JenniferCisco_Final

Running head: EXPOSURE TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 1
Quality of College Students’ Relationships
and their Exposure to Domestic Violence during Childhood
Jennifer Cisco
Siena Heights University

EXPOSURE TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 2
Abstract
About 15.5 million children in the United States are living in households experiencing domestic
violence (Spilsbury et al., 2008). Even though there is little research, past studies show that
children who lived in domestic violence homes are more likely to become perpetrators or victims
of violence later on. This is thought to be because children consider abuse normal due to over-
exposure to violence in the home. However, children have other influences in their lives such as
peer influences, media influences, and school influences. These strong influences can impact the
child’s life, even if the child did not live in a nurturing home. Therefore, it is believed that
children exposed to domestic violence will experience just as fulfilling relationships when they
are college students as children who were not exposed. This study investigated college students’
exposure to domestic violence during childhood and their current or most recent relationships.
Results showed no statistical significance; however, exposure to domestic violence during
childhood and college relationships showed no relation to one another. Therefore, more studies
are in dire need to determine the amount of harm a child will experience if he or she is exposed
to domestic violence.
Keywords: domestic violence, intimate partner violence, adolescent, child, influences,
relationships

Quality of College Students’ Relationships
and their Exposure to Domestic Violence during Childhood
Domestic violence is defined differently depending on the individual, whether it is
physical abuse, verbal abuse, sexual abuse, or a combination of the three. Therefore, it is
important to define domestic violence when doing this study. The legal definition for domestic
violence in Michigan is, “a pattern of controlling behaviors, some of which are criminal, that
includes but not limited to physical assaults, sexual assaults, emotional abuse, isolation,
economic coercion, threats, stalking, and intimidation. These behaviors are used by the batterer
in an effort to control the intimate partner. The behavior may be directed by others with the
effect of controlling the intimate partner” (Batterer Intervention Standards for the State of
Michigan, 2013, p. 7). About 15.5 million children in the United States are living in a household
experiencing intimate partner violence, another term for domestic violence (Spilsbury et al.,
2008). Identified domestic violence households with children were more likely to be low-
income, minority and headed by a single female (Fantuzzo & Fusco, 2007).
In the United States, domestic violence is a profound issue, yet there is little information
known about it. How much of this violence occurs in the presence of children is unknown, which
is why children are considered invisible victims (Osofsky, 2003). Frequency, severity, type of
violence, and other important characteristics associated with a child’s exposure to violence are
rarely assessed and reported by researchers (Davis & Briggs, 2000). Also, according to Davis &
Briggs, most studies have relied on the reports of the primary care-giver rather than assessing the
child’s response directly (2000). The purpose of this study is to fill in some of these gaps in
research. It will indicate if children who were exposed to domestic violence at an early age

experience just as fulfilling relationships when they are college students compared to children
who were not exposed to domestic violence.
Many explanations account for why domestic violence occurs. According to Crenshaw
(1994), domestic violence is a form of oppression and social control (as cited in Bograd, 1999).
Men use violence for power or control, for instrumental reasons, or in retaliation for being hit
first (Kelley, Edwards, Dardis, & Gidycz, 2015). Also, men are supposed to be seen more as
leaders who are assertive and masculine, whereas women are supposed to be submissive
(Sakalli-Ugurlu, 2003). One’s gender, race, or social class also have different impacts on the way
people view the violence. For example, domestic violence is seen differently depending if one is
white or black, poor or wealthy, a prostitute or a housewife. While both men and women can use
violence to express anger, women tend to use violence for self-defense and men use violence for
punishment (Bograd, 1999). Many times, women stay because they do not have the financial
resources to leave their batterer. Some battered women, if they do leave, can lose custody of their
children if they do not have the resources to take care of them. Also, domestic violence shelters
often do not permit adolescent boys in the home, so the child would be left in the care of the
batterer.
Past research shows that children who lived in domestic violence homes are more likely
to be abused or neglected (Osofsky, 2003). Some children who were exposed to domestic
violence exhibit more social-emotional difficulties, cognitive difficulties, and are more likely to
engage in criminal activities compared to non-exposed children (Fantuzzo & Fusco, 2007).
According to a report for the Massachusetts Coalition of Battered Women Service Groups
(1995), children exposed to domestic violence learn: violence is an appropriate way to resolve
conflicts; violence is a part of family relationships; the perpetrator of violence in intimate

