![16 IoT for Beginners
Distance coverage Suggested technologies
Short distance (room) Wireless Personal Area Network (PAN) technologies
(Bluetooth)
Wired connections technologies (USB)
Medium distance Wired and wireless Local Area Network (LAN)
technologies (Ethernet, Fiber optics, WiFi)
Large distance (city) Wide Area Network (WAN) technologies (Routers)
Table 1.2: Distance coverage with suggested technologies
Table 1.3 is describing the data transfer rate of some technologies that are mostly
used in IoT:
Technology
Data transfer rate (bit per second or
milliseconds – (ms)]
Bluetooth classic Up to 2.1 Mbps and 22.5 ms for Bluetooth
Classic
Bluetooth Low Energy 260 Kbps, 0.6 to 1.2 ms
WiFi 10 ms
WiMax 1 1 Gbps
Long Term Evolution (LTE) 300 Mbps
LTE-Advance (LTE-A) 1 Gbps
Table 1.3: Data transfer rate of technologies
A brief description of wireless network technologies would help the readers to
understand how it is playing a critical role in the development of the IoT.
Standards
Standard refers to a concept that measures the quality of a system. It is a kind
of technical document that defines various definitions, rules, and guidelines to
accomplish some specific task. For instance, the security system requires following
certain rules for capturing data in a particular place. Thus, standards play a critical
role in the IT industry. Every tool, system, or application must have to follow
appropriate standards.
Various communities provided definitions of standards differently. For example,
International Standard Organization (ISO) defined standard as “A standard is a
document that provides requirements, specifications, guidelines, or characteristics that can
be used consistently to ensure that materials, products, processes, and services are fit for](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/25989127-250523102649-4a72a866/85/Iot-For-Beginners-Explore-Iot-Architecture-Working-Principles-Iot-Devices-And-Various-Real-Iot-Projects-Vibha-Soni-38-320.jpg)
![at right angles to the ship’s course, and the positions of these crests
have a very telling effect upon the resistance.
As the ship’s speed is increased the spaces between the crests of
these lengthen in unison with the speed, and it has been shown that
when the speed is such that a wave-crest would be at the middle
point of the after body (or quarter) the wave-making resistance is
least, and that it is greatest when the hollow appears at this point.
A ship must therefore be of a length that depends largely upon
the length of wave which at a high speed she will tend to produce in
order that she may be driven at such a speed without an
expenditure of power disproportionate to the effect produced. This
length, if very high speeds are desired, is best wholly taken up in
fining the entrance and run, leaving no parallelism of middle body,
and broadening and deepening the ship to keep the necessary
displacement. The wave-action at several speeds is well shown in
the illustrations, which are from instantaneous photographs, showing
the Chilian cruiser Esmeralda at her full speed of 18 knots, when on
her trial off Newcastle-upon-Tyne, the Giovanni Bausan, of the
Italian navy (almost a sister ship to the Esmeralda), at a moderate
speed, and H.M.S. Impérieuse, at about 171
⁄4 knots. [See
illustration, p. 64.] The following are the principal details of the
Esmeralda and Impérieuse:
Displacement.Length.Beam.Draught.Horse-power.
Esmeralda 3,000 270 42 18.3 6,500
Impérieuse 7,390 315 62 26.0 10,180
The eddy-making resistance is greater or less, of course, as the
form is blunted or finer, and there is less resistance with a blunt bow
and finely formed after-body than were the two reversed. Our
practical towing friends will be glad to know that Mr. Froude
substantiates their oft-reiterated assertion that a log tows more
easily butt-end foremost. In the Merkara, a merchant ship built by
Mr. Denny, of 3,980 tons, 360 feet length, 37.2 feet breadth, and
16.25 feet draught, this resistance is, at all speeds, about eight per](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/25989127-250523102649-4a72a866/85/Iot-For-Beginners-Explore-Iot-Architecture-Working-Principles-Iot-Devices-And-Various-Real-Iot-Projects-Vibha-Soni-86-320.jpg)
Iot For Beginners Explore Iot Architecture Working Principles Iot Devices And Various Real Iot Projects Vibha Soni
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- 5. i IoT for Beginners Explore IoT Architecture, Working Principles, IoT Devices, and Various Real IoT Projects Vibha Soni www.bpbonline.com
- 6. ii FIRST EDITION 2022 Copyright © BPB Publications, India ISBN: 978-93-55510-068 All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher with the exception to the program listings which may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they can not be reproduced by the means of publication, photocopy, recording, or by any electronic and mechanical means. LIMITS OF LIABILITY AND DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY The information contained in this book is true to correct and the best of author’s and publisher’s knowledge. The author has made every effort to ensure the accuracy of these publications, but publisher cannot be held responsible for any loss or damage arising from any information in this book. All trademarks referred to in the book are acknowledged as properties of their respective owners but BPB Publications cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information. Distributors: BPB PUBLICATIONS 20, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj New Delhi-110002 Ph: 23254990/23254991 MICRO MEDIA Shop No. 5, Mahendra Chambers, 150 DN Rd. Next to Capital Cinema, V.T. (C.S.T.) Station, MUMBAI-400 001 Ph: 22078296/22078297 DECCAN AGENCIES 4-3-329, Bank Street, Hyderabad-500195 Ph: 24756967/24756400 BPB BOOK CENTRE 376 Old Lajpat Rai Market, Delhi-110006 Ph: 23861747 Published by Manish Jain for BPB Publications, 20 Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110002 and Printed by him at Repro India Ltd, Mumbai www.bpbonline.com
- 7. iii Dedicated to My beloved Parents Mr. Thawarmal Soni Mrs. Rajkumari Soni and My Mentor Ron Malhotra
- 8. iv About the Author Vibha Soni is a freelancer and on the way to getting the title of an entrepreneur. By degree, she is a software engineer, and her current profession is that of a freelance writer. She has used her technical skills and background to get the title of "Published Author" of the world-famous book, The Growth Hacking Book 2 and another academic book, Computer Reboot. Vibha started her career as an Assistant Professor in a college. After a few years, she started her freelancing journey and worked with multiple companies and individuals. She worked alone over the last few years and acquired 360-degree knowledge in academic writing, freelancing and book writing. In the last one and half years, she has started collaborating to move one step closer to achieving her goals. She is an avid reader and likes fictional and non-fictional books. She likes to collaborate and network with energetic and positive people. She has been following three principles - transparency, commitment and open communication for building collaboration. These simple principles have been assisting her in achieving her goals one by one.
- 9. v About the Reviewer Dr. Kamal Kant Hiran works as an Assistant Professor, School of Engineering at Sir Padampat Singhania University (SPSU), Udaipur, Rajasthan, India as well as a Research Fellow at the Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark. He has more than 16 years of experience as an academician and researcher in Asia, Africa, and Europe. He has worked in various positions as an Associate Professor, Head - Academics, Head of Department, Senior Lecturer, Assistant Professor and Visiting Faculty in India and abroad. He has several awards to his credit such as the International Travel Grant for attending the 114th IEEE Region 8 Committee meeting in Warsaw, Poland; International Travel Grant to Germany from ITS Europe, Passau, Germany, Best Research Paper Award from the University of Gondar, Ethiopia and SKIT, Jaipur, India, IEEE Liberia Subsection Founder Award, Gold Medal Award in M. Tech (Hons.), IEEE Ghana Section Award - Technical and Professional Activity Chair, IEEE Senior Member Recognition, IEEE Student Branch Award and Elsevier Reviewer Recognition Award. He has published 35 scientific research papers in SCI/Scopus/Web of Science and IEEE Transactions Journal, Conferences, two Indian patents, one Australian patent grant and 9 books with internationally renowned publishers. He is a reviewer and editorial board member of various reputed international journals in Elsevier, Springer, IEEE Transactions, IET, Bentham Science, and IGI Global. He is an active member in organizing many international seminars, workshops, and conferences. He has made several international visits to Denmark, Sweden, Germany, Poland, Norway, Ghana, Liberia, Ethiopia, Russia, Dubai, and Jordan for research exposures. His research interests focus on Cloud Computing, Machine Learning and Intelligent IoT. LinkedIn Profile: https://www.linkedin.com/in/kamal-kant-hiran-phd-4553b643/
- 10. vi Acknowledgement Expressing acknowledgment and gratitude to anyone who supports me, directly and indirectly, is my habit.Also, “Thank you” is my favorite word in the dictionary. Thus, first and foremost, I want to thank my parents and elder siblings who encouraged me for higher studies and jobs; this encouragement helped me start teaching and move to the writing space. I am grateful to my mentor, who taught me the value of commitment. Under his guidance, I have been acquiring skills, pieces of knowledge and experiences to bring out my best version through self-growth and self-awareness. I want to thank my lovely family members, relatives and cousins who always appreciate me for my small wins. I also want to acknowledge my teachers and college professors who always encouraged me to go higher. I want to thank my close friends, collaborators, LinkedIn networks, students and communities for their consistent support and appreciation. I wanted to thank all my clients to date who always trusted me while taking services from me. I am thankful for all the internet resources which always help me in researching. At last, I am grateful to the Director of BPB Publications, Mr. Manish Jain who allowed me to work on this book. Besides, I am thankful to the BPB Publications team who always supported me in completing the book.
- 11. vii Preface Nowadays, IoT has become a buzz word and we are listening to it everywhere. Most people know the name "IoT" and have heard about it somewhere. IoT stands for "Internet of Things". Technically, IoT refers to a system that is connecting different types of devices such as computing devices, digital machines, mechanical devices, and many more with each other across the Internet. In simple words, IoT enables us to connect with anyone through the Internet without considering place and time. IoT is changing the current business scenario, market and lifestyle. But, to know how it is bringing change, it is vital to understand its meaning, history, background and other related concepts. Thus, this book provides all this information in one place. The book focuses on exploring the theoretical concepts, frameworks and applications associated with IoT. A lot of research has been done to share good examples throughout the book. The book aims to assist the reader in getting information about IoT in layman words irrespective of their technical background. The readers will be students, enthusiastic people who like to explore the technologies and researchers who want to learn IoT. One of the interesting features of the book is that readers do not need to have programming knowledge and technical background; basic knowledge about the Internet and gadgets is enough for learning from this book. If a reader is planning to invest using IoT but is unaware of its benefits and how it would happen, the book would be a good resource for them. Every chapter is followed by different exercises for the readers to practice their learnings. Key pointers in every chapter would help readers summarize and revise the chapter quickly. The word IoT is small, but it is integrated with various concepts. The book covers all essential concepts to understand the basics of IoT as a beginner. The book covers concepts that include the background of IoT, history, definitions, features and benefits. The book also covers IoT architecture, ecosystem and communication models. The required standards and technologies are discussed for learning and understanding the concepts of IoT. The current trends in IoT and the factors driving it are also discussed in the book.
- 12. viii Possible opportunities and growth in IoT are also a part of the book. IoT has scope in different fields such as health, education, medical, business and many more and this book discusses multiple applications of IoT in those fields. The book has four parts. The first part of the book covers the essential IoT backgrounds and it consists of the following two chapters. Chapter 1: The first chapter covers all the basic requirements for learning IoT. Since everyone is using IoT differently, the chapter helps the reader who is seeking to obtain fundamental knowledge of IoT. The chapter covers the meaning of IoT, various definitions, history and needs. Along with this, the chapter discusses the word ‘things’ in IoT for learning IoT. Various technologies are enabling IoT, which are also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 2: IoT is a big word and consists of various attributes. Thus, the primary purpose of the chapter is to explore the features and characteristics of IoT. The chapter also discusses the advantages of IoT for people, business organizations and societies. Every technology has some positive and negative aspects; thus, the chapter also discusses the opposing sides and disadvantages of IoT. The second part of the book covers the essentials of IoT development and consists of the following three chapters. Chapter 3: After learning about the basic concepts of IoT in the previous chapters, this chapter discusses how IoT works. The chapter explores the architecture of IoT and its various layers and how an IoT system works. The chapter discusses the communication model which also plays a major role in IoT. The IoT ecosystem and related concepts are also covered in this chapter. Chapter 4: IoT is a collection of various hardware, software and protocols. So, the objective of the chapter is to discuss all these three concepts with IoT. The protocol provides a set of rules for executing some systems, and it is also applicable to IoT. Thus, the chapter covers IoT Protocols and Standards. Various open-source platforms, tools and programming languages are available for the development of IoT systems. Chapter 5: This chapter explores the concept of IoT devices. At first, the chapter discusses the IoT device, its meaning and how it works. How an IoT device or product is developed and its process is also covered in this chapter. Various types of IoT devices that have been developed are explained. How the IoT device is different from a product is also explored.
- 13. ix The third part of the book covers IoT in various sectors and consists of the following two chapters. Chapter 6: IoT is changing every industry and also the life of ordinary people. This chapter discusses the typical applications of IoT. The different applications of IoT in various industries such as education, healthcare, government, transportation and many more are explained. Smart cities and smart homes are popular applications of IoT, which are also covered in this chapter. Chapter7:Atpresent,mostorganizationsdependontechnologyfortheautomation of business processes. Thus, the main objective of the chapter is to discuss IoT and its business relationships. The chapter explains the meaning of IoT for businesses and different business models. How IoT impacts business and the IoT applications for business are covered in the chapter. The IoT business benefits and drawbacks are also explained. The last part of the book covers other mandatory concepts of IoT and mainly consists of the following three chapters. Chapter 8: IoT refers to numerous devices that are connected to the Internet and sharing data. The chapter discusses the current scenario of IoT and the new shape it would take in the future. The development of technologies and tools also impacts the IoT; so, the chapter discusses future opportunities and challenges in using IoT. Chapter 9: This chapter discusses IoT and related concepts of security. The chapter explains the meaning of security in the computer environment. IoT and security is a vast topic; so after discussing the security, the chapter covers the security requirements for IoT, IoT devices, and IoT environment. It explains the need for security in IoT and the standard IoT security architecture. Various security challenges and issues are also covered in this chapter. Chapter 10: Programmers and developers have developed thousands of IoT projects. The purpose of this chapter is to help readers who want to explore some existing projects to develop new IoT projects. This chapter discusses some successful IoT projects and new ideas to help beginners.
