2. Introduction:
This module tackles the fundamental concepts and
principles of the self. It covers the different factors
that contribute to one’s being, the philosophical and
theoretical perspective about the self across
generations, as well as the explanations of different
fields of sciences about the self and identity.
3. Learning Objectives:
At the end of the learning experience, the students will
be able to:
a. Determine the different factors that contribute to
one’s being.
b. Discuss the different philosophical standpoints about
the self.
c. Define and explain the different scientific standpoints
about the self.
4. LEARNING CONTENT
SECTION 2:
WHAT PHILOSOPHY SAYS
ABOUT THE SELF
SECTION 1:
SOCIAL, ENVIRONMENT
AND OTHER LIFE FACTORS
(S.E.L.F)
SECTION 3:
WHAT SCIENCE SAYS
ABOUT THE SELF
6. An Overview of Self/ Identity
The self is a topic that is often talked about but largely goes
unnoticed. Every time the “I” is mentioned (e.g., I will go to school, I
hang out with my friends, I like to eat burger) the self is highlighted as
“actor”. Further, the pronoun “me” is usually used as the object,
(e.g.,tell me about it, give me something, it makes me feel
awesome). Noticeably, the self composes both the I as an actor and
the me as the object. The focus on the self is even more evident in
the functional word variations of I and me used in everyday language
depending on purpose (e.g., my, mine, myself, etc.).
7. The consciousness of the existence of the self has been
almost automatic or reflexive. Thus, people are almost
unaware of it that in our everyday lives, we are constantly
acknowledging it.
Scholars (i.e., theorist, scientist, philosophers) in different
fields have attempted to explain and thoroughly expound on
several issues and controversies about the nature,
existence and dimensionality of self. The most prevalent
among issues on self are on nature vs. nurture, identity vs.
self and dimensionalities of the self.
8. Nature vs. Nurture
Some insist that the self is predominantly a
product of natural processes to which people are
inherently predisposed. The natural basis of the
self is anchored on biology and explains that
human traits are passed from one generation to
another. These transmitted traits are passed from
one generation to another.
9. These transmitted traits serve as blueprint of the self and
predisposes one to certain self-expressions (e.g., attitude,
behaviour, tendencies, etc.). In this stance, the self is
studied structurally and functionally, from the molecular
level to the entirely of human physiological systems.
Genetics for example contribute so much information about
the descriptions of the self. This field of biology primarily
deals with heredity (transmission of traits and characteristic
from one generation to another) as a process, as well the
characterizations (similarities and differences) of organism.
10. Social sciences have provided of insights and
explanations about the self, both on the micro and
macro levels. Different social sciences stress how
group life (formal and informal) affects an
individual's behaviour and attitude, and emphasize
on the impact of various social institutions to the
self- construal of a person.
11. Identity vs. Self
Self and identity are topics that remain popular not only
among psychologists (even authors of psychology articles)
but also among other social scientists like sociologists,
cultural anthropologists’ economists. Noticeably, the terms
"self” and “identity” have been loosely interchanged in
various literatures. Many people believe that there is a
very thin conceptual and functional distinction between the
two concepts and thus perceive them as synonymous.
12. A comprehensive definition that underscores the
distinctionsoverlap between self and identity was given by
Oyserman,Elmon and Smith (2012.) stating that
Identities are the traits and characteristic, social relations, roles
and social growth memberships that define who one is. Identities
can be focused on the past what used to be true of one, the
present what is true of one now, or the future- the person one
expects or wishes to become the person one feels obligated to try
to become, or the person one fears one may become, together,
identities make up one’s self- concept variously described as what
comes to mind when one thinks of oneself.
13. Dimensionalities of the Self/ Identity
The identity of a person is highlighted by a dominant trait which makes
him or her distinguishable from others. Imagine, for example, a situation
where you are trying to describe a person (whose name you cannot
recall). You will find yourself thinking of remarkable traits that will make
other people identify or even guess who you are talking about. You may
start describing that person using physical attributes (eg, tall, dark, fat,
etc.). However, this attempt may be unsuccessful because in many
instances, the physical descriptions that you are giving can also be
seen in other people unless the physical description is so unique and
specific to that person (eg, the tallest guy in the school, around 7 ft).