relationships often goes unpunished; and violence is a way to control other people (Osofsky,
2003). In a study of 10,036 elementary and high school children in inner-city Chicago, Shakoor
and Chalmers (1991) found that children and adolescents who witnessed violence were more
likely to become perpetrators of violence than those who were not exposed (as cited in Osofsky,
2003).
However, exposure to domestic violence does not affect all children in similar ways or to
the same extent (Fortin, Doucet, & Damant, 2001). A study that investigated the long-term
effects of exposure to intimate partner violence in the home on adolescents showed that gender
differences were significant. Intimate partner violence exposure was significantly related to the
frequency of drug use for females, but did not predict drug use among males (Fagan & Wright,
2011). This study also showed effects of exposure to intimate partner violence may likely
influence some outcomes, in this case drug use, but not others, like interpersonal violence.
According to Fagan & Wright, these findings emphasize the need for additional research
examining the overall impact of intimate partner violence exposure, including the gender
differences associated with it.
According to Erikson’s well-known developmental framework, adolescence is a time in
which identity should be formed, it is not until young adulthood until someone’s intimacy is
plausible. Adolescent love, in Erikson’s view, is largely the manifestation of an adolescent
attempting to define himself or herself by another person (Shaller, 2006). Therefore, one would
think that the individual should want a positive relationship to reflect a positive self-image. Also,
many influences affect a child growing up from birth to adolescence besides the family such as
peer influences, media influences, and school influences. Peer influences are people the child
spends time with such as friends or classmates and have an effect on the child’s way of thinking

or behavior. Media influences are very popular during this time. Television, music, and movies
are all influences that can affect children. Finally, school has a large influence on children.
Teachers and other students can lecture different concepts besides education such as morals or
respect. In addition, certain classes a child takes, such as health or a personal living skills, can
majorly impact a child’s life (Foshee et al., 2000).
According to Furman (1999), research has supported the idea that early relationship
experiences, particularly those taking place within the peer context, may have a significant
impact on the quality of future romantic relationships (as cited in Schad, Szwedo, Antonishak,
Hare & Allen, 2008). If a subject reported they knew personally of others who were involved in
dating violence, then they have increased odds being involved in dating violence. In fact, the
odds are six times greater than those who did not have such knowledge (Tontodonato & Crew,
1992). However, peer influences can be positive too. The child or adolescent can observe a
healthy relationship a friend or peer has and determine they want to be treated the same way in
their relationships. Also, friends talk about relationship satisfaction which could also be a
positive influence. Connolly and Johnson (1996), for example, found that adolescents’
perceptions of support in their romantic relationships were correlated with perceptions of support
from their best friends, suggesting that individuals may select romantic partners based on
qualities they experience in their friendships (Schad et al., 2008). Longitudinal research has also
shown that friendship quality has an effect, though it may be indirect, on the quality of teens’
future romantic relationships (Connolly et al. 2000). This research has demonstrated that positive
friendship qualities such as intimacy, nurturance, and affection are predictive of the same
positive characteristics in individuals’ concurrent romantic relationships (Schad, et al., 2008). So

even if the child grew up in a domestic violence household, that should not automatically make
him or her more susceptible to becoming a victim or perpetrator of violence later on in life.
Media has a great impact on children and adolescent lives because it is part of their daily
routine. Every day, most children and adolescents watch television, watch movies, or listen to
music. Much of these television shows, movies, and music reference dating or romance.
According to Ward (1995), an average of 20 instances per hour of programs preferred by young
people reference dating and intimacy (as cited in Eggermont, 2004). Findings of Brown, White,
and Nikopoulou (1993) found that adolescents will pay particular attention to these
representations. This impacts children and adolescents because they look at the media for
examples on what is or is not a healthy or unhealthy relationship. According to Baran in 1976,
several authors have hypothesized that young adolescents may even have few options other than
television for dating and intimacy guidelines (as cited in Eggermont, 2004). Media has a great
influence on children and adolescents, especially on how a relationship should be.
Finally, school has a great influence on children and adolescents. Many, if not all, middle
schools or high schools offer a health class or personal living skills class. Both classes offer
some insight on dating and what is healthy or unhealthy in a relationship. For example, the Safe
Dates project was a randomized controlled trial for testing the effects of an intervention on the
primary and secondary prevention of dating violence among adolescents. It included activities
such as a theater production, a curriculum of ten 45-minute sessions taught by health and
physical education teachers, and community services. The findings showed that Safe Dates
program was effective in preventing psychological, physical, and sexual abuse perpetration
against dating partners (Foshee et al., 2000). Also, the Second Step: Student Success through
Prevention Middle School program was designed to reduce youth violence including peer

