Introduction to Sociology Power Point for Students
- 1. Chapter 2 SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH PowerPoint Image Slideshow INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY 3E
- 2. Figure 2.1 Many believe that crime rates go up during the full moon, but scientific research does not support this conclusion. (Credit: Arman Thanvir/flickr.) FIGURE 2.1
- 3. • Empirical Evidence is evidence that comes from direct experience, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation. • Meta-Analysis is a technique in which the results of virtually all previous studies on a specific subject are evaluated together. • A Hypothesis is a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables. • Scientific Method is an established scholarly research method that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing and conducting a study, and drawing conclusions. SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH CONCEPTS
- 4. The scientific method is an essential tool in research. FIGURE 2.2
- 5. Question should be narrow enough to study within a specific environment, such as a finite time frame or a location. Question should be broad enough to have value for people outside of the study participants, or (even better) can inform people outside the immediate environments. STEP ONE: ASK A QUESTION
- 6. Literature Review is a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research. STEP TWO: RESEARCH EXISTING SOURCES
- 7. A Hypothesis is a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables. Independent Variables are variables that cause changes in dependent variables. Dependent Variables are variables changed by other variables. STEP THREE: FORMULATE A HYPOTHESIS
- 8. Operational definition: When forming basic research questions, sociologists define the concept in terms of concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. The operational definition identifies an observable condition of the concept. Reliability refers to how likely research results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced. Validity refers to how well the study measures what it was designed to measure. STEP FOUR: DESIGN AND CONDUCT A STUDY
- 9. Tabulate and analyze the results in an organized fashion that will make sense to others who want to either learn about, evaluate, repeat, or build on the experiment/study. Decide if the research supports or does not support the hypothesis. If it does not support it, consider why: • Is the hypothesis wrong? • Was something wrong with the study? • Did something occur that you didn’t account for? STEP FIVE: DRAW CONCLUSIONS
- 10. Political polls may not seem like sociological studies, but reputable polling organizations include a great degree of methodology and research precision. However, most 2016 and 2020 Presidential election polls were known for massive inaccuracies. The Pew Research Center discussed three reasons for the errors, all of which they did not account for: 1. Difficulty reaching all types of voters (nonresponse bias) 2. People who did not want to admit their choice 3. More people indicated they would vote than actually voted EXAMPLE: POLLING ERRORS
- 11. Tabulate and analyze the results in an organized fashion that will make sense to others who want to either learn about, evaluate, repeat, or build on the experiment/study. Decide if the research supports or does not support the hypothesis. If it does not support it, consider why: • Is the hypothesis wrong? • Was something wrong with the study? • Did something occur that you didn’t account for. STEP SIX: REPORT RESULTS
- 12. Interpretive Framework is a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction. It seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants. This approach is not based on hypothesis testing. INTERPRETIVE FRAMEWORK
- 13. Primary Source Collection consists of the researchers obtaining data directly, such as through surveys, interviews, observations, and so on. Secondary Data Analysis is using data collected by others but applying new interpretations. RESEARCH METHODS
- 14. • Surveys collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire. • Population is a defined group serving as the subject of a study. • Samples are small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population. • A Random Sample is a study’s participants being randomly selected to serve as a representation of a larger population. • Quantitative Data represents research collected in numerical form that can be counted. • Qualitative Data comprises information that is subjective and often based on what is seen in a natural setting. • An Interview is a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject. PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
- 15. What would you want to study about Lady Gaga or Beyoncé? What would you want to study about their fans? ARTISTS OR THEIR FANS AS SUBJECTS
- 16. Field Research is gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey. Primary Data is data collected directly from firsthand experience. Correlation is when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable, but does not necessarily indicate causation. FIELD RESEARCH
- 17. Sociological researchers travel across countries and cultures to interact with and observe subjects in their natural environments. (Photo courtesy of IMLS Digital Collections and Content/flickr and Olympic National Park) FIELD RESEARCH
- 18. Participant Observation is when a researcher immerses themselves in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an “insider” perspective. For example, a person studying the way that restaurant diners treat waiters may become a waiter for the study. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
- 19. A classroom in Muncie, Indiana, in 1917, five years before John and Helen Lynd began researching this “typical” U.S. community. (Photo courtesy of Don O’Brien/flickr) THE MAKING OF MIDDLETOWN: A STUDY IN MODERN U.S. CULTURE
- 20. Field research happens in “real” locations. What type of environment do work spaces foster? What would a sociologist discover after blending in? (Credit: Lyncconf Games/flickr) FIGURE 2.8
- 21. Ethnography is observing a complete social setting and all that it entails. Institutional Ethnography is an extension of basic ethnographic research principles that focuses intentionally on everyday concrete social relationships. ETHNOGRAPHY
- 22. • Secondary Data Analysis is using data collected by others but applying new interpretations. • Nonreactive Research is using secondary data, does not include direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviors. • Content Analysis is applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as it relates to the study at hand. SECONDARY DATA ANALYSIS
- 23. Sociologist Frances Heussenstamm conducted an experiment to explore the correlation between traffic stops and race-based bumper stickers. This issue of racial profiling remains important and impactful. (Photo courtesy of dwightsghost/flickr) FIGURE 2.10
- 24. Max Weber: Personal values should not shape the design or interpretation. Value neutrality: The obligation to remain impartial while collecting, analyzing, and reporting results. ETHICAL CONCERNS: VALUE NEUTRALITY
- 25. 1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research 2. Respect subjects’ rights to privacy and dignity 3. Protect subject from personal harm 4. Preserve confidentially 5. Seek informed consent 6. Acknowledge collaboration and assistance 7. Disclose sources of financial support ASA CODE OF ETHICS:
- 26. Study included 600 African American men, including 399 diagnosed with syphilis who were never informed of their diagnosis. Penicillin was distributed in the 1940s as the cure for the disease, but the men were not given the treatment because the objective of the study was to see “how untreated syphilis would affect the African American male” (Caplan, 2007). They were told the study would last 6 months; it lasted 40 years. As a result, dozens of the men died directly of syphilis, dozens also infected their significant others, and at leas 19 children were born with congenital syphilis. THE TUSKEGEE EXPERIMENT
- 27. A mother of five who had overcome hardship and was providing for her family, Lacks was diagnosed with cervical cancer in 1951. Researchers discovered that her cells reproduced at a rapid rate and survived long enough for extensive study. They became known as “immortal” cells because they could be divided repeatedly without dying. This made them extremely rare and extremely valuable. The cells were quickly mass produced and sent around the world for research. They were used in the polio vaccine, AIDS research, DNA research, gene mapping, and many other studies. However, all of this was done without initially informing Lacks or her family, and without getting her family’s permission. Lacks was a primary contributor to many of the major biological discoveries of the 20th Century, but did not consent and is not usually acknowledged. HENRIETTA LACKS
- 28. Stanford Prison Experiment: Students played roles of incarcerated people and correctional officers. Some played their roles too well. Several later admitted they were coached or weren’t acting authentically. Milgram Experiment: Students believed they were administering pain to subjects, and were pressured to keep administering the pain. This led to extreme distress among some of the research subjects. OTHER ETHICAL LAPSES This OpenStax ancillary resource is © Rice University under a CC-BY 4.0 International license; it may be reproduced or modified but must be attributed to OpenStax, Rice University and any changes must be noted.