- 14. x Downloading the coloured images: Please follow the link to download the Coloured Images of the book: https://rebrand.ly/fc9f07 Errata We take immense pride in our work at BPB Publications and follow best practices to ensure the accuracy of our content to provide with an indulging reading experience to our subscribers. Our readers are our mirrors, and we use their inputs to reflect and improve upon human errors, if any, that may have occurred during the publishing processes involved. To let us maintain the quality and help us reach out to any readers who might be having difficulties due to any unforeseen errors, please write to us at : errata@bpbonline.com Your support, suggestions and feedbacks are highly appreciated by the BPB Publications’ Family. Did you know that BPB offers eBook versions of every book published, with PDF and ePub files available? You can upgrade to the eBook version at www.bpbonline.com and as a print book customer, you are entitled to a discount on the eBook copy. Get in touch with us at : business@bpbonline.com for more details. At www.bpbonline.com, you can also read a collection of free technical articles, sign up for a range of free newsletters, and receive exclusive discounts and offers on BPB books and eBooks.
- 15. xi BPB is searching for authors like you If you're interested in becoming an author for BPB, please visit www.bpbonline.com and apply today. We have worked with thousands of developers and tech professionals, just like you, to help them share their insight with the global tech community. You can make a general application, apply for a specific hot topic that we are recruiting an author for, or submit your own idea. The code bundle for the book is also hosted on GitHub at https://github.com/bpbpublications/IoT-for-Beginners. In case there's an update to the code, it will be updated on the existing GitHub repository. We also have other code bundles from our rich catalog of books and videos available at https://github.com/bpbpublications. Check them out! PIRACY If you come across any illegal copies of our works in any form on the internet, we would be grateful if you would provide us with the location address or website name. Please contact us at business@bpbonline.com with a link to the material. If you are interested in becoming an author If there is a topic that you have expertise in, and you are interested in either writing or contributing to a book, please visit www.bpbonline.com. REVIEWS Please leave a review. Once you have read and used this book, why not leave a review on the site that you purchased it from? Potential readers can then see and use your unbiased opinion to make purchase decisions, we at BPB can understand what you think about our products, and our authors can see your feedback on their book. Thank you! For more information about BPB, please visit www.bpbonline.com.
- 16. xii Table of Contents 1. Basics of IoT.................................................................................................................. 1 Structure................................................................................................................... 1 Objective.................................................................................................................. 2 Introduction to IoT................................................................................................. 2 Definitions................................................................................................................ 4 History of IoT.......................................................................................................... 5 Understanding Things in IoT................................................................................ 8 Meaning of Thing............................................................................................... 8 Features of Thing................................................................................................ 9 Various names of IoT............................................................................................ 10 Need of IoT............................................................................................................ 11 IoT-driven technologies....................................................................................... 14 Sensors.............................................................................................................. 14 Networks/wireless sensors network.................................................................. 14 Standards............................................................................................................... 16 Augmented intelligence.................................................................................... 17 Augmented behavior......................................................................................... 17 Cloud computing.............................................................................................. 18 Big data analytics............................................................................................. 19 Conclusion............................................................................................................. 19 Points to remember.............................................................................................. 20 Multiple choice questions.................................................................................... 21 Answers............................................................................................................ 23 Answer the following........................................................................................... 23 Key terms............................................................................................................... 24 2. Characteristics and Benefits..................................................................................... 25 Structure................................................................................................................. 26 Objective................................................................................................................ 26 IoT characteristics................................................................................................. 26 IoT advantages...................................................................................................... 29
- 17. xiii IoT disadvantages................................................................................................. 31 IoT for the non-technical group of people........................................................ 33 Conclusion............................................................................................................. 34 Points to remember.............................................................................................. 35 Multiple choice questions.................................................................................... 35 Answers............................................................................................................ 36 Answer the following........................................................................................... 37 Key terms............................................................................................................... 37 3. Understanding IoT Workings.................................................................................. 39 Structure................................................................................................................. 40 Objective................................................................................................................ 40 Working of IoT system......................................................................................... 40 Some cases that need to skip connectivity........................................................ 42 IoT architecture..................................................................................................... 42 Why need of architecture.................................................................................. 43 Communication models...................................................................................... 46 IoT ecosystems...................................................................................................... 52 IoT ecosystem with respect to business organization....................................... 53 Conclusion............................................................................................................. 55 Points to remember.............................................................................................. 55 Multiple choice questions.................................................................................... 56 Answers............................................................................................................ 58 Matching table....................................................................................................... 58 Answer the following........................................................................................... 59 Key terms............................................................................................................... 59 4. IoT Tools and Architectures..................................................................................... 61 Structure................................................................................................................. 62 Objective................................................................................................................ 62 IoT hardware......................................................................................................... 62 Sensors.............................................................................................................. 62 Types of sensors...................................................................................................... 63 Microcontroller................................................................................................. 66 Communication devices.................................................................................... 67
- 18. xiv IoT software........................................................................................................... 68 IoT protocols.......................................................................................................... 69 Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)....................................................... 69 Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT)................................................ 70 Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP).............................................. 71 Data Distribution Service (DDS).................................................................... 72 Lightweight M2M (LwM2M).......................................................................... 73 IoT technology protocols..................................................................................... 73 Standards for IoT.................................................................................................. 77 IoT platforms......................................................................................................... 78 Need for the IoT platform and ways to select the right IoT platform............... 80 Programming languages for IoT........................................................................ 82 Some standard points while considering the programming language for IoT systems........................................................... 84 Conclusion............................................................................................................. 84 Points to remember.............................................................................................. 85 Multiple choice questions.................................................................................... 86 Answers............................................................................................................ 88 Matching table....................................................................................................... 88 Answer the following........................................................................................... 89 Key terms............................................................................................................... 91 5. IoT Devices.................................................................................................................. 93 Structure................................................................................................................. 93 Objective................................................................................................................ 94 Introduction an IoT device.................................................................................. 94 Developing and managing IoT devices............................................................. 95 IoT device management.................................................................................... 96 Types of IoT devices............................................................................................. 97 Voice-controlled smart speaker......................................................................... 98 Smart doorbell................................................................................................... 99 Home/domestic robots..................................................................................... 100 Air quality monitoring device........................................................................ 102 Home security system..................................................................................... 102 Difference between IoT devices and smart products (connected products)...........103
- 19. xv Conclusion........................................................................................................... 104 Points to remember............................................................................................ 105 Multiple choice questions.................................................................................. 106 Answers.......................................................................................................... 107 Questions............................................................................................................. 108 Key terms............................................................................................................. 108 6. IoT Applications....................................................................................................... 109 Structure............................................................................................................... 109 Objective.............................................................................................................. 110 Application areas of IoT.................................................................................... 110 Smart home...........................................................................................................111 Real examples.................................................................................................. 112 Smart city............................................................................................................. 113 Real examples.................................................................................................. 114 Wearables............................................................................................................. 115 IoT in healthcare................................................................................................. 116 Real examples and projects............................................................................. 118 IoT in education.................................................................................................. 120 Real examples.................................................................................................. 122 IoT in agriculture................................................................................................ 123 Real examples.................................................................................................. 125 IoT in government.............................................................................................. 126 Real examples.................................................................................................. 127 IoT in transportation.......................................................................................... 127 Real examples.................................................................................................. 129 IoT in industrial internet.................................................................................... 131 Real examples.................................................................................................. 132 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 133 Points to remember............................................................................................ 133 Multiple choice questions.................................................................................. 134 Answers.......................................................................................................... 137 Questions............................................................................................................. 138 Key terms............................................................................................................. 139
- 20. xvi 7. IoT and Business...................................................................................................... 141 Structure............................................................................................................... 142 Objective.............................................................................................................. 142 Understanding IoT meaning for business....................................................... 142 IoT business models........................................................................................... 143 Components of IoT business model................................................................. 143 Types of IoT business model............................................................................ 144 Barriers........................................................................................................... 147 Ways to use IoT in business ............................................................................. 147 IoT business benefits.......................................................................................... 151 IoT business drawbacks..................................................................................... 154 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 156 Points to remember............................................................................................ 157 Multiple choice questions.................................................................................. 157 Answers.......................................................................................................... 159 Questions............................................................................................................. 160 Key terms............................................................................................................. 160 8. IoT Today and Future.............................................................................................. 161 Structure............................................................................................................... 161 Objective.............................................................................................................. 162 IoT today.............................................................................................................. 162 IoT in future......................................................................................................... 163 Future opportunities in IoT............................................................................... 165 Across industries............................................................................................ 165 Technologies.................................................................................................... 167 Future challenges for IoT................................................................................... 169 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 173 Points to remember............................................................................................ 174 Multiple choice questions.................................................................................. 174 Answers.......................................................................................................... 175 Questions............................................................................................................. 176 Key terms............................................................................................................. 176
- 21. xvii 9. IoT and Security....................................................................................................... 177 Structure............................................................................................................... 177 Objective.............................................................................................................. 178 Understanding IoT security.............................................................................. 178 IoT security challenges....................................................................................... 179 Need for security................................................................................................ 183 Basic security requirements for IoT................................................................. 185 Security requirements defined by the ETSI.................................................... 187 IoT security standards........................................................................................ 189 User group needs to follow the IoT standards................................................ 189 Committees and groups that design standards and codes of practices........... 190 Government regulations................................................................................. 192 IoT security architecture.................................................................................... 193 Stage 1 security - layer of sensors and actuators............................................ 194 Stage 2 security - layer of gateways and networks......................................... 195 Stage 3 security - layer of analytics and data service management............... 196 Stage 4 security - layer of interaction via applications.................................. 196 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 198 Points to remember............................................................................................ 198 Multiple choice questions.................................................................................. 199 Answers.......................................................................................................... 201 Questions............................................................................................................. 201 Key terms............................................................................................................. 202 10. IoT Projects................................................................................................................ 203 Structure............................................................................................................... 203 Objective.............................................................................................................. 204 Understanding IoT project concept.................................................................. 204 Mandatory blocks of IoT project..................................................................... 204 Relationship with IoT applications and IoT project....................................... 205 Existing IoT projects........................................................................................... 206 Trendy IoT projects and ideas........................................................................... 211 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 214 Points to remember............................................................................................ 214
- 22. xviii Multiple choice questions.................................................................................. 215 Answers.......................................................................................................... 216 Questions............................................................................................................. 216 Key terms............................................................................................................. 216 Index....................................................................................................................217-224
- 23. Basics of IoT 1 Chapter 1 Basics of IoT The first chapter is all about the basics of the Internet of Things (IoT). It would cover all basic requirements for learning and understanding of IoT. It will explain the actual meaning of IoT before discussing any other topics. Various developments had been done in the past. So, the chapter briefly describes the history of IoT. The chapter discusses various names of IoT given by researchers. The word “Things” is the foundation of IoT, and it is necessary to understand the meaning of this word. The chapter will explore the different needs of IoT. Various technologies are enabling IoT, which would be also discussed in IoT. Currently, everyone is using IoT differently for doing different works. For instance, people use smartwatches for various purposes. A smartwatch is a popular example of IoT. People are only using it and are unaware of its meaning. A piece of sound knowledge and sufficient information about any technology helps anyone to use it properly. Some people do not have much knowledge about technologies, so this chapter would help them to obtain the basic knowledge of technologies and IoT. This chapter would also help students to get core knowledge of the IoT. Structure In this chapter, we will discuss the following topics: • Introduction to IoT
- 24. 2 IoT for Beginners • Definitions • History of IoT • Various names of IoT • Understanding Things in IoT o Meaning of Things o Features of Things • Need of IoT • IoT-driven technologies Objective After studying this unit, you will be able to understand the meaning and concept of IoT. You will learn from the existing definitions of IoT and get some insights from history. You will also understand the word Thing and its importance in IoT. You will be able to describe the need of IoT and understand the technologies that drive IoT. Introduction to IoT The IoT stands for “Internet of Things” which simply says that everything depends on the Internet from building applications to execute it for some purposes. The IoT is not a single technology; instead, IoT is embedded with multiple systems, network products, sensors, and interconnecting devices. IoT refers to a concept that connects all these devices and systems through the Internet. It uses these intelligent systems and connected devices for collecting data and leveraging it for the execution of required operations. The different actuators, physical objects, and embedded sensors help in data collection and sharing data. IoT includes all things connected to the Internet and establishes communication with each other. IoT made it easy to collect information, analyze it, build the plan, and execute it to complete a task and help someone in learning. IoT is permitting all devices to make a connection with others on private Internet or intranet connections. IoT is removing the distance between the different types of networks. It is forming and building a more connected world by integrating the automated systems and connected devices. Internet-based protocols and information sensing equipment have been used for sharing information. This thing enables us to achieve monitoring, smart recognition, positioning, administration, and tracing. Withtheavailabilityandomnipresenceofinexpensivecomputerdevicesandwireless networks, it becomes possible to do any development into IoT. By connecting the different objects, adding network devices and sensors to them, IoT is converting
- 25. Basics of IoT 3 dumb devices into real ones. IoT is bringing a new level of digital intelligence that does not need any kind of human intervention. Let us understand the IoT with an example IoT is converting a common physical object to an IoT device with the help of the Internet that controls that object. A toy that sounds like a real animal, driverless truck, smart toasters, and remote toy car are popular examples of IoT devices. These devices are doing everything on their own. The smart TV that could be control and switch using smartphone apps, AC that uses remotes, and so on are other examples of IoT devices. People are using all these devices in their life. Different smaller IoT components are making larger IoT components, such as a traffic management system embedded with sensors and trackers for effective management of traffic. Note: The main concept of IoT is to add some kind of sensor and intelligence to any device or object. The IoT is a coalition of the Internet, intelligence, and sense. Figure 1.1 shows many examples of IoT around us. For instance, Assistance Speaker is an IoT-based device. Amazon’s Alexa and Google’s voice assistant are the best examples of the assistance speakers: Figure 1.1: Internet of Things
- 26. 4 IoT for Beginners It should be noted that IoT collects data for specific purposes that are useful for implementing any work. Since IoT needs the Internet for connecting devices, it does not mean that it can download any data. For instance, the healthcare profession uses data from smart IoT healthcare devices and uses it during the medication process. Even near about 35% of US manufacturers use smart sensors and collect data from these sensors. They use these data to increase production efficiency and cutting down waste. A new IoT device, Concrete Sensor has been developed, that could be inserted into the concrete. The device helps in providing data related to the material’s condition. Note: The computer is only an electronic device, and it is not an IoT device. It is because every device that has an internet connection or can establish communication with the network automatically does not come under IoT devices. Even, the smartphone is also not considered as IoT device. IoT is permitting business organizations, institutes, and the government to rethink the method that delivers products and services to common people for making them better. IoT has the potentials to make it more efficient and save a large amount of money and time. The first users of IoT are those who are seeking changes in their lifestyles through utility tools. After that, the second users of IoT are those who are seeking security. Note: It is predicted by the national intelligence that in the future, IoT would also play a role in intelligence services to support the identification of issues, surveillance, monitoring the objects, location tracking, obtaining user credentials, acquiring access to the network. Definitions The definition defines the meaning of the particular term, concept, device, and anything through words. It helps people to understand the required thing. Thus, it is also necessary to understand the meaning of IoT through its definitions. IoT becomes a popular technology trend across the world. Despite the huge development of IoT, there is no single universal definition of the word, IoT has been existing. The book is sharing a simple definition of IoT, “IoT is a digital connection of devices and objects that are embedded with the internet, sensors, and intelligence for establishing communication with people or other IoT-based objects.” Various software development companies, their executives, business groups, and technology experts defined the IoT in different ways. They are promoting the specific views and meaning of IoT and its characteristics through different definitions. Some definitions of IoT define only the basic concept, whereas some definitions define meaning through characteristics.
