Languageteachingmethods

Course: Teaching Methodology

Book: Techniques and Principles in
Language Teaching
Author: Diana Larsen-Freeman
Second Edition, 12 chapters
Slide production: Dr. H. Iravani
Shahriar Center
Number of slides: 345

Language Teaching
Ten factors in each chapter
2. Teacher’s goals
3. Teacher’s role vs. students’
role
4. Features of teaching &
learning
5. The nature of interaction

Language Teaching
1. Dealing with students’
feelings
2. Language vs. culture
3. Language areas and skills to
emphasize
4. The role of the native
language

Language Teaching
1. Dealing with evaluation
2. Dealing with students’ errors
 Two types of exercises:
checking your understanding
and applying what you studied

Language
Teaching:GT
Grammar Translation (GT) is the
first method we discuss.
GT appeared in the first half of
the 19th century and was one of
the nonscientific methods.

Language
Teaching:GT
Why is GT a classical method?
GT was to help students
appreciate L2 literature.
L2 grammar helps them learn Ll
grammar & grow mentally.

Language
Teaching:GT
Thinking about the experience
GT- a teacher proof method- in
Iran. It is the output of German
scholarship.

Language
Teaching:GT
Principles
2. Learning to read L2 literature
– written language is superior
to spoken language. L2
culture was literature and fine
arts.

Language
Teaching:GT
2. Translation from L2 to L1 and
vise versa: a central goal
3. Communication:not
emphasized
4. Reading and writing: superior
5. Authority and fussy
corrections

Language
Teaching:GT
6. L1 equivalents for L2 words
7. L1/ L2 similarities: emphasized
8. Form superior to content
9. Deduction over Induction
10. L2 learning: a mental
exercise

Language
Teaching:GT
11. Explicit and conscious
knowledge of L2 Grammar
12. Memorization of grammatical
paradigms

Language
Teaching:GT
Summary
Reviewing the principles
Reviewing the techniques

Language
Teaching:GT
Activity:
Explain the differences between
learning about L2 and learning
to use L2.

Language
Teaching:GT
GT was challenged by:
2. Natural methodologists
3. Linguists interested in
phonetics
4. The reform movement

Language
Teaching:GT
Natural method gave rise to the
Direct method – the next
chapter. However, GT still has
its own proponents and is used
in some parts of the world.
Why?

Language
Teaching:DM
The Direct Method (DM) rose to
prominence at the beginning of
the 20th century and it is one of
the nonscientific methods,
similar to Grammar Translation.

Language
Teaching:DM
DM is a movement toward a
scientific method. Gouin
started a method based on
child language acquisition.

Language
Teaching:DM
Franke wrote on the direct
association between form and
meaning.
Saussure made a distinction
between language and
substance.

Language
Teaching:DM
To Saussure language is form
not substance.
In addition, Sauveur banned
translation and use of mother
tongue in the classroom.

Language
Teaching:DM
The weaknesses of GT made DM
very popular.
Basic principle:The use of L1 is
sin and the connection between
L2 and meaning should be
direct.

Language
Teaching:DM
Principles
1. Language is mainly speech.
Culture includes more than
fine arts. Reading is taught
from the beginning.

Language
Teaching:DM
2. Concrete objects are used to
make the direct link between
form (language) and meaning.
3. Mother tongue has almost no
role.

Language
Teaching:DM
4. Demonstration is preferred to
explanation and translation.
5. Vocabulary in use is
emphasized to boost thinking
in English. (Real use in real
sentences)

Language
Teaching:DM
6. Oral communication is the
goal.
7. Pronunciation receives
primary attention - focus on
form.
8. Self correction is preferred to
teacher’s correction.

Language
Teaching:DM
9. Lessons should provide the
chances for real life
conversation.
10. Grammar is taught
inductively or implicitly.

Language
Teaching:DM
11. Like reading,writing is
practiced from
beginning.Four language
skills are together.
12. Lessons are topic based and
not structurally designed.