14. It is referred to by many social scientists as the nursery of
human nature. In this social group, an individual does not
only acquire biological characteristics (through heredity)
but also learn, both directly and indirectly, certain
behaviors and characters , Thus, similarities in manners
and attitudes are found in the members of a family. During
the waning stage, or the stage in which the child slowly
gains independence and withdraws from strong parental
(or family) attachment, he or she starts identifying with
other people outside of the family.
15. Social factors are strong foundations of one's being. The
characteristics that were acquired from the influences of the
social groups during the formative years are integrated to
form one's identity, or uniqueness and similarities with
others. Psychologists refer to this process of character and
traits integration (or forming of identity) as the formation of
personality. Personality, therefore, is the individual patterns
of thinking, feeling, and behaving. It is said that no two
people would have an identical personality, and that every
individual is unique.
16. The extent to which social factors influence one's identity or being is
inarguably encompassing. That is, the characteristics of significant
others in a person's life can vitally impact his or her distinctiveness.
These influential social groups shape one's identity through
modeling, imitation, and traits integration. Meanwhile, a less obvious
factor simultaneously affects one's being or character. It is the
natural force called the environmental factor. Unlike the social factor,
the environmental factor broadly includes the physical and
communal elements present in everyday surroundings, and are
invariably dealt with by individuals in a specific geographic region or
area.
17. This factor covers not only the physical properties of the
surroundings (i.e., climate and temperature, forms of land, etc.)
but also the larger society or community, as well as the
expectations and norms operating in that particular locality or
place. For example, a person who grew up in a city where
competitiveness and resiliency are needed in order to survive
would tend to adapt to that kind of environment by consciously
strengthening certain traits and skills that will manifest
competitiveness (e g., communicative, intellective ,etc.). In the
process, the harnessed characteristics become an integral part
of his or her identity.
18. Other factors also significantly contribute to one's identityor being, some
of which already operate at the time of conception(in the mother's
womb), like the hereditary factor. As discussedearlier, heredity is a
biological process by which certain traits andcharacteristics are passed
from onegeneration to another. Compared withthe (wo previously
discussed factors,heredity can be referred to the non-negotiable factor. If
one has the choicewhether or not to adopt the influence ofsocial groups
and to change or improveone's environment, heredity is relativelyfixed
and permanent. It readily dictates one's physical attributes(e.g., height,
complexion, hair, etc.), some cognitive traits (e.g.,1.0.), and some other
personal characteristics (e.g., emotionality,tendencies, etc.) upon birth.
This factor will be thoroughly discussedin the succeeding module.
19. Of all the factors of identity, the most controversial perhaps
isthe person-volition factor. It refers to the inclination of a
personto form and construct a specific identity that will set
him apartfrom others. Such factor emanates from within the
mentality of anindividual, brought about by the aggregated
social-life experiences.Social scientists like sociologists may
refer to a person exhibitingperson-volition factor as deviant
or non-conformist. Being one is notnecessarily negative, in
fact, some of the people of this type turned into become
trend setters, revolutionaries, discoverers, and inventors.
21. Philosophy of the Self
Philosophy is often called the mother of all disciplines simply because all fields
of study began as philosophical discourses, Ancient philosophers attempted to
explain natural and social phenomena, coming up with their own definitions of
how the world works and what factors contribute to such phenomena. Thus, it
was inevitable to come up with various conceptions of what it means to be
human, and in so doing, the different definitions of the self.
The self has been defined as "a unified being, essentially connected to
consciousness, awareness, and agency (or, at least, with the faculty of rational
choice)." Different philosophers introduced specific characteristics and
meanings of the self, which, over time, transformed from pure abstractions to
explanations that hold scientific proofs.