- 27. Basics of IoT 5 Here are some definitions of IoT: According to Oxford Dictionaries “The Internet of Things is a noun and refers to an interconnection via the internet of computing devices embedded in everyday objects, enabling them to send and receive data.” Oxford considered the Internet as an element of the IoT. According to Internet Engineering Task Force (IETE) “Smart object networking is IoT and here smart objects have constraints such as memory, limited power, processing resources and bandwidth.” IETE defined that they are organizing specific requirements for achieving network interoperability among different smart objects. According to Alexandra Deschamps-Sonsion, founder of Design- swarm “The Internet of things defines the potential new business service, products and interactions offered by embedding hardware technologies and connectivity (web/mobile/radio) in previously unconnected physical products & spaces.” According to Dr. Mazlan Abbas, CEO of REDtone IoT “The ultimate goal of IoT is to automate your digital lifestyle and propel your business.” According to Jessica Groopman, Research Director, and Principal Analyst, Harbor Research “The interconnection and interaction of the digital and physical worlds, wherein uniquely identifiable embedded technology connects and integrates physical things (that is, objects, people devices, machines, infrastructure, systems, and so on) to information networks via existing and emerging Internet infrastructure. Put simply, IoT is a platform for connecting people,objects,andenvironmenttoinformandenablevisibility,interactions,andinnovation.” All these different definitions are describing the various scenario in which object connection, network connectivity, and capability of computing is extended to the configuration of diverse objects, devices, physical elements, and sensors that are not considered as computers. All these are pointing only to one thing that is to permit data sharing, generation, and consumption without much human intervention. It is emphasizing the different aspects of IoT. It is also to highlight that IoT is all about the capabilities of remote data collection, research, analysis, and management. History of IoT Everycomputer,whetheritisalaptop,mobile,ortablet,requiresachipforprocessing. Earlier, the big size of the chips had been used. Now, it has been replaced by a small
- 28. 6 IoT for Beginners chip for establishing effective communication. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags played a critical role in discovering the IoT term. RFID tags are nothing but low-power chips that establish communication wirelessly. The availability of wireless networking, broadband internet connections, cellular, and so on and its integration with RFID tags made wireless communication successful. The arrival of Internet Protocol (IPv6) supported the IoT in providing services. In 1999, Kevin Ashton, a British technology pioneer, used the word, “Internet of Things” to describe a system that could connect the objects via the Internet and sensors in the physical world. Kevin Ashton was working in Procter & Gamble Company and part of Supply Chain Management. He discovered the word IoT after realizing the power of RFID tags that were used in Supply Chain Management at that time. The RFID tags are used for connecting the supply chain to the Internet for counting tracking the good without taking the help of a human being. Ashton thought about the concept of connecting the objects using sensors after watching this. In this way, the word IoT came into existence. Integrating RFID tags into heavy and expensive equipment is the first IoT application for helping in the tracking of goods. Other researchers and technology experts discussed bringing the concept of sensors and intelligence in connecting objects so they automatically share data during the 1980s and 1990s. The reduction in the prices of internet connection and development cost of sensor integration cleared that in the future the intent would be an inexpensive method for connecting objects. The IoT was invented in 1999 to promote RFIT chips in communication. The popularity of IoT started in 2010 and acquired a huge market at the beginning of 2014. Table 1.1 is briefly describing how IoT become popular until 2014: Year Major developments 2000 • Announcement of Internet Refrigerator planning by LG 2002 • David Rose and friends introduced the Ambient Orb device that looks like a ball for monitoring information such as weather, personal portfolios, and many more 2003–2008 • Different publications such as Scientific American, Guardian and groups like International Telecommunication Union, the European Union used IoT as book title and published report. Companies initiated various small projects such as Cooltown, Internet0, Nabaztag, and so forth 2009 • It was born year of the IoT as things such as tablets, smartphones, laptops, other similar devices started connecting with the Internet
- 29. Basics of IoT 7 2010 • Various incidents have become the reason behind the popularity of the IoT. For instance, information escaped that the Street View service of Google took 360-degree pictures, and the company collected thousands of data from the WiFi network of common people. This thing brought some misunderstandings that Google started a new strategy for increasing the web index • Wen Jiabao, Chinese Premier of China considered the IoT as a key industry. He created plans for different investments 2011 • A famous market research company, Gartner brought a hype- cycle for the latest technologies. Through this, Gartner started the use of IoT in developments • IPv6 protocol launched that encouraged the further development of IoT. Famous companies like IBM, Cisco, developed educational and marketing IoT initiatives • Hardware platforms like Arduino provided platforms for developing IoT projects based on DIY 2012–2014 • Multiple famous companies, such as Wired, Forbes, started publishing articles or other content related to IoT. The LeWeb, Internet Conference of Europe, used the IoT as the theme for the conference • Different companies published a report that IoT would acquire about $9 trillion markets in 2020. The present year is 2020 that already proved that IoT would take place in every field • Google declared the purchasing of Nest for $3.2 billion when IoT took place in the mass market in 2014. The Consumer Electronics Show also uses the IoT for their show, which was held in Las Vegas Table 1.1: History of IoT After 2014, the development of IoT quickly took place. The arrival of advanced technologies in each year changed the trends of IoT development between 2015 and 2019. Many IoT devices, projects, and applications have been developed in these 5 years. Multiple software development companies, business organizations, and individuals are bringing new IoT trends and projects to fulfill different purposes. According to them, in future, wireless communication, digital sensing, intelligence, and processing capabilities would be embedded into common objects and will convert them into IoT-based objects. The new paradigm of IoT and its collaboration with cloud computing will bring smart devices for collecting and processing
- 30. 8 IoT for Beginners data. As a result, humans and machines, both will be able to act and take action automatically. Even after the evolution of IoT in the last many years, it is found that IoT is still in its emerging stages. There is no doubt that IoT is addressing things and creating a dynamic network around the globe. It will not stop and will grow every year. A famous tech analyst company, ITC, already predicted that, till 2025, there would be 41.6 billion connected IoT devices or things. The largest opportunity industries would be automotive and industrial equipment to leverage IoT things. Gartner also predicted that these industries would receive near about 5.8 billion devices till 2020. TrendMicro predicted that the rapid development of big data analytics and increased use of Internet protocols would connect near about 20.5 billion devices to the IoT by 2020. Understanding Things in IoT The IoT consists of four primary components, including Thing, Internet, Network, and Cloud. The Thing in IoT refers to the objects which are connected to the Internet. In simple words, any kind of physical, real, digital, and virtual entity is known as a thing with respect to IoT. The main function of the thing is to describe all possible capabilities of the IoT. Things are used for expressing the IoT concepts. Just like different definitions of IoT, the definition of “Things” is also wide. All physical components and personal objects such as television, bulb, and fridge are some examples of things in IoT. In any kind of embedded system, things perform the data transmission to establish user interaction and controlling devices across the network. Meaning of Thing The thing is any device, machine, computer, application, physical object, virtual object, or other objects that could be connected with the Internet. The thing should have capabilities for creating, requesting, accessing, forwarding, and consuming digital information. Thing provides storage identification information, collects and processes information, establishes communication, and performs controlling. The smart object is another name of Thing in IoT. The smart object includes all types of everyday physical things that are embedded by the electronic device for providing Internet connectivity and local intelligence. Smart objects contain all features that should be present in the Thing of IoT. The unique identifier, group of physical features, sensing and storing measurements, trigger actions, general computing capabilities are major features of the smart objects.
- 31. Basics of IoT 9 Features of Thing A thing in IoT possesses many features. Each feature defines a specific property of the thing. The following points are describing the features: • Identification: The primary characteristic of the thing is identification. This means the thing must have an identification feature to verify the communication. This feature has been introduced in the initial development of the IoT when RFID tags were used to create unique identification. At the time,thelocation-specificitemwasusedtoverifythecommunicationbetween things. Thus, RFID tags played a major role in enabling object identification. Automatic identification technologies are the base of IoT Smart objects. Athingmusthavenumbers,addresses,ornamestocompletetheidentification process. Since numerous objects communicate through the Internet hence any kind of identification ensures the reliability of those objects.An electronic tag, printed label, and the hard-coded serial number could be used for the identification of the things in IoT. • Tracking: In IoT, the Internet is the medium through which thousands of objects are connected for making the communication. No one is aware of the exact address or location of the objects. Thus, the object or thing must enable with a tracking feature. Developers can track the objects and their locations. The property must be present in the movable thing that provides physical location and individual history information. Embedded geolocation devices or other similar devices could be used for a precise physical location. These can easily interact and communicate with other things of the IoT project. • Sensing: A thing must have a sensing feature for collecting data from the respective environment. The sensor is a significant component of the IoT. It enables this feature in the IoT devices. Even ITU named the sensors as, “feeling things”. The sensing feature provides the environment and current status information about the thing. The sensors should have to use cloud- based storage services for acquiring the data from the current state of IoT devices. • Processing or intelligence: This feature performs data processing and commands execution. The intelligence feature makes the IoT devices to smart devices. It is a kind of embedded processing of autonomy. Availability of the programming languages, communication protocols, and standards are creating IoT devices with different data coding. Thus, interoperability is a must in IoT devices. The plug and play feature enables this feature in the devices. • Actuation/remote controlling: It is another feature of the thing for controlling the devices across the Internet. The actuator enables this feature. Thing
- 32. 10 IoT for Beginners uses the sensed data for remote control of the devices. The feature defines the fundamental process of automation. Using this feature, the object can remotely control the devices for changing the environment. All these features are abstracted into the devices. They are having at least one of these features is compulsory to become part of any IoT project. These features can also categorize the thing into different categories—for instance, smart objects, data objects, tractable objects, and interactive objects. Various names of IoT It is a fact that IoT is taking place in different sectors. Various applications have been developed. This diversity brought the different names of IoT. These names are a little different in meaning such as, Web of Things, Industry 4.0, Intelligent Systems, Pervasive Computing, Smart System, Industrial IoT, and Machine to Machine communication. Cisco and Intel are using words, Internet of Everything and Embedded Internet respectively to call IoT. The following points are describing various names of IoT: • IoT as Web of Things/WoT: This name came when things are converted into web-present. It is done either through embedding with a web server or hosting a web presence within a web server. Sun Microsystem’s Project, JXTA gave this name to IoT and described the set of protocols for creating applications. An architecture of web-based IoT has been proposed by integrating into as a part of the Web and HTTP protocol. • IoT as Wisdom Web of Things/W2T: This name is used for representing the intelligence and creating the knowledge from the collected data. Here, wisdom is describing that the device is itself aware and can provide accurate services on time for the right objects. • IoTasFutureInternetofThings/FIoT:Thisnamecameafterthedevelopment of the IoT using innovative technologies, extracting data from sensors, and transforming it into appropriate knowledge. Here, the word future Internet is representing that use IoT for referring to the future application, which are accessible via the Internet. • IoT as Agents of Things/AoT: Researchers brought this name for removing the impact of IoT limitations with respect to intelligence. An AoT must have an intelligence capability, critical thinking, and internal reasoning. It enables the devices to interact with other devices or objects automatically. • IoT as Cognitive Internet of Things/CIoT: It is used while intelligence has been added to the IoT devices for improving its performance and obtaining intelligence. CIoT-based devices can explain the existing business types
- 33. Basics of IoT 11 and networks. It performs analysis using knowledge and builds intelligent decisions. It can easily control actions within the device to fulfill all types of requirements. • IoT as Social Internet of Things/SIoT: This name is given to IoT for describing the social relationship among objects. The Social Network of Intelligent Objects is the core theme behind this name. • IoT as the Internet of People: When people started become part of the Internet and intelligent network for establishing, interacting, and sharing information, then this name was used for representing the IoT. • IoT as Cyber Physical System/CPS: This name came due to the major influence of the real-time, embedded, and distributed sensors system. The integration of this kind of system, which are embedding various computers and networks for processing, monitoring, and controlling the physical processes, is generating the sensing. • IoT as Industrial Internet of Thing/IIoT: This name came when IoT projects were developed for manufacturing industries. IIoT is a fourth industrial revolution that is using IoT techniques in the industry business. IoT started connecting the devices and objects in plants, process controls, and dispatch centers. General Electric proposed this name. European initiatives started to use the name Industry 4.0 in place of IIoT. Thus, it is also known as Industry 4.0. The main objective of the IIoT is to use the sensors, big data, wireless networks, artificial intelligence, big data, analytics, cloud, and other technologies for measuring and optimizing the processes. The cost savings, enhancing workforce productivity, and generating revenue are primary purposes for bringing IIoT in businesses. Building things to smart such as ‘smart manufacturing,’ ‘smart digital supply chain,’ ‘smart power grids,’ and ‘smart logistics’ are the main uses of the IIoT. All these names are describing a different meaning of IoT. The developers and researchers kept the name based on research work. For instance, the increased use of IoT by common people brought the name “Internet of People”. Currently, major names have been discussed that came into existence until last year. In the future, we will get other new names of IoT. Need of IoT The main aim of the IoT is to enhance internet connectivity and establish communication. The IoT is bringing IoT devices to make the life of humans easy. It is encouraging toward building complete internet infrastructure. It is trying to bring automation in all areas of life and works. IoT has the objective of connecting objects for making interactions with each other. The following points are discussing the need for IoT:
- 34. 12 IoT for Beginners • Monitoring and Management of Infrastructure/Environment: Any kind of infrastructure and environment consists of various elements and processes. It includes not only the physical environment but also the virtual environment. For instance, the physical environment consists of buildings, factories, railways, bridges, towers, and many more that might bring risks in lack of monitoring and ineffective management. Similarly, the virtual environment is referring to the world of the internet and social media platforms where everyone is sharing different personal and official data with the world. Lack of monitoring the web activities are causing security issues in front of individual and organization. Thus, this kind of infrastructure and environment requires monitoring or management tools to avoid problems. IoT has already developed many devices for monitoring activities on social media platforms. IoT users can track the data and prevent its misuse. It brought devices for monitoring the environment that can predict any natural incident occurrence and supports in prior planning to prevent losses. These devices have capabilities to check and track the quality of goods. This thing helps people to replace the goods at the right time. • Cost and time reduction due to automation in every field: Nowadays, organizations and individuals are seeking for automation in their working place and house. This automation is saving the cost and time of human beings. For instance, industries are taking the help of humans to investigate the product qualities to obtain the optimized output. This thing is not only reducing costs but also saving time. They can utilize that cost in other investments. Industries and manufacturing units are seeking the quality of the products for obtaining the optimized marketing strategy. Healthcare, energy, automobile, and transportation, and other similar fields require tools and devices that help in the automation of their complex business processing. All these fields also realized the monitoring within their working environment without the help of a human. To fulfill these requirements, the developers brought the concept of IoT. IoT tools and devices are helping all these industries in various ways. For instance, energy management and its subsystems are using IoT devices, which are connecting those systems to the Internet and sensors. It is reducing power consumption while producing energy. Healthcare industries are utilizing IoT techniques for medication, monitoring, and controlling the health of patients. Even patients are getting applications of self-care and self- medication at the right time. Similarly, every industry is utilizing IoT and saving lots of time and money. • Effective decision making: Decision-making process is part of the business. A good decision brings positive outputs, whereas a wrong decision directly
- 35. Basics of IoT 13 impacts negatively. Organizations are seeking people who can develop strategies and make better decisions. For doing this, they need an appropriate and huge quantity of data. People are also looking for data from any device. To fulfill these needs, they need techniques like IoT that are embedded with sensors. These things would help them to acquire huge data from all diverse resources. A massive amount of data generates proper trends according to market needs. These trends are helping business organizations of various industries to make decisions to generate leads in the market. Agood decision brings interactive performance for the company. Thus, IoT becomes the indeed need of every business. • Increasing efficiency: It is already discussed that for reducing cost, money, andresources,notonlyindividualsbutorganizationsalsoneedIoT.Aproduct becomes efficient when it avoids wasted time and effort. Organizations also need devices and projects having skills to remove the overhead of times and unnecessary use of resources. IoT development fulfill these needs of the organization. It is increasing the efficiency and productivity of the business. For instance, lights that automatically turn on and off. Nowadays, most the organization, hotels, even individuals are using these lights to save costs, energy, and money. Lights automatically get off whenever someone leaves a particular room, office, or place where these lights are installed. It also reduces the electricity bills. IoTmakes connectionsamong devicesusing the Internet. The communication between machines is also increasing efficiency., organizations do not need to go anywhere for discussion. A single call with stakeholders is making reliable communication. • Quality of life: The changed lifestyle of people is demanding quality of life. Peopleareseekingtechnologiesineverytime-consumingworkorotherworks that need unnecessary efforts. The busy schedule of people is encouraging to improve their health habits, lifestyle, and wellness. For achieving all these things, people need to use the latest techniques and devices. IoT brought many devices that are helping people to track their things, manage a to-do list, turn-off lights automatically, monitoring houses, reviews health habits, and other things. Using these devices, people are improving their lifestyles and utilizing their time on other tasks. It is a fact that any technology has been discovered to fulfill a requirement. The development of IoT is capable of fulfilling it. These needs can help individuals and business leaders who are looking for automation in every work.