Language
Teaching:DM
13. Language and culture are
interwoven.
Notes on Direct Method:
Fluency over accuracy
(unlike GT)

Language
Teaching:DM
Immediate correction by self
correction or teacher’s indirect
correction. An error is like a
sin.
Students’ knowledge about L2
is not evaluated (as it was in
GT).

Language
Teaching:DM
The weaknesses of Direct
Method
Overemphasized natural
language acquisition usage for
classroom learning situation.

Language
Teaching:DM
Lacking a firm basis in Applied
Linguistics and psychology of
learning.
Placing so much emphasis on
the teacher rather than
textbook.

Language
Teaching:DM
By 1920s, Direct Method (Berlitz
Method in the U. S.) started to
decline. DM led to Audio-lingual
Method (ALM) in the United
States.

Language
Teaching:DM
At the same time Situational
Language Teaching (Oral
Approach) was popular in
Europe and Contrastive
Analysis gained importance.

Language
Teaching:DM
About the same time Eclecticism
– the idea that language
teaching should undergo
ongoing reform – was also
proposed and supported.

Language
Teaching:ALM
GT and Direct Method were
popular until World War II. The
Audio-lingual Method (ALM)
was developed in the U. S.
during World War II. Why?

Language
Teaching:ALM
Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) is
the first scientific method since
it has roots in both psychology
and linguistics.

Language Teaching:ALM
Psychology: Linguistics:
Skinner Bloomfield
(1930s-50s) (1930s-50s)
Behaviorism Structuralism

Language
Teaching:ALM
Principle:
2. Form appears inside the
context, not in isolation. For
example, a dialogue is used to
introduce a new structure.

Language
Teaching:ALM
L1 and L2 have two systems
and they are treated differently
to avoid interference.
The teacher is the model. His
native-like accent does matter.

Language
Teaching:ALM
1. Language learning is habit
formation and habits should
be repeated to get fixed in
mind.
2. Errors are barriers for habit
formation (inhibition).

Language
Teaching:ALM
1. Communication is the prior
goal.
2. A sentence includes several
slots and each slot needs a
special part of speech.

Language
Teaching:ALM
A. John is satisfied with the ------.
(a noun is needed after
preposition)
B. John is satisfied with the ------
concert. ( a noun or an
adjective)

Language
Teaching:ALM
8. Positive reinforcement is
preferred to no/negative
reinforcement.
Note: Behaviorism: stimulus,
response and reinforcement.

Language
Teaching:ALM
Stimulus → Organism →
Response Behavior →
1. Positive Reinforcement, or
2. No / Negative Reinforcement

Language
Teaching:ALM
Stimulus = a dialogue, a passage, …
Organism = L2 learner
Response Behavior= verbal behavior
Positive Reinforcement = 1.approval
by teacher/peers, 2.self
satisfaction

Language
Teaching:ALM
9. Stimuli can be
verbal/nonverbal
Note: Behaviorism, like linguistic
Structuralism, is an anti-
mentalist, empirically based
approach.

Language
Teaching:ALM
10. Language is a set of patterns
or structures. Pattern practice
leads to the over-learning of a
desired verbal behavior (habit
formation).

Language
Teaching:ALM
Linguistic Structuralism :
A. Language is a system of
forms, from smaller units such
as sounds to bigger units such
as sentences.

Language
Teaching:ALM
B. Structuralism studies the
distribution of units within the
system (e.g., phoneme vs.
allophone).

Language
Teaching:ALM
C. Structuralism is a reaction to
mentalist and traditional
approach to grammar.
D. In Structuralism all languages
are equally developed.

Language
Teaching:ALM
E. Language is equal to speech.
F. Language can be learned by
mastering the building blocks
(elements) of the Form system.

Language
Teaching:ALM
G. Rule-ordered processes
involve addition, deletion, and
transposition of grammatical
elements.