aggression, peer victimization, homophobic name calling, and sexual violence perpetration and
victimization among middle school sixth-grade students. Teachers implemented 15 weekly
lessons of the sixth-grade curriculum that focused on social emotional learning skills, including
empathy, communication, bully prevention and problem-solving skills. Multilevel analyses
revealed significant intervention effects with regard to physical aggression (Espelage, Low,
Polanin, & Brown, 2013). This shows that schools can make a difference with stopping dating
violence. Just because a child grew up in a domestic violence home, it should not mean that they
are going to become victims or perpetrators because that is all they know. They have other
influences that show dating violence is wrong.
Because there are other influences besides the family that positively impacts lives such as
peer relationships, media, and school, people are able to break the cycle of abuse. According to
Hyman and Williams, findings indicate that some women succeed in avoiding re-victimization
and in establishing satisfying romantic relationships (as cited in Zamir & Lavee, 2015). These
women were found to have high emotional awareness. Emotional awareness was found to be a
protective factor against re-victimization (Zamir & Lavee, 2015). Also, abused mothers who
were able to break the abusive cycle were significantly more likely to have received emotional
support from a non-abusive adult during childhood (Egeland, Jacobvitz, & Sroufe, 1988).
Resilience is a term that has been studied for years, yet the definition is debated by
scholars (Hyman & Williams, 2001; Domhardt, Munzer, Fegert, & Goldbeck, 2015). However,
many agree that resilience is a general term that refers to individuals who return to normal levels
of functioning rather than deterioration following traumatic events (Carver, 1998 as cited in
Whitelock, Lamb, & Rentfrow, 2013). One coping mechanism that has been receiving increasing
attention in the literature is the discovery of meaning in negative events. Individuals discover

new insights and a fresh perspective on life due to their negative experiences (Taylor, Kemeny,
Reed, Bower, & Gruenewald, 2000 as cited in Fairweather & Kinder, 2013). Therefore, even if
individuals did witness domestic violence during childhood, they could view it later on as a
learning experience, knowing what is acceptable in a relationship and what is not.
In summary, little is known about domestic violence and how it affects children.
However, it is important to gain more knowledge about the subject because it will help frame the
issue and slow down the problem (Osofsky, 2003). Research shows that children who were
exposed to domestic violence when they were growing up are more likely to become perpetrators
or victims when they are older (Osofsky, 2003). This is because family is a big influence and the
child acquires knowledge from observational learning. However, children have more influences
besides the family that effect their thinking and behavior. Some examples of such strong
influences include peer, media, and school influences. Also, many people who have been victims
are able to break the cycle of abuse. In fact, some see the negative experience as a learning
outcome. They want better for their future. If a child saw a parent getting abused by the other
parent, they might see that as a learning experience and want better for their future relationships.
Hypothesis
Children exposed to domestic violence will experience just as fulfilling relationships
when they are college students as children who were not exposed.
Method
Participants
The participants in this study was a convenience sample of n=122 college students.
Participants were recruited via going to classrooms at a private university in southeastern
Michigan. The students did a self-report for the survey. Other than being of legal age, no subjects

were excluded from the study on the basis of age, race, religion, or sexual orientation. All
subjects were treated in accordance with the ethical guidelines established by the American
Psychological Association.
Materials
Each participant received a consent form before taking the survey (Appendix A). After
the subjects did a self-report of the survey, they placed it in a manila envelope to keep
confidentiality. Two surveys were used, one assessing the domestic violence witnessed by the
college student during childhood and the other an assessment of their current or most recent
relationship. The survey that assessed domestic violence witnessed by the college student during
childhood was a modified version of the Assessment of Violence (Niolon, 2006). This tool was
originally used to assess the amount of violence the survivor endured. However, it was modified
to test what a witness viewed. An example question is: do you feel criticized or controlled by
your partner? This question was modified to ask did one parent control or criticize the other
parent. Questions about psychological violence, property violence, and physical violence were
used. Sexual violence questions were omitted from the modification due to it being non-
applicable. It is believed that a child would not remember a parent forcing sex upon the other or
other questions pertaining to that.
The other survey that was used, a Healthy Relationship Assessment, tested the
satisfaction of a relationship (Love is Respect, 2013. Appendix C). The subject used their current
relationship or their most recent relationship. An example question is: the person I am with is
very supportive of things that I do. The subject answered either yes or no. Each question had a
certain number of points. Once the points were added up, the subject was put in a category that