- 36. 14 IoT for Beginners IoT-driven technologies Technologies are the drivers for the development of different systems. The global infrastructure of the IoT enables services by connecting virtual and physical things. IoT is an aggregation of various communication technologies and interoperable information. All these technologies are enabling the things to access, process, and manage required contextual information. It also supports the privacy and security of the things in IoT. The wireless sensor network, sensors, standards, augmented intelligence, communication protocols, and augmented behaviors are the standard driving technologies. It should be considered as necessary, enabling technologies for developing IoT applications. In the last few years, various new technologies such as cloud computing, big data analytics, embedded systems, and fog computing have been developed. These technologies become part of IoT enabling technologies and supporting to bring new IoT tools for various industries. The overview of these technologies is as follows. Sensors The sensor is one of the most important IoT-driven technologies that generate the signals. A sensor refers to a physical hardware device. The main function of the sensor is to generate signals from the object, event, or physical condition. Sensors take the non-electrical signals and convert them into electrical signals. Sensors produce all types of signals, including electrical, digital, and political. The color sensor is one of the simplest examples of sensors that detect colors of the surface in the RGB scale. Another example is the Thermometer, which senses the temperature of the human body. In any kind of IoT application, sensors sense the environment to retrieve data. Differenttypesofsensorsareavailablethatcouldbeconsideredasdriventechnologies of IoT. Develop use sensors according to the need and objectives of IoT applications. For instance, a weather tracking system uses moisture, humidity, or temperature sensors that generating signals and pass them to the system. Similarly, various IoT- based security systems use a web camera as a sensor. Chapter 4 discusses the sensors, their types, influencing, and other factors related to IoT in a detailed manner. Networks/wireless sensors network The network is another primary IoT-driven technology after sensors. The main function of the network is to establish communication among the different elements of IoT. Sensors create senses that must be communicated with other devices and
- 37. Basics of IoT 15 locations to perform analysis. The network does this task by transferring data to the required place. Gateways, bridges, routers, hubs, and switches are some network devices that connect the sensors and other IoT components as per need. Like, the Internet is also a kind of network that connects the devices to the internet server. Without making a connection, it is difficult to access the Internet. After establishing a connection, the server transmits data. Another example, people use WiFi to connect their mobile phones, laptops, tablets, and other devices with the network of internet service providers. Similarly, the network plays a major role in enabling IoT services. The identification of all machines that are connected to the network is a must. Especially, find out outsource and destination are the first steps in networking. This step is also applied to the IoT. Here, a unique name is assigned to everything, which is on the IoT network. Network protocols define a set of rules for the identification of devices. IoT devices use these protocols for identification. Open and close (proprietary) are the two categories of these protocols. The open protocols should be used on those IoT devices that need scalability as it supports operating on different platforms along with heterogeneous devices. It enables IoT devices to improve their scalability feature for increasing devices as per need. The closed protocols should be used to identify and authorize devices having specific hardware and software. It offers a customization feature. Internet Protocol or IP protocol is also a required protocol for transmitting data over the network. It assigns a unique address to different devices connected to the Internet. Both versions of IP protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) are providing addressing. Two categories of network technologies are as follows: • Wired: It uses some kind of wires for making connections. It is a secure and reliable method to cover high-volume network routes. • Wireless: It does not need any kind of wire to connect the device with the network. WiFi is the best example of wireless technology. Developers chose the network technologies for IoT devices or tools according to the geographical area need to cover. The energy requirements and data transfer rates must also consider during network technology selection. Table 1.2 is describing three types of coverage with appropriate technologies for IoT:
- 38. 16 IoT for Beginners Distance coverage Suggested technologies Short distance (room) Wireless Personal Area Network (PAN) technologies (Bluetooth) Wired connections technologies (USB) Medium distance Wired and wireless Local Area Network (LAN) technologies (Ethernet, Fiber optics, WiFi) Large distance (city) Wide Area Network (WAN) technologies (Routers) Table 1.2: Distance coverage with suggested technologies Table 1.3 is describing the data transfer rate of some technologies that are mostly used in IoT: Technology Data transfer rate (bit per second or milliseconds – (ms)] Bluetooth classic Up to 2.1 Mbps and 22.5 ms for Bluetooth Classic Bluetooth Low Energy 260 Kbps, 0.6 to 1.2 ms WiFi 10 ms WiMax 1 1 Gbps Long Term Evolution (LTE) 300 Mbps LTE-Advance (LTE-A) 1 Gbps Table 1.3: Data transfer rate of technologies A brief description of wireless network technologies would help the readers to understand how it is playing a critical role in the development of the IoT. Standards Standard refers to a concept that measures the quality of a system. It is a kind of technical document that defines various definitions, rules, and guidelines to accomplish some specific task. For instance, the security system requires following certain rules for capturing data in a particular place. Thus, standards play a critical role in the IT industry. Every tool, system, or application must have to follow appropriate standards. Various communities provided definitions of standards differently. For example, International Standard Organization (ISO) defined standard as “A standard is a document that provides requirements, specifications, guidelines, or characteristics that can be used consistently to ensure that materials, products, processes, and services are fit for
- 39. Basics of IoT 17 their purpose.” Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Standards Association defines several standards for IoT development. Microsoft developed a system and standard for building IoT devices. The name of the device is TechCrunch. The main purpose of the system is to provide a managed central platform to set up IoT devices. According to Microsoft, it would simplify the process of IoT network development. IoT applications must have to follow these two categories of standards: • Technology standards ensure all technological requirements for IoT applications. It includes communication protocols, network protocols, and data-aggregation standards. • Regulatory standards ensure the security, privacy, and other issues within IoT applications. It focuses on regulations related to data collection and its safe use. These standards would help the developers understand the importance of required guidelines for developing IoT applications as per the needs of users. Augmented intelligence Augmented intelligence is the next driving technology of IoT that extracts insightful information from massive data. The major objective of augmented intelligence is to augment human creativity and intelligence to perform tasks quickly. Augmented intelligence is also known as intelligence augmentation. It tries to mirror the cognitive behaviors of human beings. The tools of augmented intelligence are helping industries to automate various complex works. Augmented intelligence is integrating with artificial intelligence for improving cognitive performance, decision-making, and learning. The Understanding, Interpretation, Reasoning, Learning, and Assurance are the five elements of the augmented intelligence. These elements are increasing productivity and enhancing efficiency. It is also saving time and costs. Every IoT application looks at all these things like reduced cost, saves time, and increases productivity. Thus, developers are trying to use augmentation intelligence techniques in the development of IoT tools and devices. This technique supports IoT in various ways such as extract data, clean datasets, respond to user requests, and generate predictions. Augmented behavior Augmented behavior is another concept that is driving IoT. The main concept of augmented behavior defines the output of certain actions. In other words, it generates output from every preceding stage, from data sensing to data analysis
- 40. 18 IoT for Beginners processes. It happens in the cycle and augmented behavior in the last step of the cycle. There is little difference between augmented intelligence and augmented behavior. Concerning IoT, augmented intelligence is driving informed actions whereas augmented behavior is defining observable actions. Augmented behavior could be used in IoT in various ways. Here is the two most commonly manners are as follow: • Machine-to-Machine (M2M) Interface: A kind of interface that establishes the interaction between machines using technologies. In other words, one machine can communicate with another machine for taking further actions. M2M is also considered as IoT. However, the fact is IoT is a big area of study, and M2M or other similar interfaces are just parts of this study. For instance, smart grid, automation in industries are examples of such interfaces. Machines automatically observe actions and perform designed tasks. • Machine-to-Human Interface: A kind of interface that makes the connection between users and machines. Using this interface, the machine interacts with individual users and suggests them do or not do suitable actions. This means machines can give recommendations only to end-users. Now, further actions depend on the behavior of users. Most developers used these two interfaces for implementing augmented behavior. Both are very simple to apply on IoT devices. Cloud computing CloudcomputingisthenextlatesttechnologythatisdrivingtheIoT.Cloudcomputing is taking place in every industry due to its unique features. The foundation of cloud computing is the Internet that is making it the most widely used technology for building applications or systems. Technically, cloud computing is an extension of the distributed technology. Cloud computing is connecting thousands of computers via a high-speed network and providing different services using the Internet. The On- demand Service and Pay per Use are two features of cloud computing. These two things are attracting the individual and organizations to adopt cloud computing for automation of various operations. The Software As-a Service, Platform As-a-Service, and Infrastructure-as-a-Service are the three cloud computing services. All these services are related to software development,infrastructurebuilding,andusingplatformsforcreatinganapplication using the Internet. Cloud Service Provider (CSP) provides these services. Amazon, Google, IBM, and Salesforce are some popular companies that are offering cloud computing services. For instance, everyone is using Google Drive for storing data so he or she can access, edit, or modify it at any time and in any place.
- 41. Basics of IoT 19 With respect to IoT, cloud computing is playing a critical role as a data storage. It is because IoT is generating huge data and storing it into databases is not a feasible method. Thus, the IoT can integrate with cloud computing and utilize its services such as cloud storage, cloud infrastructure, and cloud platforms. For example, IoT developers can use cloud storage for storing data that are collected from sensors. According to need, they can either scale up or scale down the storage size and pay accordingly. Big data analytics The next emerging technology is big data analytics, which is driving IoT. The primary concept of big data is to identify insightful data and hidden data patterns from massive data. Every field is generating a large amount of structured and unstructured data. Effective use of the data can provide numerous benefits to everyone. Big data analytics is making it possible to analyze the data and make better decisions. Organizations were also seeking intelligent business solutions through the latest technologies. Big data analytics and IoT are two different concepts. However, their integration has the potential to bring numerous benefits to organizations. Data examination, finding unseen patterns and correlations, future predictions, and generating new information are some of those benefits. The competition among the business markets is influencing organizations to adopt such technologies. It is giving opportunities to developers to integrate the latest trend of data science with IoT and bring new innovative technology-based solutions for business organizations. Developers can utilize big data analytics for analyzing IoT generating data. It is a fact that IoT sensors extract a variety of data. Many developments had been happened by emerging big data with IoT devices. Still, it is in an early stage due to a big spectrum of big data analytics and IoT. Conclusion The chapter explored the different aspects of IoT fundamentals. It explained what IoT is and how it should be defined. Distinct definitions and names are available, which are discussed in the chapter. The brief history of the development of IoT is also described. The meaning and features of the word things in the IoT are discussed. At last, the chapter highlighted the needs of IoT and technologies, which are pushing IoT in a new direction. Learning elementary concepts such as meaning, needs, history, and definitions are the necessary skills to learn any new technology. The chapter helped learners obtain these skills to start acquiring various information about IoT. It would help the learners get initial insights into IoT fundamentals. It would help to understand
- 42. 20 IoT for Beginners that IoT would grow in the upcoming years for improving the lives of every human being. IoT brings a new dimension of products and services. IoT has a lot of potential for delivering solutions for improving education, health, security, energy, lifestyle, and many more aspects of the life of common consumers. IoT has many characteristics and attributes that make it a popular technology. IoT is providing many benefits to everyone, along with some drawbacks. The next chapter will explore all these characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages. Points to remember • IoT refers to a concept that connects all these devices and systems through the Internet. It uses these intelligent systems and connected devices for collecting data and leveraging it for the execution of required operations. • A toy that sounds like a real animal, driverless truck, smart toasters, and remote toy car are popular examples of IoT devices. • IoT becomes a popular technology trend across the world. Despite the huge development of IoT, there is no single universal definition of the word, “IoT” has been existing. • RFID tags that played a major role in discovering the IoT term. RFID tags are low-power chips that establish communication wirelessly. • In IoT, the thing is any device, machine, computer, application, physical object, virtual object, or other objects which could be connected with the Internet. • The wireless sensor network, sensors, standards, augmented intelligence, communication protocols, and augmented behaviors are the standard driving technologies. • A sensor refers to a physical hardware device. The main function of the sensor is to generate signals from the object, event, or physical condition. • The main function of the network is to establish communication among the different elements of IoT. • Standard refers to a concept that measures the quality of a system. It is a kind of technical document that defines various definitions, rules, and guidelines to accomplish some specific task. • In the last few years, various new technologies such as cloud computing, big data analytics, embedded systems, and fog computing have been developed. These technologies become part of IoT enabling technologies and supporting to bring new IoT tools for various industries.
