Itroduction and general principles

Chapter 1 Introduction and general principles

Contents
Introduction 6

11 Studying the law of contract 7

12 Reading 8

13 Method of working 11

14 Some issues in the law of contract 13

15 Plan of the subject guide 15

16 Format of the examination paper 16

University of London External System

Introduction
This subject guide is designed to help you to study the Elements of the law of contract
in England and Wales. This guide is not a textbook and it must not be taken as a substitute
for reading the texts, cases, statutes and journals referred to in it. The purpose of the guide
is to take you through each topic in the syllabus for Elements of the law of contract
in a way which will help you to understand contract law. The guide is intended to ‘wrap
around’ the recommended textbooks and casebook. It provides an outline of the major
issues presented in this subject. Each chapter presents the most important aspects of
the topic and provides guidance as to essential and further reading. Each chapter also
provides you with activities to test your understanding of the topic and self-assessment
exercises designed to assist your progress. Feedback to many of these activities is available
at the back of this guide. There are also sample examination questions, with appropriate
feedback, which will assist you in your examination preparation.

In the study of contract law, it is essential to try to gain an understanding of the principles
of law – what the law is trying to do in response to particular issues – rather than the rote
memorisation of rules and cases. This means you may need to read passages or chapters
in the guide (and the relevant suggested reading materials) several times in order to
understand the principles of law being covered.

In this guide we have taken account of all materials available up to February, 2009.

Learning outcomes
By the end of this subject guide and the relevant reading, you should be able to:
u demonstrate a thorough working knowledge of contract law: the syllabus aims to
give you a good working knowledge of the elements of contract law and the theory
underlying it
u understand contract case law: you should develop the ability to understand contract
cases, that is to say the importance of the issues in a case and how the court has resolved
the issues
u apply the cases: you should be able to apply the case law to a given issue
u understand statutes: you should develop the ability to interpret a statute; you should
also be able to understand the interrelationship between the statute and the relevant
common law
u apply the statutes: you should be able to apply the statutes to a given issue.
Each chapter lists specific learning outcomes to be achieved in relation to the material
covered in that chapter. There is a ‘Reflect and review’ section at the end of each chapter to
help you monitor your progress.

Elements of the law of contract 1 Introduction and general principles page 7

1.1 Studying the law of contract
As already stated, this guide is not a textbook. It must not be taken as a substitute for
reading the texts, cases, statutes and journals. Its purpose is to take you through each
topic in the syllabus for Elements of the law of contract in a way which will help you
to understand contract law. It provides an outline of the major issues presented in this
subject. It will also help you prepare to answer the kind of questions the examination
paper is likely to contain. Note, however, that no topic will necessarily be included in any
particular examination and that some are more likely to appear than others. The Examiners
are bound only by the syllabus and not by anything said in – or omitted from – this guide.

What do we mean by ‘taking you through’ a topic? Very simply it is to spell out what
problems or difficulties the law is seeking to provide a solution for and to give a structured
guide to the materials (textbooks, cases and statutes). You must read these in order to
appreciate how English law has dealt with the issues and to judge how satisfactory the
solutions are in terms of overall policy.

How to use this subject guide
Each chapter begins with a general introduction to the topic covered and the learning
outcomes you should achieve within that chapter.

Following that, the topic is divided into subsections. Each subsection provides a reference
to the recommended readings in McKendrick’s textbook and Poole’s casebook (see 1.2
below). At a minimum, you should read these; in many cases you will probably find that
you need to re-read them. It is often difficult to grasp some legal principles and most
students find that they need to re-apply themselves to some topics.

In addition, at the end of each chapter, there are recommendations for useful further
readings. This will always cover the relevant section in Anson’s Law of Contract. You may
find it desirable to review this textbook from time to time because it is often easier to
grasp a point that you have found difficult when it is explained in a different fashion.
Recommended readings are also included in the Elements of the law of contract study
pack.

At the end of each subsection, the learning outcomes are again provided to enable you
to test your progress. Throughout each chapter, self-assessment questions and learning
activities are provided. Feedback is also given with regard to the learning activities to allow
you to check your comprehension of a particular matter. You will find this process most
helpful if you answer the question before you check the feedback (rather than simply
reading the question and then checking the feedback). This is because the object of your
studies is to understand, rather than memorise, the law. At the end of each chapter, some
advice is given with regard to possible examination questions on this topic. The fact that
this constitutes advice about possible examination questions cannot be stressed enough.