Language
Teaching:ALM
11. Automatic repetition is the
result of overlearning - Drilling
and mechanical repetition.
12.The teacher is an orchestra
leader.

Language
Teaching:ALM
From the three language learning
activities – 1. Mechanical drills,
2. meaningful exercises, and 3.
communicative activities – the
first one is practiced.

Language
Teaching:ALM
13. Learning the structural
patterns comes before
vocabulary. Students
sometimes repeat unknown or
meaningless words (Form is
more important).

Language
Teaching:ALM
14. L2 learning is equal to L1
acquisition. Rules are induced
(implicit) from examples.
15. Contrastive analysis of L1
and L2 shows the areas of
difficulty.

Language
Teaching:ALM
16. The “Natural Order” is to be
adopted for L2 acquisition.
Note: In ALM acquisition is
preferred to learning. The
former is implicit.

17. Culture is discussed within
the context of language.

Techniques:
Dialogue memorization
Backward build up drills
Repetition drills
Chain drills

Single-slot substitution drills
Multiple slot substitution drills
Transformation drills
Question and answer drills
Use of minimal pairs

Completing the dialogue
Grammar game

Language
Teaching:SW
The Silent Way: Although
Audiolingualism is widely used
all over the world, it was
heavily criticized in the early
1960s.

Language
Teaching:SW
Both Behaviorism (psychological
foundation) and Structuralism
(linguistic foundation) were
attacked by linguists and
psychologists.

Language
Teaching:SW
Behaviorism was followed by
Cognitive Psychology.
Structuralism was followed by
Transformational-generative
linguistics.

Language
Teaching:SW
Basic concepts:
1. Human is creative, so mimicry,
memorization, repetition and
parrot learning (Behaviorism)
do not lead to real learning.

Language
Teaching:SW
2. Language is not confined to a
limited number of structures
(as opposed to Structuralism).
Best evidence: new sentences
that children make in early life.

Language
Teaching:SW
3. Language learning is not the
outcome of habit formation
(Behaviorism). It is the process
of creative rule formation
(Cognitive Psychology).

Language
Teaching:SW
4. Cognitive psychology puts
more emphasis on thoughtful,
mentalist and creative
processes. Learners form
hypothesis to discover the
rules of L2

Language
Teaching:SW
5. Language learning is not the
passive process of stimulus →
response → behavior. Learners
are actively involved in
discovering L2 rules.

Language
Teaching:SW
Note: In general, Cognitive
science deals with the scientific
study of thinking, reasoning
and the intellectual processes
of the mind.

Language
Teaching:SW
6.a. Generative Transformational
theory (proposed by Chomsky
in 1957) is a model for the
description of all languages.

Language
Teaching:SW
6.b. GT theory, with a system of
rules, shows the knowledge
that a native speaker uses in
forming grammatical
sentences.

Language
Teaching:SW
6.c. In GT theory internalized
grammar of a language –
Competence – enables one to
create and understand totally
new sentences.

Language
Teaching:SW
6.d. Competence enables us to
tell what are and what are not
possible sentences in a
language (implicit knowledge).

Language
Teaching:SW
6.e. Competence is different from
Performance which is the
actual use of the language by
individuals.

Language
Teaching:SW
7. Errors are inevitable, natural
signs of learning/acquisition.
They show the learner is
testing his hypotheses.The
progress is gradual and step by
step.

Language
Teaching:SW
8. All four skills are worked on
from the beginning. In addition.
Form and meaning are both
important.

Language
Teaching:SW
Gattegno’s “Silent Way” was not
the outcome of Cognitive
Psychology, but in line with the
theory. That is, both assign an
active role to the learner.

Language
Teaching:SW
In both Silent way and Cognitive
Psychology, teaching is
subordinate to learning: Both
of them are learning and
learner centered, not teaching
centered.

Language
Teaching:SW
Principles:
1. The teacher goes from familiar
to unfamiliar. For example, he
starts with L2 sounds which are
similar to L1 sounds.