- 43. Basics of IoT 21 Multiple choice questions 1. In which year, IoT word came into existence. A) 2000 B) 1999 C) 1980 D) 2010 2. Who has used the word, “Internet of Things” the first time? A) David Rose B) Wen Jiabao C) Kevin Ashton D) Tim Berners-Lee 3. RFID stands for______________. A) Radio Frequency Isolation B) Radio Frequency Identifier C) Route Frequency Identification D) Radio Frequency Identification 4. Which of the following is not an example of IoT? A) Smartphone B) Smart TV C) Alexa D) Smartwatch 5. Which of the following device monitors looks like a ball and monitors the weather or other personal information? A) Track ball B) Ambient Orb device C) Smart ball D) Tracker
- 44. 22 IoT for Beginners 6. In which year, LG announced to bring an internet refrigerator? A) 2000 B) 1999 C) 1998 D) 2001 7. Which of the following features of Thing executes commands for IoT? A) Identification B) Tracking C) Sensing D) Processing 8. The AoT stands for_____________. A) Architecture of Thing B) Agents of Thing C) Agriculture of Thing D) Asset of Things 9. Which company used the word, Internet of Everything for IoT? A) Intel B) IBM C) Cisco D) Amazon 10. Which of the following technology is support IoT in terms of ‘extracting meaningful data from collected data by sensors’? A) Cloud computing B) Big data analytics C) Artificial intelligence D) Fog computing
- 45. Basics of IoT 23 Answers 1. B 2. C 3. D 4. A 5. B 6. A 7. D 8. B 9. C 10. B Answer the following 1. What do you mean by IoT? Explain with examples. 2. Write down; at least two definitions of IoT? 3. Briefly explain the history of IoT? 4. Briefly explain how IoT came into existence. 5. Explain the meaning of Things in IoT. 6. What are the major features of the Things in IoT? 7. Write down five needs of IoT? 8. IoT has various names. List down some names with a brief explanation. 9. Explain the standard technologies which are driving the IoT? 10. Explain the latest technologies which will drive IoT in the future in various ways. 11. What do you mean by IIoT? 12. What is the major difference between WoT and W2T? 13. What is the main difference between augmented intelligence and augmented behavior? 14. What is the role of the sensor in IoT development? Explain in brief. 15. Look around yourself and list some examples of IoT devices that you are using in your daily life.
- 46. 24 IoT for Beginners Key terms • Internet: A big network of thousands of computers and other devices. • RFID tags: A low-power chip that establishes communication wirelessly. • Sensor: A device that senses the electronic signals. • Actuator: A kind of device for controlling the devices across the Internet. • Protocol: A set of rules and guidelines to accomplish a particular task. • Cloud: A distributed network that connects thousands of computers over a high-speed network such as the Internet.
- 47. Characteristics and Benefits 25 Chapter 2 Characteristics and Benefits Each technology has its features and attributes. The attributes help to understand the advantages of those technologies. In the previous chapter, multiple aspects of IoT have been covered. This chapter will explore the further concepts since IoT is a big word and consists of various attributes. Thus, the main purpose of the chapter is to explore the major features and characteristics of the IoT. The chapter would also discuss the advantages that IoT is providing to people, business organizations, and societies. Every technique has some positive aspects and some negatives aspects; thus, the chapter would also discuss the negative sides and disadvantages of the IoT. Every learner always looks to find out information about the attributes and features of any technology after acquiring the basic concepts such as meaning, definitions, and needs. These features help to find out more information about that technology. It becomes easy to differentiate technology from other technologies. The knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of the IoT is a must before learning its detailed concepts. It will help students and other groups of readers to understand that IoT has a lot of potentials that are making it essential day by day. The lack of information about the negative side of technology may bring some misconceptions about technology. Therefore, it is essential to obtain both the positive and negative sides of IoT and other technologies.
- 48. 26 IoT for Beginners Structure In this chapter, we will discuss the following topics: • IoT characteristics • IoT advantages • IoT disadvantages • IoT for the non-technical group of people Objective After studying this unit, you will be able to understand the major characteristics of IoT and describe the advantages and disadvantages of IoT. You will also learn how IoT is also good for the non-technical group of people. IoT characteristics The characteristics define a distinct attribute of any object, technology, or person. All these elements consist of multiple characteristics for describing their uniqueness, which make them different from others. IoT describes a network for connecting elements to the Internet. IoT transmits information to get success in smart recognitions. IoT has some preliminary characteristics which are required to be understood. They are as follows: • Interconnectivity: This characteristic says that the elements are connected to establish communication or to do any other work. Interconnectivity is one of the most important characteristics of the IoT that defines that every object (things) within IoT is connected with other objects. The interconnection between the IoT objects enables communication between them. IoT could be interconnected with the communication infrastructure. The interconnectivity also enables the accessibility of the network and compatibility for acquiring and creating data. Most of the time, internet connectivity is available within the IoT systems. Developers could use some devices such as a hub, access point, and smartphone for IoT connectivity. The different objects of IoT devices can easily interact with other objects and rely on them because all are placed in one single place. The lack of interconnection among objects might bring difficulty during the analysis. All types of IoT devices must have this characteristic. • Miscellaneous services using things: The previous chapter discussed that things are the critical components of IoT. Things are the base of every IoT device and are responsible for providing different types of services. IoT has
- 49. Characteristics and Benefits 27 capabilities to offer miscellaneous services to users. Some rules must be followed while using things in IoT and providing services to the end-users. Data privacy and consistency between physical and virtual things, and security are the major constraints. IoT fulfils all these constraints whenever any device has been developed. For instance, IoT devices designed for the healthcare industry offer various services such as medical diagnosis, tracking medicines, and many more. • Heterogeneity: It defines a quality that comprises elements that are different from each other. Even after the dissimilarities among elements, the feature brings uniqueness in any device to achieve some desired output. IoT technology follows a heterogeneous characteristic as it supports different programming languages, development platforms, hardware, and networks. Developers can build different types of IoT devices using these heterogeneous tools and techniques. The different devices within IoT can easily communicate with other devices. For instance, the sensor is the main component that is used for sensing. In contrast, software is another different component, but in IoT, both are dependent on each other. Different networks are also used in IoT that connect the devices to various platforms. • Enormous scale: Scalability is a necessary feature of any technology. Lack of this feature within technology might impact the performance of the IoT- based systems. The scalability characteristic of the IoT permits to increase the number of devices or tools according to the requirements. It is necessary to take care that the number of devices that are required to manage and interact with each other would be greater than those devices connected to the present Internet. This thing efficiently supports the scalability of the technology.Also, scalability requires that data must be collected and managed appropriately. The scalability of the devices does not impact the meaning of data. • Safety: Developers and designers of the IoT systems always take care of the safety while building any IoT device or system. The safety feature ensures that the system can handle different types of risks and issues, which might cause problems for the users and developers. Since the IoT system and device consists of many things such as network, data, and other physical components. Thus, the safety feature should protect the personal data along with the physical safety of devices, networks, and other end-points of IoT systems. A secured paradigm within the IoT system is designed in a way so it could be scaled in the future as per the requirements. • Sensing: Sensor is a critical component of the IoT. It implements sensing to understand the requirements of the users. The sensing characteristic enables us to build IoT products and systems for creating experiences that directly influence the end-users. The feature is necessary for acquiring analogue data from the users and converting them into suitable forms. The native
- 50. 28 IoT for Beginners supports in the monitoring, tracking, and measuring the various activities and interactions with IoT devices. It is this attribute that relays and broadcast information to users. • Dynamic changes: Any IoT-based system and devices could be changed at any time as per the requirement of the users. Even a specific state of devices could also change dynamically. For instance, at one time, the device could be connected, whereas another time, the device could be disconnected. According to the location and speed of the IoT devices, changes can be made. • Quality and energy: Every user seeks quality in any technology product. The diverse environment and changes in the weather require that every device in the IoT operates properly without impacting its working. Only the high qualities of the IoT devices can make them reliable. The energy is the essence of making the device executable. In other words, no one can dream of a life without energy. The power efficiency, energy-efficient, and charging infrastructure are mandates for building and designing the IoT system. The following Figure 2.1 summarizes all these characteristics graphically: Figure 2.1: IoT Characteristics These design characteristics help the IoT developers to develop a reliable IoT system. Thus, all these features must be considered in IoT products and devices. All these characteristics must be taken care of during the designing of the IoT products. Developers require to follow it during the designing period.
- 51. Characteristics and Benefits 29 IoT advantages IoT is virtually connecting everything to the Internet. These characteristics support the advantages and benefits of the IoT. Understanding the benefits is essential for learning the concept of IoT. The following are some points that describe the benefits of IoT for every group: • Automation: Developers brought the concept of IoT to automate things and objects, which has become its biggest advantage. Automation defines a process that automates various business operations. IoT devices have features that not only connect the physical objects but also control those objects. All these automations are happening in the wireless infrastructure and without human intervention. For instance, a thermometer is a common example of an IoT device that automatically measures the body temperature whenever a human uses it. The IoT device automatically controls and communicates with the human. All these reduce the cost and time. • Communication: It is another benefit of IoT, which permits the users to communicate with anyone without any help. The IoT establishes communications among products and devices. In simple words, IoT is encouraging the interaction and communication between the M2M communication. One physical machine can connect with another physical device in a few seconds. Reliable communication also brings transparency to the users, along with quality. • Monitoring: It is very difficult to monitor everyone or any object. Currently, many organizations are permitting their employees to remote work. Even freelancers are working remotely. Such kind of conditions requires using some specific products which can monitor activities, tasks, and own work. IoT products and systems are providing facilities that easily monitor various kinds of activities. Organizations can use IoT devices to monitor the employees’ activities in remote areas.Another example, any retail business or manufacturer can also monitor their product sales, qualities, and availability within the warehouse. Individuals can use the tools to monitor his or her activities related to personal health, working hours, and multiple daily routine tasks. Thus, monitoring becomes easy with the arrival of IoT devices and techniques. • Reduced cost and money: It is a known fact that automation of every process automatically reduces the time and cost of everything. IoT helps in saving a lot of money, which can be used for completing tedious jobs such as monitoring, automation, security, and other similar work. Simple IoT devices are making it possible to utilize time and money to complete tasks effectively. For instance, when IoT devices did not exist, people visited hospitals for
- 52. 30 IoT for Beginners daily routine check-ups or other medical consultancies. Sometimes, it took a large amount of money and time. Nowadays, various applications and smart gadgets have been developed for the healthcare industry. All these can easily interact not only with each other but also help interact with people in the healthcare industry. In other words, various types of IoT tools and devices can easily communicate with each other that yields in the reduction of cost, energy, and time. It also permits effective data sharing and translation among devices as per the need. • Improved productivity and security: Not only business organizations but also individuals are seeking to improve productivity in every aspect. IoT is helping various industries to improve business productivity through various IoT tools and techniques. It is playing a critical role in acquiring profits. IoT is offering services for employees such as just-in-training, automation, and many more, which is improving labor efficiency and increasing productivity. The enhanced productive environment is supporting to build a safe environment. IoT is leveraged with tools such as sensors, cameras, and other security devices for implementing security features and monitoring workplace activities. These security devices help to ensure the safety and security of the workplace from any security threat or attack. • Information and data collection: Digitization is increasing the value of data and information in every field. Different organizations that are working in multiple industries depend only on digital data. Collecting huge data is a challenging task, but the availability of IoT methodologies and models are making it easy. These models are designed in a way so they can easily collect any required data related to customers, sales, markets, or employees. These collected data becomes a tool for making effective business decisions for improving work patterns, quality of products, and methods of customer retention. It assists business organizations to get a high Return on Investment (ROI) from their business. • Improved quality of life: Everyone knows that technologies are improving the quality of life. IoT devices are gaining popularity because it is giving comfort and convenience to human beings in various ways. IoT has only focused on building smart devices and systems. A smart city is one of the popular examples of IoT achievement. The smart city is converting a normal city to a smart city through smart navigation, traffic system, public health system, tourism, entertainment, energy, water systems, and consumption. For instance, when IoT is used for smart city navigation through interactive kiosks, then people can easily move from one place to another place. The kiosks help people to find out streets, routes, or destinations. In this way, people do not need to spend time searching for specific buildings or locations. The smart navigation system reduces the time of people, which
- 53. Characteristics and Benefits 31 can be invested in other activities. In this way, all types of smart things are improving the lives of human beings. The following Figure 2.2 summarizes all the advantages in one place. It will help readers to remember it easily: Figure 2.2: IoT Advantages The discussed points highlight the common advantages of IoT. Every industry or individual would get these things after IoT adoption. Along with this, some specific industries such as healthcare is getting some additional benefits such as improved medical treatment procedures, remote monitoring of patients, and accessibility of medical / healthcare data. Chapter 6 will discuss the detailed description of the smart city and other IoT applications. IoT disadvantages IoT is providing various benefits to all industries and common people. Still, some issues have been found which are happening due to the connected devices across the Internet. The following are some drawbacks of IoT: • Compatibility: At present, diverse technologies, devices, and gadgets are available. Developers use programming languages accordingly or as per the need for developing IoT devices. They are trying to develop devices in