The reasons for studying the principles of the law of contract are readily apparent:
contracts are the foundation of commercial activities of all kinds and of many ‘everyday’
transactions as well. Many specialist areas of law are built on this foundation. It also
presents an ideal opportunity for students to take the first steps towards developing the
essential skills of understanding judgments and interpreting statutes.

The importance of case law
It cannot be too strongly emphasised that this is a case law subject. What the Examiners
will be seeking to test is your understanding of how the judges in the leading cases have
formulated and refined the relevant principles of law. You should attempt to read the
important cases. The Online Library (which you can access through the student portal) will
give you access to the relevant cases.

There are no shortcuts to understanding the development of the case law. If the job is to be
well done, it will be time consuming. Individuals vary, obviously, but it would probably be
exceptional to cover the whole syllabus thoroughly in less than 200–250 hours of study.


1.2 Reading
See also the Student Handbook and the Learning skills for law subject guide.

You should begin your reading with this subject guide. Start at the beginning and work
through the guide sequentially, reading the textbook and doing the activities as directed.
It may be tempting to start with, say, illegality or incapacity, but this is not a good idea. The
subject builds on the basic foundations, without which particular topics later in the subject
cannot be understood.

In addition to the study guide, you will also want to examine the selected readings in the
Elements of the law of contract study pack that you have been provided with.

You should also regularly check the Elements of the Law of Contract section on the
Laws VLE as it will provide articles with up-to-date information of interest to students.
In addition, the archive section of the VLE contains commentary on a large number of
contract cases.

1.2.1 Books for everyday use
The main text for this subject is:

¢ McKendrick, E. Contract Law. (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) eighth edition [ISBN
9780230216716].† †
Please note that the references
to McKendrick in this subject
This text forms the foundation text for this subject. It is advisable to read and re-read this
guide are all to the eighth
text to allow the material to be thoroughly understood.
edition (2009).
You should also buy a casebook. This guide is structured around:

¢ Poole, J. Casebook on Contract Law. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008) ninth edition
[ISBN 9780199233526].

Because these books are not intended to be as comprehensive in their coverage of the
materials as the traditional University undergraduate texts for law, you will need to refer
from time to time to the more advanced texts mentioned in the next section.

1.2.2 More advanced books
The more detailed textbook currently considered to be best suited to the needs of external
students is:

¢ Beatson, J. Anson’s Law of Contract. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) 28th edition
[ISBN 0199256039].† †
In this subject guide this text is
referred to simply as ‘Anson’.
You may also wish to consult a more detailed casebook. Here the choice lies between:

¢ Beale, H.G., W.D. Bishop and M.P. Furmston Contract – Cases and Materials. (London:
Butterworths, 2007) fifth edition [ISBN 0199287368].
¢ McKendrick, E. Contract Law: Text, Cases and Materials. (Oxford:Oxford University Press,
2008) third edition [ISBN 0199208018].
¢ Brownsword, R., Smith & Thomas: A Casebook on Contract. (London: Sweet & Maxwell,
2009) 12th edition [ISBN 1847034179].

It is not suggested that you purchase the books mentioned in this section: they should be
available for reference in your college or other library.


1.2.3 Statute books
You should also make sure you have an up-to-date statute book. Under the Regulations you
are allowed to take one authorised statute book into the examination room.

Information about the statute books and other materials that you are permitted to use in
the examination is printed in the current Regulations, which you should refer to.

Please note that you are allowed to underline or highlight text in these documents – but
you are not allowed to write notes etc. on them. See also Learning skills for law for further
guidance on these matters.

The Regulations for the LLB state:

Students may underline and/or highlight passages with a coloured pen in the materials,
but all other forms of personal annotation on statues and other materials permitted to be
taken into the examination room are strictly forbidden.

Statute books are regularly updated: make sure you use the latest copy.