Language
Teaching:SW
2. The teacher speaks very little,
only when needed. His silence
motivates the learners to
participate more and be active.

Language
Teaching:SW
3. The teacher is not the model.
His gestures work.Student’s
“self criteria” for correctness
are emphasized. The student
takes the responsibility of
learning.

Language
Teaching:SW
4. Students’ actions show if they
have learned.
5. Students help each other.
6. The teacher uses gestures and
L1 to help them learn.

Language
Teaching:SW
7. & 8. Students’ familiar
knowledge (old context) helps
them learn the unfamiliar (new
context). The teacher’s
interference is very little.

Language
Teaching:SW
9. Reading is worked on from the
beginning but after speaking.
10. The teacher's silence leads to
the student's autonomy: learner
centeredness.

Language
Teaching:SW
11. Meaning is achieved through
perceptions (senses), not
translation.
12.Group cooperation is the
norm.
13. Little praise and punishment.

Language
Teaching:SW
14. Errors are important. They
are the road signs.
15. Self correction over teacher’s
correction.
16. Students listen to each other.

Language
Teaching:SW
17. Learning rates are different.
Perfection is not the target.
18. The teacher frees his time by
his silence.
19. Students are attentive.

Language
Teaching:SW
20. Meaningful practice is
preferred to repetition.
21. Logical presentation of
language elements from
familiar to unfamiliar.

Language
Teaching:SW
22. & 23. Autonomy is gained by
exploring and making choices.
24. Feedback from students
informs the teacher.
25.No homework:sleeping
practice

Language
Teaching:SW
26. Syllabus is structure based.
27. Structures are not presented
in a linear way.
28. Skills (speaking, reading and
writing) reinforce one another.

Language
Teaching:SUG
Suggestopedia (Superlearning):
psychological barriers are the
main causes of failure in
language learning. These
barriers should be removed.

Language
Teaching:SUG
These barriers are fear of bad
performance, limited ability to
learn, and failure, so our full
mental powers are not
revealed.

Language
Teaching:SUG
Suggestology: how to harness
and redirect mental capacity
foe maximum learning. It is
based on Desuggestion and
Suggestion

Language
Teaching:SUG
Desuggestion: unloading mental
reserves of unwanted
memories.
Suggestion: loading the reserves
with facilitating memories.

Language
Teaching:SUG
Basics of Suggestology:
1. Authority: the teacher’s C. V.,
his belief in the method and his
manner are valued (the placebo
effect).

Language
Teaching:SUG
2. Infantalization: students take
the role of a child (games,
songs, gymnastic exercises,
… ).

Language
Teaching:SUG
Principles:
2. Learning is facilitated in
comfort.
3. Peripheral learning is valued.

Language
Teaching:SUG
3. Students must respect and
trust the teacher’s authority.
4. The teacher “desuggests” the
barriers: L2 learning is fun.

Language
Teaching:SUG
5. Students’ imagination is
activated (Suggestion).
6. Students’ confidence is raised
(Suggestion).

Language
Teaching:SUG
7. Choosing new names and
biographies enhances feeling
of security (suggestion).
8. Easy to handle dialogs come
first.

Language
Teaching:SUG
9. Students’ attention is off the
Form (structure) and on
communication.
10. The lessons indirectly
enhance positive Suggestions.

Language
Teaching:SUG
11. Grammar and vocabulary are
taught very superficially.
12. Mother tongue and
translation are used to transfer
meaning.

Language
Teaching:SUG
13. Double planedness: language
message is the conscious
level; music is the
subconscious level. They go
together. Decoration of the
environment is so important.

Language
Teaching:SUG
14. To overcome the barriers, a
pseudo-passive state is
needed.
15. Homework is done at night
and in the morning.

Language
Teaching:SUG
16. Dramatization and fantasy
reduce the barriers to learning.
17. The arts (music, drama, … )
should be part of the process
of learning.