- 54. 32 IoT for Beginners such a way that they can be accessed on any platform or device. The lack of international standards of compatibility is causing issues. Without this, it is difficult to tag and monitor any IoT equipment. However, it is not a big issue and can be resolved easily. For instance, the respective developer companies can share a message to a particular device that does not require any specific standard or tool to use that device. • Security and privacy issues: Each coin has two sides. Similarly, every technology has two aspects. One aspect defines the positive, whereas another aspect defines the negative. Enhanced security is one of the advantages of IoT products. However, it is also causing security and privacy issues. Various types of IoT devices and applications collect the personal data of the end-users. All the data shared across the Internet gives opportunities to the attackers to access the data unethically. In case of data loss or unauthorized data, access might cause data privacy and security issues. It could also result in not only data loss but also other losses such as financial loss. Even after providing tremendous experience to users, IoT devices are facing security concerns. The diverse network within the IoT infrastructure might cause glitches, which could bring some serious consequences. • High reliance on technology: Easy availability of the Internet, smartphones, and tools are causing high reliance on technologies. People become dependent on the technologies for their daily routine operations. Business organizations of different sectors are adopting as many technologies for the automation of their business operations. Even after the implementation of advanced security features on IoT tools and techniques, there is no specific guarantee that no error would occur. As technology is man-made, high dependency on technologies might lead to a ruinous cause of action in case of failure. There is no doubt that IoT and other technologies are making life easier. But it is also found that people are losing control over their life due to over-dependency on technologies. For instance, a medication tracking app or other similar device asks people to do these things and instructs them to avoid other things. In other words, people are taking the help of technologies for normal decisions. Also, there is a probability of losing jobs and unemployment due to automation. For instance, currently, there are multiple tools and applications available, which are helping people to consult with healthcare specialists directly. There is no need for a person to make an appointment with them. There are several examples that indicate the same thing. All these things are encouraging people to start acquiring new skills for working in a technology- based environment. • Complexity: IoT and connected devices may also bring complexity when it fails to execute some operations. Even people can also face losses due to
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- 56. the Great Western was now given to the suitable distribution of the metal.” A balanced rudder and bilge keels were parts of her original construction, and an unusual method of lapping the plates was used. “Apart from their size, the design of the engines of the Great Britain necessarily presented many peculiarities. The boilers, which were 6 in number, were placed touching each other, so as to form one large boiler about 33 feet square, divided by one transverse and two longitudinal partitions. “It would seem that the boiler was worked with a pressure of about 8 pounds on the square inch. “The main shaft of the engine had a crank at either end of it, and was made hollow; a stream of water being kept running through it, so as to prevent heating in the bearings. An important part in the design was the method by which motion was transmitted from the engine-shaft to the screw-shaft, for the screw was arranged to go three revolutions to each revolution of the engines. Where the engines do not drive the screw directly, this is now universally effected by means of toothed gearing; but when the engines of the Great Britain were made, it was thought that this arrangement would be too jarring and noisy. After much consideration, chains were used, working round different-sized drums, with notches in them, into which fitted projections on the chains.” On July 10, 1843, this (for the time) great ship was floated out of dock; but it was not until January 23, 1845, that she left Bristol for London, making on her voyage an average of 121 ⁄3 knots an hour. She left Liverpool for New York on August 26th, and arrived on September 10th, having made the passage out in 14 days and 21 hours; she returned in 151 ⁄2 days. During the next winter, after one more voyage to New York, alterations were made, to give a better supply of steam, and a new screw was fitted. She made two voyages to New York in 1846; and on September 22d she left Liverpool on a third, but overran her reckoning and stranded in Dundrum Bay, on
- 57. the northeast coast of Ireland, when it was supposed she was only rounding the Isle of Man. This unfortunate event completed the ruin of the company, already in financial straits through the competition of the Cunard line; and the ship after her rescue, effected August 27, 1847, almost a year after grounding, was “sold to Messrs. Gibbs, Bright & Co., of Liverpool, by whom she was repaired and fitted with auxiliary engines of 500 nominal horse-power. On a general survey being made it was found that she had not suffered any alteration of form, nor was she at all strained. She was taken out of dock in October, 1851, and since that time she has made regular voyages between Liverpool and Australia.” These last few lines appear in the “Life of Brunel,” published in 1870. But she was later changed into a sailing-ship, and only in 1886 stranded again at the Falkland Islands. She was floated; but being badly injured, was sold to serve as a hulk, and there no doubt will be passed the last days of what may be regarded one of the famous ships of the world. She was, for the time, as bold a conception as was her great designer’s later venture, the Great Eastern. The acceptance by the English Government of the Cunard company’s bid for the contract for carrying the mails to America resulted in putting afloat, in 1840, the Acadia, Britannia, Columbia, and Caledonia. The first vessels of the Cunard line were all wooden paddle-wheel steamers, with engines by Napier, of Glasgow, of the usual side-lever class; the return-flue boilers and jet-condensers were used, the latter holding their place for many years to come, though surface condensation had already appeared as an experiment. The company was to carry the mails fortnightly between Liverpool, Halifax, and Boston, regular sailings to be adhered to, and four vessels to be employed, for the sum of £81,000 ($400,000) per annum. The contract was made for seven years, but was continued from time to time for forty-six—no break occurring in this nearly half- century’s service, when the Umbria—November 4, 1886—was the first ship in the history of the company to leave Liverpool on the regular day of sailing for America without mails. This break,
- 58. however, was but momentary, and the line almost at once resumed its ancient duty. The Britannia was the first of the fleet to sail; and, strange to say (from the usual seaman’s point of view), Friday, July 4, 1840, was the day selected. She arrived at Boston in 14 days and 8 hours, a very successful passage for the time. It must have required considerable moral courage in the projectors to inaugurate such an undertaking on a day of the week which has been so long on the black-list of sailor superstition, notwithstanding it had the advantage of being the anniversary of the Declaration of American Independence. The success of this line ought certainly to rehabilitate Friday to a position of equality among the more fortunate days, though it will be observed that none of the transatlantic lines have yet selected it as a day of sailing. The Britannia, which was representative of the quartette, was of the following dimensions: Length of keel and fore rake, 207 ft.; breadth of beam, 34 ft. 2 in.; depth of hold, 22 ft. 4 in.; mean draught, 16 ft. 10 in.; displacement, 2,050 tons; diameter of cylinder, 721 ⁄2 in.; length of stroke, 82 in.; number of boilers, 4; pressure carried, 9 lbs. per sq. in.; number of furnaces, 12; fire- grate area, 222 ft.; indicated horse-power, 740; coal consumption per indicated horse-power per hour, 5.1 lbs.; coal consumption per day, 38 tons; bunker capacity, 640 tons; cargo capacity, 225 tons; cabin passengers carried, 90; average speed, 8.5 knots. It will thus be seen that these ships were not an advance upon the Great Western, but were even slightly smaller, with about the same coal consumption and with rather less speed.
- 59. Plan of the Hibernia and Cambria. A, saloon; B, pantry; C, centre state-rooms; D, gentlemen’s cabin; E, ladies’ cabin; S, stairs; F, wine cellar; G, G, G, goods; K, stewards’ berths in centre; H, H, coal ho’d; P, P, fore-cabin; Q, steerage; L, forecastle; R, store-room; M, mail-room; O, sail-room; V, engineers and firemen. The Hibernia and Cambria followed in 1843 and 1845, 530 tons larger in displacement, with 1,040 indicated horse-power, and steaming about 91 ⁄2 knots per hour. The plan gives an idea of these vessels which is far from fulfilling the ideas of the present Atlantic traveller, who considers himself a much-injured person if he has not electric lights and bells, baths ad libitum, and a reasonable amount of cubic space in which to bestow himself. None of the least of these existed in the earlier passenger ships; a narrow berth to sleep in and a plentiful supply of not over well prepared food were afforded, but beyond these there was little—notwithstanding the whole of the ship was given up to first-cabin passengers, emigrants not being carried in steamers until 1850, and it was not until 1853 that any steamer of the Cunard line was fitted for their accommodation. How little it was possible to do for the wanderer to Europe in those days may be seen when comparison shows the Britannia to have been but half the length of the Umbria, but two-thirds her breadth, but six-tenths her depth, with much less than half her speed, and less than one-twentieth her power. The establishment of the Cunard line marked the setting of ocean steam traffic firmly on its feet. What in 1835 had been stated by one of the most trusted scientific men of that time as an impossibility, and even in 1838 was in doubt, had become an accomplished fact; and while the proof of the practicability of the American route was making, preparations were in progress for the extension of steam lines which were soon to reach the ends of the world. A detailed statement of historic events is, of course, here out of place, but a mere mention of other prominent landmarks in steam navigation is almost a necessity. The founding of the Peninsular Company, in
- 60. 1837, soon to extend its operations, under the name of the Peninsular and Oriental, to India, and the establishment, in 1840, of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, are dates not to be passed by. The establishment of the latter line was due to one of our own countrymen—William Wheelwright, of Newburyport, who, when consul at Guayaquil, grasped the conditions of the coast, and through his foresight became one of its greatest benefactors, and at the same time one of its most successful men. He failed in interesting our own people in the venture, and turned to London, where his success was greater. The Chili and Peru, the first vessels of this now great fleet, despatched in 1840, were but 198 feet long and of 700 tons. It was not until 1868 that the line was brought into direct communication with England by the establishment of monthly steamers from Liverpool to Valparaiso, via the Straits of Magellan. They had to await the diminished fuel consumption, which the company itself did so much to bring about through compound engines and surface condensation. In the following years we ourselves were not idle. In 1843 the celebrated screw steamer Princeton—whose name is connected in so melancholy a manner with the bursting of the “Peacemaker” and the death of the then Secretary of the Navy, when he and a number of other high officials were visiting the ship—was built for the navy after Ericsson’s designs, and fitted with one of his propellers. She was 164 feet long, with 30 feet 6 inches beam, and a displacement, at 18 feet draught, of 1,046 tons. She had a very flat floor, with great sharpness forward and excessive leanness aft. She may almost be taken as representative of the later type in model. She had three boilers, each 26 feet long, 9 feet 4 inches high, and 7 feet wide, with a grate surface of 134 square feet. In 1845, Mr. R. B. Forbes, of Boston, so long known for his intimate and successful connection with shipping interests, built the auxiliary screw steamers Massachusetts and Edith for transatlantic trade. The former was somewhat the larger, and was 178 feet long and 32 broad. Her machinery was designed by Ericsson, and had 2 cylinders, 25 inches diameter, working nearly at right angles to each other. The
- 61. machinery was built by Hogg & Delamater, of New York, and had the peculiarity of having the shaft pass through the stern at the side of the stern-post, under a patent of Ericsson’s. The propeller, on Ericsson’s principle, was 91 ⁄2 feet diameter, and could be hoisted when the ship was under sail. She made but one voyage to Liverpool, and was then chartered by our Government to carry troops to Mexico, in 1846; but was later bought into the naval service and known as the Farralones. In June, 1847, the same year which witnessed the establishment of the Pacific Mail Company, the Washington, of 4,000 tons displacement, and of 2,000 indicated horse-power, was the pioneer of a line between New York and Bremen, touching at Southampton. The Hermann followed a little later, but was somewhat larger, the dimensions of the two ships being: Washington.Hermann. Total length 236 241 Beam 39 40 Depth 31 31 Their displacement was about 4,000 tons. The Franklin followed in 1848, and the Humboldt in 1850, both being a good deal larger than the two preceding. The latter two were, however, employed only between New York and Havre. In 1850 the Collins line was formed, with a large Government subsidy. In the same year the Inman line was established, with screw steamers built of iron—two differences from the prevailing construction, which were to bear so powerful an influence in a few years against the success of steamers of the type brought out by the Collins company. In 1858 came the North German Lloyd, with the modest beginnings of its now great fleet, and in 1861 the French Compagnie Transatlantique. In 1863 the National line was established; in 1866 the Williams & Guion (now the Guion), which had previously existed as a line of sailing-packets; and in 1870 the White Star.
- 62. These are those in which we are most interested, as they touch our shores; but in the interval other lines were directed to all parts of the world, few seaports remaining, of however little importance, or lying however far from civilization, that cannot now be reached by regular steam communication. The establishment of the Collins line was one of the great events of steamship history. We had been so successful upon our coasts, rivers, and lakes, that it was but natural we should make some effort to do our part with steam upon the greater field of international trade. It was impossible that the monopoly which had existed for ten years in the hands of the Cunard company should not be combated by some one, and with the advent of the Collins line came a strife for supremacy, the memories of which are still vivid in the minds of thousands on both sides of the Atlantic. The Cunard company at this time had increased their fleet by the addition of the America, Niagara, Europa, and Columbia, all built in 1848. Their machinery did not differ materially from that of the preceding ships, in general design, but there had, in the course of practice, come better workmanship and design of parts, and the boiler pressure had been increased to 13 pounds, bringing the expenditure per horse-power down to 3.8 pounds per hour. In these ships the freight capacity had been nearly doubled, fifty per cent. had been added to their passenger accommodation, and the company was altogether pursuing the successful career which was due a line which could command $35 a ton for freight from Liverpool to New York—a reminiscence which must make it appear the Golden Age to the unfortunate steamship-owner of to-day, who is now most happy with a seventh of such earnings. The Collins steamers were a new departure in model and arrangement; they were built by William H. Brown, a famous builder of the time; exceeded in size and speed anything then afloat, and reduced the journey in 1851 and 1852 to about 11 days—though some voyages were made in less than 10 days. The Cunard line put afloat the Asia and Africa as competitors, but they neither equalled
- 63. the American steamers in size nor speed. The former were of 3,620 tons displacement, with 1,000 indicated horse-power. The comparison of size between them and the Collins steamers is as follows: Length.Depth.Beam.Draught. ft. ft. in. ft. ft. in. Arctic 282 32 45 20 Asia 266 27 2 40 18 9 The three other vessels of the Collins line were the Baltic, Atlantic, and Pacific. They formed a notable fleet, and fixed for many years to come the type of the American steamship in model and arrangement. They were the work of a man of genius who had the courage to cast aside tradition where it interfered with practical purposes. The bowsprit was dispensed with; the vertical stem, now so general, was adopted, and everything subordinated to the use of the ships as steamers. But great disaster was in store for these fine ships. The Arctic, on September 21, 1854, while on her voyage out, was struck by the French steamer Vesta, in a fog off Cape Race, and but 46 out of the 268 persons on board were saved. The Pacific left Liverpool on June 23, 1856, and was never heard of after. The Adriatic, a much finer ship than any of her predecessors, was put afloat; but the line was doomed. Extravagance in construction and management, combined with the losses of two of their ships and a refusal of further aid from the Government, were too much for the line to bear, and in 1858 the end came. Ever since, the European companies, with the exception of the time during which the line from Philadelphia has been running and the time during which some desultory efforts have been put forth, have had to compete among themselves. The sworn statement of the Collins company had shown the first four ships to have cost $2,944,142.71. The actual average cost of each of the first 28 voyages was $65,215.64; and the average receipts, $48,286.85— showing a loss on each voyage of $16,928.79.