determined how healthy of a relationship he or she is in or was in. Subject’s answers to the
violence assessment was compared to their relationship assessment.
Procedure
The study began in fall of 2015. Participants were recruited by attending classrooms at a
private university in southeastern Michigan. They received a consent form, read the instructions
for completing the survey, and had the opportunity to ask questions. After the subjects self-
reported their answers to the survey, they did put it in a manila envelope to ensure
confidentiality. They received a thank you for their participation.
Results and Discussion
The hypothesis for the current project was children exposed to domestic violence will
have satisfying relationships during college years, just as children who were not exposed. This
was examined in the hopes of better understanding the important relationship between exposure
to domestic violence and quality of relationships. The knowledge gained here should show
researchers more studies are needed to be done about this topic, assist people who work with
victims of domestic violence, and provide confidence to those who grew up in domestic violent
homes.
The data were analyzed using Minitab (version 16). A test of independence using a Chi-
square analyses was done in order to assess whether subjects exposed to domestic violence
experience just as fulfilling relationships as subjects who were not. In order to facilitate this
analysis, subjects’ answers on the relationship assessment were scored according to provided
instructions and put into four categories, determining if they were in a healthy relationship or
not. However, these categories did not fit the data. One question would qualify subjects as being
in an unhealthy relationship category, which is illogical. As a result, a quartile split was used

instead of the four original categories. However, quartile three had an insufficient number of
observations to interpret. Ultimately, to facilitate the analyses, the quartile split was then
collapsed into two final categories using a median split. Category one were subjects that had a
fulfilling relationship and category two were subjects that had warning signs for a non-fulfilling
relationship.
Overall, the results provided little direct support for the hypothesis. Of the seven specific
measures that were assessed, none attained statistical significance. While the evidence does not
provide compelling direct support, it does suggest that an important effect was observed, one that
is deserving of additional research. This study showed no support that suggests these two
variables, exposure to domestic violence during childhood and quality of relationships, are
related, which is inconsistent with past research studies. Past research, however, is very limited.
Finding no such evidence here using the direct measures and multiple variables examined, it
opens the question to look more closely at whether this long-suspected relationship exists to the
degree it has been believed. While it does not “prove” no relationship exists, it raises the
question that more research should be done to determine if there is a relationship between
exposure to domestic violence during childhood and quality of relationships.
There were a couple limitations to the current study that should be acknowledged in order
to properly frame the obtained results. The first of these was a confusing question in the Healthy
Relationship Assessment. Question 5 stated, “Is not liked very well by my friends.” Some
answers included, “is liked by my friends” instead of yes or no, which indicated they did not
understand and wanted to make sure their answer was correct. This leaves open to inquire if
other subjects answered correctly for this specific question or not. The other limitation was the
type of test being used. This study did a test of independency, if two variables are independent

from each other. While this was a correct way to do this study, no significant results can be
concluded from this test. One cannot prove the negative that no relationship exists.
It is important more research is done on this topic. To obtain better research data, it is
important one develops an assessment for witnesses of domestic violence. There is no
assessment that tests what witnesses viewed, only tests for what victims experience. Also, it is
important for researchers to have an open-mind when doing research on this topic. There are
many assumptions when it comes to domestic violence exposure and relationships, which might
be incorrect. Finally, researchers need to try to find a way to do this study that is capable of
assessing all the factors of a complex relationship. Testing a null hypothesis allows for little
conclusions to be made, just theoretical possibilities. It is time to narrow down this subject and
find answers.
In summary, the results obtained here were not enough to support the hypothesis, but it
does suggest that more research is needed on this topic. On one hand, subjects exposed to
domestic violence did not automatically have an unfulfilling relationship. This goes to show that
just because one is exposed to a domestic violence household, it does not mean he or she will be
in an abusive relationship themselves. On the other hand, it is hard to test other relationship
variables that could have impacted the study. However, it is hoped that projects like this one can
help advance our understanding of these issues, both for now and for generations to come.