Language
Teaching:SUG
18. Novelty is the to motivation
(learning activities are varied).
19. Infantalization is the key
factor. A childlike attitude to
learning helps a lot.

Language
Teaching:SUG
20. In some activities the
conscious attention focuses on
using L2, not on the structure
and form.
21.Errors are tolerated and
corrected indirectly later.

Language
Teaching:SUG
Two kinds of materials:
1. Direct support: texts and tapes
2. Indirect support: classroom
decoration and music

Language
Teaching:SUG
Zero beginners are different
from false beginners.
Students are required to talk ex
tempore (not from memorized
lines).

Language
Teaching:SUG
Students are immersed in the
method and forget their past
(new names).
Words are taught in word pairs.

Language
Teaching:SUG
The texts should be
emotionally and motivationally
powerful. They have literary
value.
Musical background leads to
relaxed body and alert mind.

Language
Teaching:CLL
Community Language Learning:
Students as “whole persons”
feelings + intellect + physical
reactions + instinctive protective
reactions + desire to learn

Language
Teaching:CLL
Counseling Learning →
Community Language Learning
(By: Charles A. Curran)
His theory is based on adult
learning.

Language
Teaching:CLL
Adults feel frightened in a new
learning situation: the inherent
change and chances of making
mistakes frightens them. So the
teacher should play a
counselor.

Language
Teaching:CLL
CLL is a humanistic approach
taken from Carl Rodger’s
approach (1950): the focus is
on Affective (emotional)
Domain; it is client (learner)
centered.

Language
Teaching:CLL
Factors of Affective Domain:
Empathy, self-esteem, attitude
extroversion, inhibition,
imitation, anxiety, and so on.

Language
Teaching:CLL
Language process is not just:
sender → message → receiver
It is interactional and
communicative. It is a social
process.

Language
Teaching:CLL
CLL is a holistic approach:
Cognitive + Affective factors
Classroom interaction is
between peers (symmetrical) or
learner-knower (asymmetrical)

Language
Teaching:CLL
Principles:
2. The teacher starts a friendly
relationship.
3. The teacher’s explanation of
the activities brings security.

Language
Teaching:CLL
3. Language is for
communication.
4. The teacher’s standing
position can be effective in
reducing tension and fostering
interaction.

Language
Teaching:CLL
5. The teacher is caring about
the students limitations and
fears. They learn with different
paces.
6. Time limits are revealed;
security follows!

Language
Teaching:CLL
7. The teacher and students are
whole persons (Affective +
Cognitive factors).

Language
Teaching:CLL
8. Learners have different
strategies, paces and styles of
learning. The teacher makes
them feel relaxed (Affective
factors).

Language
Teaching:CLL
9. The teacher is a counselor.
Negative feelings block
learning.
10. L1 is part of the process of
learning. Understanding should
be guaranteed.

Language
Teaching:CLL
11. Activities should be clear
/clarified (Affective factors).
12. The tasks are given one by
one to reduce the barriers.

Language
Teaching:CLL
13. Students go from total
dependence on the teacher to
independence and initiative.
14. Relaxed reflection and
thinking fosters the process.

Language
Teaching:CLL
15. Having a choice results in
developing an inner wisdom.
16. Careful listening is needed to
learn to discriminate and see
the similarities and differences.

Language
Teaching:CLL
17. Group work and cooperation
is preferred to competition.
18. Indirect correction reduces
tension.

Language
Teaching:CLL
19. Interaction among the peers
(students) leads to trust and
less threat.
20. Learning takes place if the
task neither too new nor too
familiar.

Language
Teaching:CLL
21. Thinking about learning
experiences is as positive as
reflecting on L2.
22. In early stages, the syllabus
is learner dependent (oriented).

Language
Teaching:CLL
Curran: there are six elements
for nondefensive learning:
Security, aggression
(assertiveness),
attention, reflection, retention
(integration), discrimination

Language
Teaching:CLL
Evaluation in CLL is not fixed,
but it should be in line with the
principles. The test is mainly
integrative, not discrete point.
Self evaluation is also valued.