- 64. To discuss the causes of our failure to hold our own in the carrying trade of the world may seem somewhat out of place, but the subject is so interesting in many ways that a few words may not be amiss. The following is a comparative table showing the steam tonnage of the United States and of the British Empire, beginning with the year in which ocean steam navigation may be said to have been put fairly on its feet. Our own is divided into “oversea,” or that which can trade beyond United States waters, and “enrolled,” which includes all in home waters: Years United States Total British Empire (including Colonies) Oversea Enrolled 1838 2,791 190,632 193,423 82,716 1840 4,155 198,184 202,339 95,807 1842 4,701 224,960 229,681 118,930 1844 6,909 265,270 272,179 125,675 1846 6,287 341,606 347,893 144,784 1848 16,068 411,823 427,891 168,087 1850 44,942 481,005 525,947 187,631 1852 79,704 563,536 643,240 227,306 1854 95,036 581,571 676,607 326,484 1855 115,045 … … … 1856 89,715 583,362 673,077 417,717 1858 78,027 651,363 729,390 488,415 1860 97,269 770,641 500,144 500,144 It will be seen from this table how great the extension of the use of the steamboat had been in the United States in these earlier years, as compared with that elsewhere. In 1852 our enrolled tonnage had grown to more than half a million tons, or well on to three times the whole of that of the British Empire, and our oversea tonnage was about one-third of that of Great Britain and her dependencies. One reason for this very rapid increase in the enrolled tonnage was, of course, the fact that railroads had not yet begun to seam the
- 65. West, as they were shortly to do: the steamboat was the great and absolutely necessary means of transport, and was to hold its prominence in this regard for some years yet to come. When this change came, there came with it a change in circumstances which went far beyond all other causes in removing our shipping from the great place it had occupied in the first half of this century. But great as was the effect worked by this change, there were certain minor causes which have to be taken into account. We had grown in maritime power through the events of the Napoleonic wars—which, though they worked ruin to many an unlucky owner, enriched many more—as we were for some years almost the only neutral bottoms afloat; we had rapidly increased this power during the succeeding forty years, during which time our ships were notably the finest models and the most ably commanded on the seas; the best blood of New England went into the service, and one has but to read the reports of the English parliamentary commissions upon the shipping subject to realize the proud position which our ships and, above all, our ships’ captains held in the carrying trade. We had entered the steam competition with an energy and ability that promised much, but we gave little or no heed to changes in construction until long after they had been accepted by the rest of the world; and it is to this conservatism, paradoxical as the expression may seem applied to our countrymen, that part of our misfortune was due. The first of the changes we were so unwilling to accept was that from wood to iron; the other was that from paddle to screw. Even so late as the end of the decade 1860-70, while all the world else was building ships of iron, propelled by screws, some of which were driven by compound engines, our last remaining great company, the Pacific Mail, put afloat four magnificent failures (from the commercial point of view), differing scarcely in any point, except in size, from those of 1850-56. They were of wood, and had the typically national over-head beam engine. They were most comfortable and luxurious boats; but the sending them into the battle of commerce at such a date, was like pitting the old wooden three-decker with her sixty-four pounders against the active steel cruiser of to-day and her modern
- 66. guns. Many of the iron screws built at the same time are still in active service; but the fine old China, America, Alaska, and Japan are long since gone, and with them much of the company’s success and fortune. Of course, one great reason for this non-acceptance was the fact that, with us, wood for ship-building was still plentiful, and that it was cheaper so to build than to build in iron, to which material English builders were driven by an exact reversal of these conditions; and the retention of the paddle over the screw was due in a certain degree to the more frequent necessity of repair of wooden screw ships, to which it is not possible to give the necessary structural strength at the stern to withstand successfully the jarring action of the screw at high speeds. The part in advancing the British commercial fleet played by the abrogation of the navigation laws, in 1849, which had their birth in the time of Cromwell (and to which we have held with such tenacity, as ours were modelled upon theirs), need only be barely mentioned. British ship-owners were in despair at the change, and many sold off their ship property to avoid what they expected to be the ruin of the shipping trade, but the change was only to remove the fetters which they had worn so long that they did not know them as such. But the great and overwhelming cause, to which the effect of our navigation laws were even secondary, was the opening up of the vast region lying west of the earlier formed States; the building of our gigantic system of railways; the exploitation, in a word, of the great interior domain, of the possibilities of which, preceding 1850, we were only dimly conscious, and so much of which had only just been added by the results of the Mexican War. It is so difficult, from the present standpoint, to realize the mighty work which has been done on the American continent in this short space of forty years, that its true bearings on this subject are sometimes disregarded. The fact that the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, at this date, was not running its trains beyond Cumberland, Md., will give an impression of the vastness of the work which was done later.
- 67. The period 1850-60 cannot be passed over without a mention of the Great Eastern, though she can hardly be said to have been in the line of practical development, which was not so much in enlargement of hull as in change in character of machinery. Brunel’s son, in his “Life” of his father, says: “It was no doubt his connection with the Australian Mail Company (1851-53) that led Mr. Brunel to work out into practical shape the idea of a great ship for the Indian or Australian service, which had long occupied his mind.” The Great Eastern was to attempt to solve by her bulk the problem of coal capacity which was later to be solved by high pressures and surface condensation. The ship finally determined on was 680 feet long, 83 feet broad, with a mean draught of 25 feet, with screw engines of 4,000 indicated horse-power and paddle- engines of 2,600, to work with steam from 15 to 25 pounds pressure —thus curiously uniting in herself at this transition period the two rival systems of propulsion. She was begun at Millwall, London, in the spring of 1854, and was finally launched, after many difficulties, on January 30, 1858. Her history is too well known to be dwelt upon here. She has experienced many vicissitudes and misfortunes, and it is well that her great projector (who paid for her with his life, as he died the year after her launching) did not live to see her used as an exhibit, in 1886, in the River Mersey, her great sides serving to blazon the name and fame of a Liverpool clothing establishment. She was sold the next year for the pitiful sum of £8,000 and broken up. The year 1855 marks the high-water mark of the paddle-steamer era. In that year were built the Adriatic, by the Collins line, and the Persia, as a competitor (and the twenty-eighth ship of the company), by the Cunard. But the former was of wood, the latter of iron. She was among the earlier ships of this material to be built by the Cunard company, and, with the slightly larger Scotia, built in 1862, was, for some years after the cessation of the Collins line, the favorite and most successful steamer upon the Atlantic. She was 376 feet long, 45 feet 3 inches broad, and of about 5,500 tons
- 68. displacement. Her cylinders were 1001 ⁄2 inches diameter, with 120 inches stroke, and she had—as also the preceding ship, the Arabia— tubular boilers instead of the old flue. Model of the Persia and Scotia. Diagram showing Decrease in Expediture of Coal per indicated Horse-power per hour based on Good Average Practice
- 69. Diagram showing increase in Steam-pressures based on good average Practice How great an advantage she was upon their first ship will be seen by the following comparison: Britannia. Persia. Coal necessary to steam to New York 570 tons 1,400 tons Cargo carried 224 „ 750 „ Passengers 90 250 Indicated power 710 3,600 Pressure per square inch 9 lbs. 33 lbs. Coal per indicated horse-power per hour 5.1 „ 3.8 „ Speed 8.5 knots 13.1 knots Thus, for two and a half times the quantity of coal nearly three and a half times the cargo was carried, and nearly three times the number of passengers. This result was due partially to increased engine efficiency, and partially to increased size of ship; and thus to a relative reduction of the power necessary to drive a given amount of displacement. The Scotia was almost a sister ship to the Persia, slightly exceeding her in size, but with no radical differences which would mark her as an advance upon the latter. She was the last of the old régime in the Atlantic trade, and the same year in which she was built saw the complete acceptance by the Cunard company of the
- 70. newer order of things, in the building of the iron screw steamer China, of 4,000 tons displacement, with oscillating geared screw engines of 2,200 indicated horse-power, with an average speed of 12.9 knots on a daily expenditure of 82 tons of coal. She was the first of their ships to be fitted with a surface condenser. The Scotia had been built as a paddle steamer rather in deference to the prejudices of passengers than in conformity to the judgment of the company, which had put afloat iron screw ships for their Mediterranean trade as early as 1852 and 1853. The introduction of surface condensation and of higher pressures were the two necessary elements in a radical advance in marine engineering. Neither of these was a new proposal;3 several patents had been taken out for the former at a very early date, both in America and in England; and in 1838 the Wilberforce, a boat running between London and Hull, was so fitted. Very high pressures, from almost the very beginning, had been carried in the steamers on our Western waters; and in 1811 Oliver Evans published, in Philadelphia, a pamphlet dealing with the subject, in which he advocated pressures of at least 100 to 120 pounds per square inch, and patented a boiler which was the parent of the long, cylindrical type which came into such general use in our river navigation. The sea- going public resolutely resisted the change to high pressures for nearly forty years, there being a very slow and gradual advance from 1 and 2 pounds to the 8 and 9 carried by the Great Britain and Britannia. In 1850 the Arctic carried 18 and in 1856 25 was not uncommon. Some of the foremost early engineers favored cast-iron boilers (see evidence before parliamentary committee, 1817); and the boiler in general use in England up to 1850 was a great rectangular box, usually with three furnaces and flues, all the faces of which were planes.4
- 71. Longitudinal Section of the Warship Duilio. Larger image (157 kB) Though tubular boilers did not displace the flue boiler in British practice to any great degree before 1850, many examples were in use in America at that date, but chiefly in other than sea-going steamers. Robert L. Stevens, of Hoboken, built as early as 1832 “the now standard form of return tubular boilers for moderate pressures” (Professor R. H. Thurston). But it worked its way into sea practice very slowly; and the multitubular boiler, in any of its several forms, cannot be said to have been fairly adopted in either American or British sea-going ships before the date first mentioned, though employed in the Hudson River and Long Island Sound steamers, in one of the former of which, the Thomas Powell, built in 1850, a steam pressure of 50 pounds was used. The Britannic.
- 72. Larger image (112 kB) There had been this slow and gradual advance in ocean steam pressures, with a consequent reduction in coal expenditure, when in 1856 came a movement in the direction of economy by the introduction of the compound engine, by Messrs. Randolph Elder & Co. (later John Elder & Co.), which was soon to develop into a revolution in marine steam enginery. The Pacific Steam Navigation Company has the credit of first accepting this change in applying it to their ships, the Valparaiso and Inca. The original pressure used was 25 pounds to the inch: the cylinders were 50 and 90 inches in diameter, and the piston speed from 230 to 250 feet per minute. The idea of using steam expansively by this means was of course not new, as it dates back to Hornblower (1781), but with the low pressures which had been used at sea there was no reason for its adoption afloat. Difficulties were experienced by the Pacific company with their earlier engines, but the line adhered to their change, and for nearly fourteen years were almost alone in their practice. These changes made the use of a cylindrical boiler necessary, as the form best able to withstand the increased pressure. The old box- like shape has disappeared; and if the shade of Oliver Evans is ever able to visit us, it must be with an intense feeling of satisfaction to find his ideas of eighty years since now accepted by all the world. The date 1870 marks the advent of a new type of ship, in those of the Oceanic Company, better known as the White Star line, built of iron by Harland & Wolff, of Belfast—engined with compound engines, and of extreme length as compared with their breadth. They established a new form, style, and interior arrangement, which has largely been followed by other lines, though the extreme disproportion of length and beam is now disappearing. The Britannic and Germanic, the two largest of the earlier of this line, are 468 feet in length and 45 feet 3 inches in beam, carrying 220 cabin passengers and 1,100 in the steerage, besides 150 crew. They develop 5,000 indicated horse-power, and make their passage, with remarkable regularity, in about 8 days 10 hours to Queenstown. The
- 73. earlier ships of this line, when first built, had a means of dropping their propeller-shaft so as to immerse more deeply the screw; so many inconveniences, however, were associated with this that it was given up. Their general arrangement was a most marked advance upon that of their predecessors—an excellent move was placing the saloon forward instead of in the stern, a change almost universally followed. In the same year with the Britannic came out the City of Berlin, of the Inman line, for some years the largest steamer afloat (after the Great Eastern), being 520 feet in length by 44 feet beam, of 5,000 indicated power, and in every way a magnificent ship. The Bothnia and Scythia were also built in 1874, by the Cunard company, as representatives of the new type, but were smaller than the ships of the same period built by the Inman and White Star lines. They were of 6,080 tons displacement and 2,780 indicated horse-power, with a speed of 13 knots. The pressure carried was 60 pounds. These ships had by far the largest cargo-carrying capacity (3,000 tons measurement) and passenger accommodation (340 first- cabin) of any yet built by the company. With the addition of this great number of steamers, change was not to be expected for some years; and it was not until 1879, when the Guion company put afloat the Arizona, that a beginning was made of the tremendous rivalry which has resulted in putting upon the seas, not only the wonderful ships which are now running upon the Atlantic, but in extending greatly the size and speed of those employed in other service. Several things had combined in the latter part of this decade to bring about this advance. The great change between 1860 and 1872, from the causes already noted, which had reduced coal consumption by one-half, was followed by the introduction of corrugated flues and steel as a material for both boilers and hull. With this came still higher pressures, which were carried from 60 to 80 and 90 pounds. In August, 1881, a very interesting paper was read by Mr. F. C. Marshall, of Newcastle, before the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, in which he showed that a saving of 13.37
- 74. per cent. in fuel had been arrived at since 1872. The general type of engine and boiler had remained the same in these nine years, but the increased saving had been due chiefly to increased pressures. It is curious that at the reading of both the paper by Sir Frederick Bramwell, in 1872, and that of Mr. Marshall, in 1881, there should have been pretty generally expressed a feeling that something like a finality had been reached. So little was this opinion true that, though over thirteen per cent. saving had been effected between these two dates, a percentage of gain more than double this was to be recorded between the latter date and 1886. In these matters it is dangerous to prophesy; it is safer to believe all things possible. Certainly the wildest dreamer of 1872 did not look forward to crossing the Atlantic at 20 knots as a not unusual speed. The Etruria Larger image (178 kB) In 1874 triple-expansion engines had been designed for the Propontis by Mr. A. C. Kirk, of Napier & Sons, of Glasgow, which, on account of failure in the boilers which were used, did not give at first the results hoped for. In 1881 the Messrs. Napier fitted the Aberdeen with engines of the same kind, steam at 125 pounds pressure per
- 75. square inch being used. In the next two years the change proceeded slowly, but by 1885 the engineering mind had so largely accepted it that a very large proportion of the engines built in that year were on this principle, and at the present it may be regarded as being fully accepted as was the compound engine ten years since. The saving in fuel is generally reckoned at from twenty to twenty-five per cent., or, to put it more graphically, in the words of Mr. Parker, Chief Engineer Surveyor of Lloyds, in his interesting paper, read in July, 1886, before the Institution of Naval Architects: “Two large passenger steamers, of over 4,500 gross tonnage, having engines of about 6,000 indicated horse-power, built of the same dimensions, from the same lines, with similar propellers, are exactly alike in every respect, except so far as their machinery is concerned. One vessel is fitted with triple-expansion engines, working at a pressure of 145 pounds per square inch; while the other vessel is fitted with ordinary compound engines, working at a pressure of 90 pounds per square inch. Both vessels are engaged in the same trade and steam at the same rate of speed, viz., 12 knots an hour. The latter vessel in a round voyage of 84 days burns 1,200 tons more coal than the former.” In the epoch 1879 to 1887 the following great ships had been placed upon the Liverpool and New York lines, their best speeds to that date being as shown: Days.Hours.Minutes. 1. Etruria 6 5 31 2. Umbria (sister ship) slightly longer 3. Oregon 6 10 35 4. America 6 13 44 5. City of Rome 6 18 0 6. Alaska 6 18 37 7. Servia 6 23 55 8. Aurania 7 1 1 The time had thus been shortened much more than half since 1840, and had been lessened forty per cent. since 1860.