1.2.4 Other books
¢ Treitel, G.H. and E. Peel. The Law of Contract. (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 2007) twelfth
edition [ISBN 042194840X].
¢ Furmston, M.P. Cheshire, Fifoot and Furmston’s Law of Contract. (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2007) fifteenth edition [ISBN 0199287562].
¢ Stone, R. The Modern Law of Contract. (London: Cavendish, 2009) eighth edition
[ISBN 9780415481373].

At the other end of the scale, many shorter books have been published in recent years
aimed at the student market. If you are using McKendrick and Poole, you will generally
not find that there is much benefit to be gained from these other works. However, for the
particular purpose of practising the art of writing examination answers, you may find it
helpful to have:

¢ McVea, H. and P. Cumper Exam Skills for Law Students. (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2006) second edition [ISBN 0199283095].

But do not be misled into thinking that this will provide you with ‘model answers’
which can be learned by heart and reproduced from memory in the examination. Every
examination question requires a specific answer and ‘pre-packaged’ answers do not serve
the purpose.

You might also find the following book useful

¢ Brown, I. and A. Chandler Q&A Law of Contract 2009 and 2010 (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2009) seventh edition [ISBN 0199559554].

This book contains less critical advice on the process of answering examination questions
than McVea and Cumper but it provides a greater range of suggested solutions to
questions.

References to the recommended books in the guide
This guide is designed for use in conjunction with McKendrick’s textbook and Poole’s
casebook. In each section of the guide reference is made to all the relevant pages of the
eighth edition of McKendrick and the ninth edition of Poole. In the event that either of
these books is released in a new edition before the updating of this guide, and for the
greater guidance of the reader, reference is also made to the relevant chapter and section
names and numbers in each book. For example:

Essential reading
¢ McKendrick, Chapter 11: ‘Exclusion clauses’ – 11.7 ‘Fundamental breach’, pp.185–187.
¢ Poole, Chapter 8: ‘Discharge for breach of contract’ – Section 2 ‘The consequences of
breach’, pp.363–364.


1.2.5 Other sources of information
Journals
It is useful to consult journals regularly to improve your understanding of the law and to be
aware of recent developments in the law. Journals which may prove useful to you for their
articles and case notes are:

¢ Cambridge Law Journal
¢ Journal of Contract Law
¢ Law Quarterly Review
¢ Lloyd’s Maritime and Commercial Law Quarterly
¢ Modern Law Review
¢ New Law Journal.

Do not worry if you come across material that you do not understand: you simply need to
re-read it and think about it.

Online resources
As mentioned earlier, you will find a great deal of useful material on the Laws Virtual
Learning Environment (VLE) and Online Library. These are both accessed through the
student portal at http://my.londonexternal.ac.uk

The Online Library provides access to cases, statutes and journals as well as professional
legal databases such as LexisNexis, Westlaw and Justis. These will allow you to read and
analyse most of the cases discussed in this guide and the relevant materials.

Students are also able to access newsletters on the VLE that deal with matters of
contemporary interest.

Use of the internet provides the external student with a great deal of information, as a
great deal of legal material is available over the Internet. Whilst the sites change on an
almost monthly basis, some useful ones at the time of writing this guide are:

u http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk
contains full texts of the House of Lords’ judgments
u http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts
provides the full text of UK Acts back to 1991
u http://www.parliament.uk/site_map/site_map.cfm
the sitemap for the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which will provide you with
access to a range of legislative information
u http://www.lawcom.gov.uk
the Law Commission’s website; this provides information about law reform.

In addition to these sites, a growing number of private publishers provide legal
information and case updates. Some sites where useful information about recent
cases and developments in the law can be found are:

u http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/law
the law section of The Times website where you can check the law reports daily

u http://www.bailii.org
Bailii is a freely available website which provides access to case law legislation and also
provides a recent decisions list (http://www.bailii.org/recent-decisions.html) and lists
new cases of interest (http://www.bailii.org/cases_of_interest.html).


1.3 Method of working
Remember that your main objective is to understand the principles that have been laid
down in the leading cases and to learn how to apply those principles to a given set of
facts. As a rule of thumb, leading cases for this purpose may be defined as those which
are included in the relevant sections of McKendrick and Poole, together with any other
(generally more recent) cases cited in this subject guide. At a more practical level the
leading cases are those which an Examiner would probably expect the well-prepared
candidate to know about. In the nature of things, just as different lecturers will refer to a
different selection of cases, there can be no absolutely definitive list of such cases. However
there will always be agreement on the importance of many of the cases and in general
terms, ‘core’ cases are named in the guide. Space is limited and omission from the guide
should not be taken to mean that a case is not worth knowing.

