structure of language
- 1. Structure of LanguageStructure of Language • phonemes:phonemes: basic speech soundsbasic speech sounds • morphemesmorphemes: smallest unit of language that: smallest unit of language that contains meaningcontains meaning • surface structuresurface structure: the words and phrases: the words and phrases comprising a particular sentencecomprising a particular sentence • deep structuredeep structure: the underlying meaning of: the underlying meaning of a sentencea sentence
- 2. Rules of LanguageRules of Language • grammargrammar: a system of rules that enable us: a system of rules that enable us to speak and understandto speak and understand • semanticssemantics: rules we use to derive meaning: rules we use to derive meaning from morphemesfrom morphemes • syntaxsyntax: rules we use to order words into: rules we use to order words into sentencessentences
- 3. Mental ImageryMental Imagery • AnAn imageimage is a mental representation of ais a mental representation of a sensory experience.sensory experience. • We use imagery as an aid inWe use imagery as an aid in conceptualizing and solving problems.conceptualizing and solving problems. • Images allow us to use concrete forms toImages allow us to use concrete forms to represent complex and abstract ideas.represent complex and abstract ideas.
- 4. ConceptsConcepts • conceptconcept: A mental category for classifying: A mental category for classifying objects, people, or experiences.objects, people, or experiences. • prototypeprototype: A mental model containing the: A mental model containing the most typical features of a concept.most typical features of a concept. • idealized cognitive model:idealized cognitive model: Our conceptionsOur conceptions of events as we expect to typically findof events as we expect to typically find them.them.
- 5. Problem SolvingProblem Solving problem representation: interpreting orproblem representation: interpreting or defining the problemdefining the problem select a solution strategy that best suits theselect a solution strategy that best suits the problemproblem
- 6. Possible Solution StrategiesPossible Solution Strategies • trial and errortrial and error • information retrievalinformation retrieval: recovery of: recovery of information from LTM is all that isinformation from LTM is all that is necessarynecessary • algorithmalgorithm: systematical evaluation of all: systematical evaluation of all possible solutions to a problempossible solutions to a problem • heuristicsheuristics: rules of thumb strategies for: rules of thumb strategies for problem solvingproblem solving
- 7. HeuristicsHeuristics • hill climbinghill climbing: each step moves: each step moves progressively toward the final goalprogressively toward the final goal • subgoalssubgoals: creation of intermediate and: creation of intermediate and more manageable goalsmore manageable goals • means-end analysismeans-end analysis: reducing discrepancy: reducing discrepancy between current and desired statesbetween current and desired states
- 8. HeuristicsHeuristics • working backwardsworking backwards: moving from the: moving from the desired state to the current statedesired state to the current state • availabilityavailability: basing our judgments on the: basing our judgments on the availability of information in our memoriesavailability of information in our memories • representativenessrepresentativeness: judging the likelihood: judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem toof things in terms of how well they seem to represent particular prototypesrepresent particular prototypes
- 9. Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving • an individual’s level of motivationan individual’s level of motivation • set:set: The tendency to perceive and toThe tendency to perceive and to approach problems in certain ways.approach problems in certain ways. • functional fixedness:functional fixedness: The tendency toThe tendency to perceive only a limited number of uses forperceive only a limited number of uses for an object.an object.
- 10. Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving • confirmation bias:confirmation bias: The tendency to lookThe tendency to look for evidence in support of a belief and tofor evidence in support of a belief and to ignore evidence that would disprove aignore evidence that would disprove a belief.belief.
- 11. Improving Problem Solving AbilityImproving Problem Solving Ability • tacit of elimination:tacit of elimination: Possible solutions arePossible solutions are evaluated according to appropriate criteriaevaluated according to appropriate criteria and discarded as they fail to provide aand discarded as they fail to provide a solution.solution. • visualization:visualization: Concepts are drawn,Concepts are drawn, diagrammed, or charted so that they can bediagrammed, or charted so that they can be better understood.better understood.