic paper is almost entirely centred in the
illustrations, and not the text; and when we have grown to be
strangely dependent upon America for light reading of all sorts. This
year—an exceptionally uninteresting year for the reader—has, it is
true, been marked by a new departure or a reaction in the direction
of startling sensation and melodramatic plots—engendered perhaps
by a desire to escape from the unromantic common placeness of our
daily surroundings, culminating in Mr. Stevenson's tale, “The
Bodysnatcher,” in the Christmas number of the Pall Mall Gazette,
which literally reeks of the charnel-house. But this movement, apart
from its general literary or constructive merit, is from its very nature
opposed to sunshine and mirth. The advent of a new humorist was
hailed by some critics on the appearance of “Vice Versâ,” but his
second considerable contribution to fiction, “The Giant's Robe,” is
anything but a cheerful book. Lastly, at least two conscious and
elaborate attempts have been made during the last six months to
transplant the squalid anatomical photography of Zola into the realm
of English fiction. Where, then, in these latter days are we to look
for native humorists? Not in the ranks of Irish politicians surely, for
the Irish political fanatic is anything but a comic personage, and the
whole course of the Nationalist agitation has been unredeemed by
any humorous passage. There are no Boyle Roches, or O'Connells,

or Dowses, or even O'Gormans, to be found amongst the followers
of Mr. Parnell. The cold, impassive address of their leader, utterly un-
Irish in its character, and, perhaps, only the more effective on that
account, has infected them all. Mr. O'Donnell has now and then let
fly a sardonic shaft; but Mr. Justin McCarthy reserves his graceful
pleasantry for the pages of his novels, save no one occasion when
Mr. Gladstone pounced down on a “bull” of preternatural magnitude.
Acrimony, virulence, and powers of invective, these are abundantly
displayed by Messrs. Sexton, Healy, and O'Brien; but as for humor,
there is none of it. For otherwise would they not have seen the
logical outcome of their decision (we speak of the Nationalists as a
whole) to rename the Dublin streets,—we mean the corollary that
they should in many cases divest themselves also of their indubitably
Sassenach patronymics in favor of Celtic and national names? From
their own point of view, Charles Stewart Parnell is an odious
combination, and should give place, let us say, to Brian Boroihme
O'Toole. If we turn from politics to literature, we shall find much the
same state of things prevailing. Irishmen are remarkably successful
as journalists, but the prizes of that profession draw them away from
their own country; their lives are spent amid other surroundings, less
favorable to the development of their characteristic humor, which
encourage their facile wits to waste themselves in mere over-
production. Some of the very best specimens of recent Irish verse
are to be found in the pages of Kottabos, a magazine supported by
the members of Trinity College, Dublin. But although it is hardly a
good sign that the best work of this kind should flourish under
Academic patronage, we have been sincerely grieved to learn that
Kottabos is no more, and the goodly company of Kottabistæ finally
disbanded.
If we descend to the other end of the social scale, we shall find that
a variety of causes have conspired to diminish or even destroy the
sense of humor with the possession of which tradition has credited
the Irish peasant. It is only fair, however, to premise that much of
what strikes an appreciative visitor as humorous in the speech of an
Irish peasant is wholly unconscious in the speaker, and arises from

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