It is suggested that the study of the cases should be approached in the following steps.

1 Read the relevant section of this subject guide.

2 Read the relevant passages of McKendrick’s textbook and Poole’s casebook – it may also be
advisable to examine some cases in full following this.

3 Re-read the relevant passages in McKendrick.

4 Attempt to answer the relevant activities or self-assessment questions.

5 Repeat this process for each section of the subject guide.

A further description of the process in each of these steps is set out in further detail below.

Step 1
Start with the relevant section of this subject guide – this will give an idea of the points you
need to look for. Take one section at a time – do not try to digest several at once. Examine
the learning outcomes: these are the matters you need to master in relation to each
chapter and subsection within the guide.

Step 2
Read the textbook passage referred to. Look in particular for the cases upon which the
author places special emphasis.

Read the cases in the casebook (together with any others mentioned in the subject guide –
particularly the more recent ones: references are given (where possible) in the guide to the
All England Law Reports so that you can look up the recent cases in your library). You will
generally also be able to find the case on the Online Library.

The importance of reading the primary materials of the law – cases and legislation – cannot
be overemphasised. Learn as much as possible about each case. Make a special effort to
remember the correct names of the parties, the court which decided the case – particularly
if it is a House of Lords or Court of Appeal decision – the essential facts, the ratio decidendi
and any important obiter dicta. It is also important to note any other striking features,
such as, for example, the existence of a strong dissenting judgment, the overruling of
previous authority or apparent inconsistency with other cases. It is most important that
you understand not only what the court has decided but also why it has decided that.
Knowing ‘the rules’ is not enough: it is essential to study the judgments and understand
the reasoning which led the court in a particular case to uphold the arguments of the
successful party and reject the contentions put forward – no doubt persuasively – on behalf
of the unsuccessful party. It is also important to be critical when studying the cases: ask
yourself whether the result produces injustice or inconvenience; whether there are any
situations in which you would not want the result to apply and, if so, how they could be
distinguished. If it is an older case, you should also ask yourself whether the reasoning has
been overtaken by changes in social and commercial life generally. Lastly, pay attention
to the impact of other cases in the area. How strong is an authority in light of subsequent
decisions?


Step 3
Read the textbook passage again and ask yourself, ‘Does the book’s statement of the effect
of the cases correspond with my impression of them?’ If it does not, read the cases again.

Step 4
You will find activities and self-assessment questions throughout the guide. These are
intended not only to build up your knowledge of the material but also to provide you with
an opportunity to measure your knowledge and understanding of the particular section.
An activity demands you to think about a particular question and prepare an answer which
extends beyond a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Feedback is provided for these activities at the end
of the guide. Self-assessment questions are designed to test your memory of the material
which you have covered. No feedback is provided for these questions as they have simple
answers available in the textbook or casebook. With both forms of exercises, you will find
that your knowledge is enhanced if you complete the exercises as you encounter them in
the particular section. You will note that each chapter of McKendrick also includes some
exercises for self-assessment: completing these will further develop your legal knowledge
and skills.

Step 5
Repeat the process for each section of the chapter in turn.


1.4 Some issues in the law of contract

1.4.1 Statutes
Although most of the syllabus deals only with principles developed by the courts, there are
also a few statutory provisions which need to be considered because they contain rules
affecting contracts generally. For the purposes of the suggested method of working, you
should approach each relevant section of a statute as if it were a leading case and make a
special effort to get to know the precise wording of crucial phrases as well as any cases in
which the section has been interpreted and applied. Remember that in English law it is the
judges who decide what Parliament meant by the words of the statute.

In general, you are not expected to display knowledge of statutes dealing with particular
types of contract, such as the Consumer Credit Act 1974. (Some parts of the Sale of Goods
Act 1979 are an exception to this, however see Chapter 5: ‘The terms of the contract’,
section 5.2.)