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Appendix A
CONSENT FOR PARTICIPATION IN RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
The purpose of this study is to investigate exposure to domestic violence and college
relationships. It is being conducted by Jennifer Cisco, an undergraduate student at Siena Heights
University for partial fulfillment of course requirements in PSY 445 Research in Psychology.
As a participant in this study you will be asked to provide information regarding your
home life and your past/current relationships. No attempt will be made to discern your name or
any other aspect of your identity.
There should be few, if any, risks to you as a participant. If you should experience any
discomfort or uneasiness at any time, please feel free to address the investigator about your
concerns.
In all likelihood there will be few personal benefits to you deriving from your
participation.
The responses you provide will be entirely confidential. Results will only be reported in
summary or aggregate form. No personal or identifying information from any subjects will be
disclosed.
Your participation is also voluntary. You have the right to refuse participation at any
time for any reason.
If you have any questions regarding this project, you may contact
Jennifer Cisco
Department of Psychology
Adrian, MI 49221
(517) 264-7850
If you have any questions regarding your rights as a participant in a research project, you
may contact
Jeffrey Lindstrom, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
Adrian, MI 49221
(517) 264-7850

Students at Siena Heights University are offered free counseling sessions. If you need to
talk to someone, please contact our school counselor.
Sandy Morley
LMSW Director of Counseling
Adrian, MI 49221
(517) 264-7193
I understand my rights and responsibilities as a subject in this research study. My submission of
a completed survey will serve as indication of my consent to participate.

Appendix B
Assessment of Violence (yes or no)
1. Did one parent control or criticize the other parent?
2. Did one parent interrupt the other, swear at the other, yell at the other, or minimize their
contribution to the relationship?
3. Did one parent interfere with the other’s work or other relationships?
4. Did one parent get jealous of the other often?
5. Did one parent ever threaten to hurt loved ones or threaten to hurt himself or herself?
6. Did one parent ever threaten to hurt the other parent?
7. Did one parent ever stalk the other?
8. Did one parent throw things, break things, or kick/punch things in anger?
9. Did one parent put his or her hands on the other parent in anger?
10. Did one parent ever grab or slap the other?
11. Did one parent ever push or shove the other?
12. Did one parent ever cut, choke, or burn the other?
13. Did one parent ever threaten the other with a weapon?
14. Did one parent ever get arrested for assault or violence of any kind?

Appendix C
The Person I’m With (yes or no)
1. Is very supportive of things that I do.
2. Encourages me to try new things.
3. Likes to listen when I have something on my mind.
4. Understands that I have my own life too.
5. Is not liked very well by my friends.
6. Says I’m too involved in different activities.
7. Texts me or calls me all the time.
8. Thinks I spend too much time trying to look nice.
9. Gets extremely jealous or possessive.
10. Accuses me of flirting or cheating.
11. Constantly checks up on me or makes me check in.
12. Controls what I wear or how I look.
13. Tries to control what I do and who I see.
14. Tries to keep me from seeing or talking to my family and friends.
15. Has big mood swings, getting angry and yelling at me one minute but
being sweet and apologetic the next.
16. Makes me feel nervous or like I’m “walking on eggshells.”
17. Puts me down, calls me names or criticizes me.
18. Makes me feel like I can’t do anything right or blames me for problems.
19. Makes me feel like no one else would want me.

20. Threatens to hurt me, my friends or family.
21. Threatens to hurt him or herself because of me.
22. Threatens to destroy my things.
23. Grabs, pushes, shoves, chokes, punches, slaps, holds me down, throws
things or hurts me in some way.
24. Breaks or throws things to intimidate me.
25. Yells, screams or humiliates me in front of other people.
26. Pressures or forces me into having sex or going farther than I want to
Scoring
Give yourself one point for every no you answered to numbers 1-4, one point for every yes
response to numbers 5-8 and five points for every yes to numbers 9 and above. Now that you’re
finished and have your score, the next step is to find out what it means. Simply take your total
score and see which of the categories below apply to you.
Score: 0 Points You got a score of zero? Don’t worry -- it’s a good thing! It sounds like your
relationship is on a pretty healthy track.
Score: 1-2 Points If you scored one or two points, you might be noticing a couple of things in
your relationship that are unhealthy, but it doesn’t necessarily mean they are warning signs. It’s
still a good idea to keep an eye out and make sure there isn’t an unhealthy pattern developing.
Score: 3-4 Points If you scored three or four points, it sounds like you may be seeing some
warning signs of an abusive relationship. Don’t ignore these red flags. Something that starts
small can grow much worse over time. No relationship is perfect -- it takes work! But in a
healthy relationship you won’t find abusive behaviors.

Score: 5 or More Points If you scored five or points, you are definitely seeing warning signs
and may be in an abusive relationship. Remember the most important thing is your safety --
consider making a safety plan.

JenniferCisco_Final

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