22. Classical Antiquity
The ancient philosophy of the self can be traced back from oneof 147
Greek aphorisms prominently inscribed in the temple ofApollo at Delphi-
know thyself (Greek: yowl OeQUTÓV, transliterated:gnóthiseautón).
This aphorism (or principle) was Socrates's guidingprinciple that he
imparted to his students. Since Socrates as a gurupreferred to engage
his students in endless discussions, it is said that he had never written
down any of his ideas but instead untiringlyarticulated concepts and
principles with his students. Socratesbelieved that the real self is not the
physical body, but rather thepsyche (or soul). He further posited that the
appearance of the body isinferior to its functions.
23. The main idea in this dialogue is that the truth can be
distinguished in two forms: the metaphysical realm (mind)
and the physical world (body). Plato suggested that the
self is fundamentally an intellectual entity whose nature
exists independent from the physical world. Plato
bifurcated the truth or reality into two: the ontos(ideal), the
ultimate reality which tends to be permanent and spiritual,
and the phenomena which refers to the manifestation of
the ideal. Compared to ontos , phenomena is imperfect,
impermanent, and inferior.
25. Plato's idea of truth about the human self was even more
expounded and formalized by his prized student, Aristotle.
While Plato emphasized the separation of the ideal and
phenomenal existence or being, Aristotle suggested that
the ideal is subsumed in the phenomena. Aristotle called
the ideal as essence and the phenomena as matter. He
also emphasized that the two co-exist and are co-
dependent, the essence provides meaning and purpose
to the matter, and the matter provides substance and
solidity to essence.
26. The philosophy of the self has been defined through two
distinct lens: empiricism and rationalism. In empiricism,
there is no such thing as innate knowledge; instead,
knowledge is derived from experience-either perceived
with the five senses or processed with the brain. One
knows things because he or she has experienced it
through sensory and bodily responses. On the other hand
,rationalism argues that there is innate knowledge;
however, there are different sources of innate knowledge.
27. Rationalism explains self from the standpoint of
what is "ideal" and "true," and not rooted in what is
felt by the senses or body. Conclusions are derived
through logic and reasoning. Some philosophers
applied empirical views of the self; others used the
rational.
28. From classical antiquity to the contemporary era, philosophy of the
self has evolved. From the teachings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle,
renaissance and contemporary philosophers also defined the self-
according to personal and historical contexts. As stated by Fromm,
"You can only understand humans in the context of their history." This
line is appropriate in understanding how philosophers have shaped
their own viewpoints of the self. The ancient philosophers explained
the self from their conceptual understanding of the world since
scientific evidence was hard to obtain due to the lack of measures.
Contemporary philosophers, meanwhile, have incorporated science to
their theories in the light of the technological advancements that they
have been exposed to.
29. Towards Modern Philosophy
Socrates and Plato have explainedthe self from a theoretical and
logicalorientation. Aristotle was an empiricist,deriving views of the
self from physicaland scientific underpinnings. St.Augustine
incorporated the views ofPlato to his religious philosophy.
JohnLocke, David Hume, and ImmanuelKant were empiricist
philosophers; while Réne Descartes was adominant rational
philosopher during the Middle Ages. Amongcontemporary
philosophers, majority are empiricists: Gilbert Ryle,Patricia
Churchland, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty have
incorporatedbiological and neuroscience in their philosophies.
30. CLASSICAL INTIQUITY
PHILOSOPHER ORIENTATION PHILOSOPHY DESCRIPTION
Socrates Idealism Socratic
Philosophy
Knowledge is the
personification of
good while
ignorance is that
of evil.
Self- knowledge is
the ultimate virtue.
As the ultimate
virtue, it will lead
to ultimate
happiness.
31. Plato Idealism Dualism and
Idealism
Moral virtue is
rooted in the
intellect and
leads to
happiness.
Wisdom and
knowledge lead
to virtue which
will lead to
happiness.
32. Aristotle Empiricist Aristotelian
Philosophy
Ideal is found inside
the phenomena and
the universals inside
the particulars.