1.4.2 European Union law
The syllabus refers to the inclusion of relevant European Union legislation. At the present
time the most significant part of the general law of contract which is directly affected by
European law is that dealing with unfair terms. (This is covered in Chapter 6: ‘The regulation
of the terms of the contract’, section 6.3.) Other directives which are important to the
general law of contract are Directive 2000/31/EC on Electronic Commerce OJ 2000 L 178/1
and Council Directive 94/44/EC on Certain Aspects of the Sale of Consumer Goods and
Associated Guarantees OJ I 171 7.7.99.

1.4.3 The ‘consensus’ theory of contract and objective interpretation
In the past, many writers and courts placed much emphasis on the need for a ‘meeting of
minds’ or ‘consensus ad idem’ for the making of contracts. This reliance on actual intention
was an expression of laissez-faire philosophies and a belief in unfettered freedom of
contract. This subjective approach to the making of contracts has now largely been
abandoned, though its influence can still be detected in certain rules. In general, what
matters today is not what meaning a party actually intended to convey by his words or
conduct, but what meaning a reasonable person in the other party’s position would have
understood him to be conveying. This is known as the process of ‘objective interpretation’.
See McKendrick pp.21–22 and Poole pp.17–20 and the cases referred to there, especially
Hartog v Colin and Shields (1939) and Centrovincial Estates v Merchant Investors (1983).

1.4.4 Finding ‘the intention of the parties’
You will soon discover that, in spite of the disappearance of the subjective approach to
the making of contracts, the law frequently uses ‘the intention of the parties’ as a test
for resolving difficulties. It is most important to appreciate that this does not refer to
the parties’ actual intentions – which may well have been conflicting – but to the ‘proper
inference’ from the facts as a whole as to what would have been the intentions of a
reasonable person in the position of the parties. When deciding what is the ‘proper’
inference a judge has considerable room for manoeuvre and is in reality reaching a
conclusion based upon the justice of the case as much as upon any inference in the strict
sense. For an instructive illustration of this process see the judgment of Denning LJ in Oscar
Chess v Williams (1957) – see Poole – where the court had to decide whether a warranty
was intended. Note that Lord Denning defines the test by reference to ‘an intelligent
bystander’, but it is clear that it is the court’s responsibility to draw the inference and that
the intelligent bystander is merely an alias for the judge.


1.4.5 Law and equity
At one time in England and Wales, there were two separate courts which dealt with
contract cases: a court of equity and a court of common law. In the latter part of the
nineteenth century, these two courts were amalgamated and one court dealt with both
law and equity. Equity had developed its own principles, considerations and remedies
to contractual problems. Equity is said to supplement the common law where it is
deficient. In the course of studying contract law you will see many equitable principles
in place (see, for example, estoppel and undue influence). Equitable intervention in a
contractual problem is based on the conscience of the parties; accordingly, equitable relief
is discretionary and it is bound by a distinct series of considerations. An example of such
a consideration (sometimes referred to as a maxim) is that ‘he who comes to equity must
come with clean hands’; that is to say, he who seeks equitable relief must himself not be
guilty of some form of misconduct or sharp practice. You will see the particular restrictions
placed upon the granting of equitable relief as you proceed through the subject guide (see,
for example, rescission for misrepresentation).


1.5 Plan of the subject guide
In line with the order of topics in the syllabus, the guide is structured as follows.

u Part I of the guide deals first with the requirements for the making of a contract (Chapters
2, 3 and 4).

u Part II deals with the content of a contract and some of the regulations of the terms of a
contract (Chapters 5 and 6).

u Part III deals with the capacity to contract – the emphasis placed is upon minors’ contracts
(Chapter 7).

u Part IV deals with vitiating elements in the formation of a contract (Chapters 8, 9 and 10).

u Part V deals with the question of who can enforce the terms of a contract (Chapter 11).

u Part VI deals with illegality and public policy (Chapters 12 and 13).

u Part VII deals with the discharge of a contract (Chapters 14 and 15).

u Part VIII deals with remedies for a breach of contract (Chapters 16 and 17).

Topics not included in the syllabus
Although the following topics are touched upon in the recommended books (and covered
in some detail in the larger books), they are excluded from the present syllabus.

u Requirements as to the form of contracts.

u Gaming and wagering contracts.

u Assignment (including negotiability).

u Agency.