- 76. In addition to the ships mentioned, there had been placed upon the line from Bremen to New York (between 1879 and 1886) touching at Southampton, England, eight new ships of the North German Lloyd, which form 28 altogether, the most compact and uniform fleet upon the Atlantic. The Trave, Saale, and Aller, were then marvels of splendor and comfort, ranking in speed and power very little short of the fastest of the Liverpool ships. They, as were the others of the company’s eight “express” steamers, were built by the great firm of John Elder & Co., of Glasgow, their machinery being designed by Mr. Bryce-Douglas, to whose genius was also due that of the Etruria and Umbria, the Oregon, Arizona, and Alaska. The engines of the Trave, Saale, and Aller, however, were triple- expansion, as were the Gascogne, Bourgogne, and Champagne (their equals in speed and equipment), of the French Compagnie Transatlantique, which were built in France. All these steamers are of steel, with cellular bottoms carefully subdivided, and fitted with a luxury and comfort quite unknown thirty years ago. Cross-section of the Oregon.
- 77. Cross-section of the Servia.
- 78. Triple-expansion Engine of the Aller, Trave, and Saale. It was difficult, if not almost impossible, to go beyond them without a change to twin screws. If more than the Umbria’s power was to be developed it was safer to use it through two shafts, and the depth of water on the New York bar is a hindrance to the use of a much greater diameter of screw. Mr. Griscom, of Philadelphia, was the bold manager to take the first step by laying down the Inman Company’s ships in 1887, the first of which, the City of New York, was ready for trial in thirteen months after the signing of the
- 79. contract with Messrs. James & George Thompson, of Clydebank: a wonderful performance. The Teutonic and Majestic quickly after took shape in the yard of Messrs. Harland & Wolff, of Belfast, the place of birth of all of the White Star fleet. These two lines were thus the first to accept the changed conditions, and the City of New York and City of Paris of the former, and the Teutonic and Majestic of the latter, still mark the high-water mark of achievement, both as regards performance as a machine and the comfort and luxury of the passenger. The “Cities,” as they are familiarly termed, are 560 feet in length, by 63 feet broad, displace 13,000 tons, and indicate over 18,000 horse-power. The two White Stars are 582 feet long, by 57 feet 6 inches broad, of 12,000 tons displacement, and of nearly equal horse-power with their two great competitors. In less than twenty years these lines had thus nearly doubled the size of their ships, and more than tripled their power. Longitudinal Section of the Champagne. Larger image (143 kB) It may be of interest to the American public to know that the City of New York and City of Paris are but two of the largest fleet under one management on the North Atlantic. Though under one control it is under three flags—English, Belgian, and American—our own, thanks to the wisdom of Congress, covering but a small contingent, though our law-makers for several years have been besieged to allow them to become American in nationality as well as ownership. It would certainly seem that they were quite as worthy of it as some of our importations of another kind, but we shall probably have to wait for a little more breadth of thought and idea under the dome at Washington before this change can be brought about.
- 80. The building of these four ships seems to have given an impetus to the whole of the steamship world: the Hamburg-American lines started into new life with the Columbia, Normannia, Augusta Victoria, and Fuerst Bismarck, twin screws of 9,500 and 10,500 displacement, which have averaged in their best runs from New York to Southampton 19.01, 18.91, 18.31, and 19.78 knots in the order named, the distance being about 3,075 knots. The French Company has added the twin-screw Touraine of 11,675 tons and 181 ⁄2 knots sustained speed to their already splendid fleet, and the North German Lloyds have since 1887 built the Lahn, Spree, and Havel, all single screws; and the two last of 7,000 tons with 13,000 horse-power and a speed of 181 ⁄2 knots. These latter ships would probably have been twin screws had the docks of Bremerhaven afforded sufficient width of entrance; but whether this be the case or not, the probability is that in the future it will be the dock which will yield and not the ship. There is no need to make comparison of these ships in equipment. Luxury has been carried as far as the present human invention and imagination can take it. Suites for families are arranged with private sitting-rooms and private tables, so that, barring the roll so uneasy to the unhappy landsman, one could scarce know the change from the most luxurious apartment of the Brevoort. Such are the ships of to-day, but displacement from their eminence is already in discussion. The builders of the City of New York are guaranteeing a vessel to cross the Atlantic in 5 days, or at a speed of 231 ⁄2 knots, the probable elements of this projected vessel being given by Engineering as a length of 630 feet and a beam of 70, with 33,000 indicated horse-power. It is a long step, but one can hardly doubt it will soon be taken. But that this step will be greatly aided by any material change in the marine steam engine in the very near future is not probable, the difficulty is now not with the engine but with the boiler; forced draught and the higher pressures call imperatively for a new
- 81. development in the steam producer; leaky tubes and joints and a rapid deterioration through the effort to keep up the high pressures necessary for the successful performance of the new type of engine are the shortcomings which must be successfully combated before we can make another great advance. Unfortunately there is another draw-back, for which the remedy will be even more difficult, the suffering of the firemen induced by the greater heat of the higher pressures. Let us hope that genius will yet invent a mechanical stoker and that we may not of necessity subject our fellow-beings to the 140° too frequently found in our modern fire-rooms. We may fitly place here a tabulation of the very wonderful achievements of the ships first mentioned, based on official data in Engineering of June 19 and July 10, 1891, and covering, in the case of the Liverpool ships, the season of 1890, except for the City of Paris, which is for 1889. (See table on p. 45.) The coal consumption is also officially stated by the journal from which the above is compiled as follows: The City of New York, 328 tons: Teutonic, 316 tons: Etruria, 330 tons. This shows an actual expenditure of about 1.6 lb. per hour in the case of the Teutonic: slightly greater for the City of New York, and over 1.9 for the Etruria. But in the month of August, 1891, both the Teutonic and Majestic won still greater laurels, the latter crossing from Queenstown to New York in 5 days 18 hours and 8 minutes; the former in 5 days 16 hours and 31 minutes, and averaging for the run of 2,778 miles 20.35 knots per hour, the best day’s run being 517 knots. Fastest Passages of the more Important Steamers between New York and English Ports during the Season of 1890.5 Name Dimensions: Length, Breadth, Depth Displacement Piston Stroke Boiler Heating Surface New York and Queenstown Tons. Feet. Sq. Ft. City of Paris 560 × 63 × 43 13,000 5 50,265 City of New York 560 × 63 × 43 13,000 5 50,040
- 82. Majestic 582 × 571⁄2 × 591⁄8 12,000 5 40,972 Teutonic 582 × 571⁄2 × 591⁄8 12,000 5 40,972 Etruria 5011⁄2 × 57.2 × 38.2 10,500 6 38,817 Umbria 5011⁄2 × 57.2 × 38.2 10,500 6 38,817 City of Rome 546 × 52 × 583⁄4 11,230 6 29,286 New York and Southampton Inches Columbia 480 × 56 × 38 9,500 66 34,916 Normannia 520 × 571⁄4 × 38 10,500 66 46,490 Augusta Victoria 480 × 56 × 36 9,500 63 36,000 Lahn 448 × 49 × 361⁄2 7,700 72 … Name Grate Area Steam Pressure I.H.P. Fastest Trip Direction New York and Queenstown Square Feet Lbs. D. H. M. City of Paris was 1,293 now 1,026 150 18,350 5 19 18 Westward City of New York was 1,080 now 1,096 150 18,100 5 21 19 Westward Majestic 1,154 180 18,000 5 21 20 Westward Teutonic 1,154 180 18,000 5 19 5 Westward Etruria 1,606 110 14,300 6 6 57 Westward Umbria 1,606 110 14,300 6 3 29 Westward City of Rome 1,398 90 11,890 6 22 30 Eastward New York and Southampton Columbia 1,226 150 13,680 6 15 0 Eastward Normannia 1,452 160 16,352 6 17 2 Westward Augusta Victoria 1,120 150 14,110 6 22 32 Eastward Lahn … 150 9,500 7 3 0 Eastward Name Month Distance Average Speed Average for Eight Months Fastest Day’s Run
- 83. during Season New York and Queenstown Knots Knots Knots Knots City of Paris August 2,788 20.01 19.02 515 City of New York October 2,775 19.64 19.02 502 Majestic September 2,780 19.64 19.00 … Teutonic August 2,806 20.18 18.84 512 Etruria July 2,845 18.80 18.29 481 Umbria August 2,835 19.20 18.15 498 City of Rome Aug.-Sep. 2,787 16.73 16.18 424 New York and Southampton Columbia October 3,045 19.15 18.68 492 Normannia August 3,045 18.91 18.41 486 Augusta Victoria September 3,049 18.31 17.52 470 Lahn October … … 17.29 …
- 84. Note.—The nautical mile is one-sixtieth of a degree of the Equator, and is usually reckoned 6,080 feet, the statute mile being 5,280; twenty nautical miles are thus about twenty-three statute miles. The shortest distance is the arc of the great circle of the Earth passing through the two ports; any deviation from this by varying the course on account of intervening land or ice increases the distance to be run. The crown is thus for the moment with the White Star, nor is it likely to be torn away by anything short of the tremendous effort involved in putting afloat a new, a bigger, and a more costly ship. Owners must, of course, count the cost of such rivalry and must put against the gain of say sixteen hours, in order to come to the desired five days and twenty-three knots, the cost of the thousand or twelve hundred tons more of coal which will have to be burned, the doubled number of engine and fire-room force, the larger crew, the interest on the greater investment. It is a large price to pay for a gain of so small a bit of that we generally hold so cheap—but it will be paid. It has been impossible, of course, in a single chapter to do more than touch upon the vast changes, and their causes, which have had place in this great factor of human progress. Higher pressures and greater expansions: condensation of the exhaust steam, and its return to the boiler without the new admixture of sea-water, and the consequent necessity of frequent blowing off, which comparatively but a few years ago was so common; a better form of screw; the extensive use of steel in machinery, by which parts have been lightened, and by the use of which higher boiler-pressures are made possible—these are the main steps. But in addition to steel, high pressures, and the several other elements named which have gone to make up this progress, there was another cause in the work chiefly done by the late W. Froude, to be specially noticed as being that which has done more than the work of any other man to determine the most suitable forms for ships, and to establish the principles governing resistance. The ship-designer has, by this work, been put upon comparatively firm ground, instead of having a
- 85. mental footing as unstable, almost, as the element in which his ships are destined to float. It is not possible to go below the surface of such a subject in a popular paper, and it must suffice to speak of Mr. Froude’s deductions, in which he divided the resistances met by ships into two principal parts: the surface or skin friction, and the wave-making resistance (which latter has no existence in the case of a totally submerged body—only begins to exist when the body is near the surface, and has its full effect when the body is only partially submerged). He showed that the surface friction constitutes almost the whole resistance at moderate speeds, and a very great percentage at all speeds; that the immersed midship section area which formerly weighed so much in the minds of naval architects was of much less importance than was supposed, and that ships must have a length corresponding in a degree to the length of wave produced by the speed at which they are to be driven. The Chilian Cruiser Esmeralda. Larger image (159 kB) He showed that at high speeds waves of two different characters are produced: the one class largest at the bow, which separate from the ship, decreasing in successive undulations without afterward affecting her progress; the other, those in which the wave-crests are
- 86. at right angles to the ship’s course, and the positions of these crests have a very telling effect upon the resistance. As the ship’s speed is increased the spaces between the crests of these lengthen in unison with the speed, and it has been shown that when the speed is such that a wave-crest would be at the middle point of the after body (or quarter) the wave-making resistance is least, and that it is greatest when the hollow appears at this point. A ship must therefore be of a length that depends largely upon the length of wave which at a high speed she will tend to produce in order that she may be driven at such a speed without an expenditure of power disproportionate to the effect produced. This length, if very high speeds are desired, is best wholly taken up in fining the entrance and run, leaving no parallelism of middle body, and broadening and deepening the ship to keep the necessary displacement. The wave-action at several speeds is well shown in the illustrations, which are from instantaneous photographs, showing the Chilian cruiser Esmeralda at her full speed of 18 knots, when on her trial off Newcastle-upon-Tyne, the Giovanni Bausan, of the Italian navy (almost a sister ship to the Esmeralda), at a moderate speed, and H.M.S. Impérieuse, at about 171 ⁄4 knots. [See illustration, p. 64.] The following are the principal details of the Esmeralda and Impérieuse: Displacement.Length.Beam.Draught.Horse-power. Esmeralda 3,000 270 42 18.3 6,500 Impérieuse 7,390 315 62 26.0 10,180 The eddy-making resistance is greater or less, of course, as the form is blunted or finer, and there is less resistance with a blunt bow and finely formed after-body than were the two reversed. Our practical towing friends will be glad to know that Mr. Froude substantiates their oft-reiterated assertion that a log tows more easily butt-end foremost. In the Merkara, a merchant ship built by Mr. Denny, of 3,980 tons, 360 feet length, 37.2 feet breadth, and 16.25 feet draught, this resistance is, at all speeds, about eight per
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