Ideals are ESSENCE
and Phenomena is
MATTER.
Matter has no form.
Essence has no
mass.
Matter and essence
need each other.
33. MIDDLE AGE
PHILOSOPHER ORIENTATION PHILOSOPHY DESCRIPTION
St. Augustine Platonism Neo-Platonism All knowledge
leads to God.
Only the pure in
heart can see God.
Love of God, faith
in Him, and
understanding of
his Gospel will
ultimately lead to
happiness.
34. Renaissance
PHILOSOPHER ORIENTATION PHILOSOPHY DESCRIPTION
Rene Descartes Rationalist Mind Body
Dualism
I think, therefore, I
am
The mind and
soul can exist
without the body
Establishing the
distinction of soul
from the body
can make people
believe in the
afterlife and the
souls immortality.
35. John Locke Empiricist Theory of
Personal Identity
It is in
consciousness
alone that
identity exist,
not in the body
and soul.
There is a
distinction
between man
and person
The soul may
change, but
consciousness
remains intact.
36. David Hume Empiricist Sceptical
Philosophy
All knowledge
passes through
the series.
Separate ideas
can be joined
in the mind.
There is no
self, only a
bundle of
perceptions.
37. Immanuel Kant Rationalist/
Empiricist
Metaphysics of the
self
Reason is the final
authority of
morality.
There is inner self
and outer self
The inner self
includes rational
reasoning and
psychological
state.
The outer self
includes, the body
and physical mind,
where
representation
occurs.
38. MODERN TIMES
PHILOSOPHER ORIENTATION PHILOSOPHY DESCRIPTION
Gilbert Ryle Empiricist The Concept of
Mind
“I act, therefore, I
am”
The mind is not
the seat of self.
It is not a
separate,
parallel things
to our physical
body.
The mind is
category mistake,
brought about by
habitual use. The
only way it can
affect the other is
through the
external world.
39. Patricia
Churchland
Empiricist Neuro philosophy A fully matured
neuroscience
will eliminate
the need for
beliefs since
“they are not
real “
The physical
brain gives us a
sense of self.
42. Scientific Perspective of the Self
Science has invested much of its efforts in understanding world phenomena,
especially in explaining how basic life forms have evolved to more complex
organisms, such as human beings. Science is defined as the intellectual and
practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and
behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and
experiment. Scientific approaches to the study of the self are classified into
two: physical sciences and social sciences. The former focuses on biological
factors that make up the human body, the underlying growth and maturational
mechanisms, and environmental influences that contribute to human
development, the central focus of which is the self. On the other hand, social
sciences are concerned with institutions, cultures, and the interpersonal
relationships of people living within society.
43. Biological/ Physiological Science
Science has made great advances in explaining human
beings. Beginning with the tenets of Aristotle and his scientific
approach to the study of human experience, to evolution by natural
selection posed by Charles Darwin, human development, individuality
and the self-have been defined, described and analyzed according to
specific mechanisms.
44. Neurophilosophy
Attributed to Paul and Patricia Churchland,is concerned with the
association of the brain and the mind. In order to understand the
workings of the human mind, people must first understand the brain, its
functions, and wave activity. They further argued that the philosophical
notions of free will, commonsense, and conscientiousness must be
explained in the context of neuroscience as advances in this field
seemingly converge with how people think, feel, and behave. Human
consciousness, worldviews, beliefs, and other attributes are distinctly
connected to brain physiology and functioning. Thus, how the members
of the millennial generation, for instance, process information, imbibe
beliefs and values, and manifest behaviors in their specific context shave
a neurological basis.
45. Psychoneuroimmunology
Describes the shaping of the self assimilar to how the human immune
system functions. The humanbody is made of nucleotides, the
composition of which makes upthe DNA. In the context of the immune
system, the human bodies"rejects" harmful foreign matter and builds up
on the existingmolecules, leading to a healthy bodily system. However, at
times,foreign matter that enters one's system can be helpful to
bodymaintenance and thus becomes a permanent fixture within
thebody. In the context of the self, individuals capitalize on their
innateattributes and are likely to reject environmental factors assumed
tobe harmful to the body and its well-being. In discovering oneself,a
person is likely to imbibe external experiences that are seen to behelpful
and reject those that he or she does not like or derive pleasurefrom.