1.6 Format of the examination paper
Important: the information and advice given in the following section are based on the
examination structure used at the time this guide was written. However, the University can
alter the format, style or requirements of an examination paper without notice. Because of
this we strongly advise you to check the rubric/instructions on the paper you actually sit.

Past examination papers can be a useful pointer to the type of questions which future
papers will probably include, but you should take care not to read too much into the style
and format of past papers. Remember that, in this as in other subjects, the Examiners may
change the format from year to year – for example, by requiring a different number of
questions to be answered, by splitting a paper into Part A and Part B (with some questions
to be answered from each part) or by making some questions compulsory. You must always
read and comply with the instructions for the particular paper you are taking. The annual
Student Handbook will normally give advance warning of changes in the format of question
papers, but the Examiners will have no sympathy with a candidate who does not read the
instructions properly.

1.6.1 ‘Spotting’ questions
As we mentioned at the beginning of this Introduction, there is no guarantee that there
will be a question on any particular topic in any given examination paper. It is a mistake,
therefore, to assume that topic A is so important that the Examiners are bound to set a
question on it. You should bear this in mind when deciding how many topics you need
to have thoroughly revised as you go into the examination. It is also worth noting that
questions may easily involve more than one topic.

1.6.2 Examination technique in general
Make the most of your knowledge by observing a few simple rules. (See also Chapter 7 of
the Learning skills for law subject guide.)

1 Write legibly, using a good dark pen. If necessary, write more slowly than normal to
improve legibility – the time lost will be amply repaid by not having an irritated Examiner.

2 Complete the required number of questions, including all parts of questions with two or
more parts.

3 Plan your time so that you spend about the same amount of time on each question. One of
the worst mistakes you can make is to overrun on the first two answers: you are not likely
to improve much on the quality of those answers and you will only increase the pressure
and tension while you are trying to finish the other questions with inadequate time
remaining.

4 Read the questions very carefully looking for hints as to the particular issues the Examiner
hopes you will discuss. Think about what the Examiner is asking you to do: what is the
question about? It is not the quantity you write but how well you analyse the question and
identify the relevant issues that will determine the quality of your answers. Do not waste
time repeating the facts of the question or setting out the whole of the law on a topic when
the question is only about part of it. Irrelevant material not only earns no marks but
actually detracts from the quality of the answer as a whole.

5 Remember above all that the Examiner is particularly interested in how well you know the
case law: always try to argue from named cases. Avoid merely listing a lot of case names:
select the most relevant cases and show how and to what extent each one supports your
argument. State the facts briefly, say which court decided the case (especially if it is a Court
of Appeal or House of Lords decision) and indicate the process of reasoning which led the
judges to decide the case in the way they did. (For example, did they decline to follow an
earlier decision and, if so, why?) Even an ‘essay’ question will be looking for this sort of
discussion of the case law.


6 It is very important to plan out your answer in a rough form (on separate pages) before you
begin to write your answer. An essential technique is to write out a ‘shopping list’ of the
points – and the cases – which you intend to cover. If there is a significant chronology in the
question, make a list of the sequence of events with their dates/times. You should develop
a logical order of presenting your points: many points will have to precede others. Ideally
your lists should be on a piece of paper that you can refer to at all times while writing the
answer without having to turn over pages in the answer book. If you do not make such
lists, or do not have them where you can easily refer to them, you are bound to forget
something.

7 Remember that arguments – the exploration of possibilities – are more important than
conclusions, so you should not feel obliged to come down too firmly on one side nor
should you be inhibited by the fact that you are not sure what the ‘correct’ answer is. It is
in the nature of the English system of judicial precedent that there is nearly always room
for argument about the scope of a previous ruling, even by the House of Lords, so that it is
quite possible, even likely, that more than one view is tenable. It is far better to put forward
a reasoned submission which the Examiner may perhaps disagree with than to try and
dodge the issue by saying – as surprisingly many candidates do – ‘As the law is unclear (or,
the authorities are conflicting) it will be for the court to decide’.

Make sure that you answer the question which the Examiner has asked. Think carefully
about what the question asks of you and provide an answer to that question – not to a
related (or even worse, unrelated) topic.

Enjoy your studies – and good luck.

Catharine MacMillan and Richard Stone.

Itroduction and general principles

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