46. Natural science is a fountain of information
in understanding oneself, especially in the fields of
biology, medicine, cognitive neuroscience, and
even chemistry. However, the journey to self-
understanding will not be complete without
examining the effect of social factors in
development.
47. Social Sciences
While physical science tries to understand
the physical nature of people, social sciences are
concerned with human functioning in the context of
society and social institutions. Psychology,
sociology , anthropology, politics, and economics
are some of the social sciences that have
contributed to the study of the self.
48. Psychology, defined as the study of human
behavior, sees theself as a theoretical construct. In
fact, the development of the so-called Science of Self
roots from various theories and principles. Inmany
theories (c.8., social and personality psychology), the
term"self" has been used as an object of several
psychological constructs(eg, self-awareness, self-
construal, self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-Tegulation,
etc.).
49. A number of theoretical perspectives to explain the self-
havebeen introduced, Psychoanalysis, as proposed by
Sigmund Freud focuses on the "unconscious" as a core
element of the self. Freud likened the human psyche to an
iceberg, whose small tip representsthe awareness of the
individual and the large part submergedunderwater is the
"unconscious," influencing behavior unbeknownto the person.
Behaviorism, another school of thought, maintainsthat the
study of behavior should be made from an observable
andmeasurable perspective. It largely attributes behavior to
environmentconditioning.
50. A revised framework of the behavioristic perspective is the social cognitive
theory, which considers behavior as a function of the environment and
internal attributes. Lastly, the humanistic perspective draws its assumptions
from the observed criticisms of psychoanalysis and behaviorism. It believes
that every individual has the ability to reach self-actualization and
transcendence, and that catch person is inherently good or possesses
something that is good. The humanistic perspective deviates from the
psychoanalytic framework as it focuses on the strengths and inherently good
nature of people, instead of the repressed desires of the unconscious in
psychoanalysis. From behaviorism, it posits that man has a choice and free
will and that he is able to overcome environmental boundaries through human
agency. In studying the self, all three schools of thought in psychology explain
the nuances of selfhood.
51. Sociology, meanwhile, is thestudy of the collective
behavior ofpeople within society and focuseson social
problems encountered byindividuals. It does not see a
personon his or her own, but rather,the impact of social
institutionsand relationships within societyon one's
thoughts, feelings, and behavior. It provides tools
forunderstanding the human experience and society.
Specific domainsof study within sociology includes
family, crime, religion, poverty,education, and the like.
52. Anthropology is the study of human beings and their
ancestorsthrough time and space and in relation to physical
characterenvironmental and social relations, and culture.
Whereas sociologyis focused on present societal concerns
and factors that shapeshould also be observed.human
behavior collectively, anthropology focuses on the evolutionof
individuals and their societies, as well as specific cultural
toolsembedded within generations. The progression of human
groupscultural revolutions, evolutionary behavior, and
advancement ofcultural tools are discussed in anthropology.
53. Political Science, in contrast, is concerned with the
participation of individuals in establishing a government and
making political choices. It is not particular about political
affiliations but rather, the factors involved in how one arrives
at his or her political choices and behavior. In studying the
self, one’s participation in government, ideologies, and
advocacies are seen as significant contributors to his or her
selfhood.
54. Economics describes and analyzes the production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The
manufacture and consumption of goods, the state of finances and
purchasing power, and their equitable distribution to society shape
the self. Economic activities affect people's value systems and
sense of self.
The section outlined the contribution of the sciences in
self-understanding and self-discovery. Physical sciences focus on
the influences of one's biological makeup while social sciences
highlight the role of community and society to oneself. It reiterates
the issue of nature and nurture discussed in the first section.