Language
Teaching:CLL
In CLL culture and language are
inseparable. The teacher and
students form a community
(learning is persons). They
trust each other and the
process.

Language
Teaching:TPR
Total Physical Response is an
example of “Comprehension
Approach”.
The importance is given to
Listening Comprehension.

Language
Teaching:TPR
The idea of Comprehension
Approach comes from child
language acquisition. Speaking
is a natural product of listening.

Language
Teaching:TPR
Many methods are based on L1
acquisition. Krashen and
Terrell’s “natural Approach”:

Language
Teaching:TPR
communication through pictures
and words is fostered, but L1 is
also used. Natural Approach is
similar to Direct Method, but in
former L1 is allowed.

Language
Teaching:TPR
In Winitz and Reed’s self
instructional program and in
Winitz’ The Learnables,
students listen and look at
relevant pictures.

Language
Teaching:TPR
In Asher’s TPR students listen
and respond in actions.

Language
Teaching:TPR
TP is based on “Trace Theory”:
the more a memory connection
is traced, the storage of
memory associations is easier
(Heb’s Law).

Language
Teaching:TPR
Tracing and retracing can be
both verbal (language) and
motor (actions). The
combination of the two fosters
the recall.

Language
Teaching:TPR
TPR is humanistic in saying that
gamelike movements reduce
stress. TPR is basically
structuralist (imperative verbs
at the center).

Language
Teaching:TPR
TPR claims that nonabstractions
(verbs and concrete nouns)
help us learn abstractions.

Language
Teaching:TPR
Language chunks are practiced
rather than single items.
No grammar explanation is
given

Language
Teaching:TPR
The theory of psychology is
Bahaviorist:
Verbal Stimulus → Response

Language
Teaching:TPR
The learning hypotheses:
1. Innate bio program: listening
before speaking (Natural
Approach) and synchronized
with body.

Language
Teaching:TPR
2. Affective Filter: meaning
through movements
3. Brain Lateralization: motor
activities are right brain
centered (following Piaget).

Language
Teaching:TPR
Students master L2 through right
hemisphere motor activities
while the left one (language
center!) is watching and
learning.

Language
Teaching:TPR
Principles:
1. Meaning is transferred
through actions. Right brain
(nonverbal center) is involved.
Chunks are preferred to single
words.

Language
Teaching:TPR
2. Listening before speaking.
3. Actions accompany the
language. The teacher acts
first.
4. The basic structure is
imperative (only volunteers
act).

Language
Teaching:TPR
5. Students first observe and
then perform the actions.
6. Feeling of success and little
anxiety facilitate learning.

Language
Teaching:TPR
7.Changing order of commands
blocks sheer memorization.
8. Correction should be indirect
and through actions.

Language
Teaching:TPR
9. Novelty of commands can be
motivating.
10. Language learning should be
fun (funny commands).

Language
Teaching:TPR
11. Spoken language comes first.
12. Speaking emerges very
naturally. They choose to
speake.

Language
Teaching:TPR
13. The teacher is tolerant of the
errors. Delicate points and
details are put off for later and
higher levels.

Language Teaching:
CLT
The Communicative Language
Teaching
UNIT 9

Language Teaching:CLT
This is a British Approach that
followed Oral Approach or
Situational Language Teaching
(simultaneous with Direct
Method).

The decline of SLT – similar to
Direct Method – was due to
Chomsky’s influence.In Britain
functional and communicative
aspects gained prominence.

While in the U.S. innateness and
Generativity of language were
important (under Chomsky’s
influence), in Britain
communication was important

Many methods claim to be
communicative.
They also say that structure and
vocabulary are important.

Communicative Approach:these
are good but not enough. We
can not get ready for
communication if just
vocabulary and structure are
worked on.

Communication includes
functions. Functions are what
we do with the language:
arguing, persuading,
promising, rejection or
accepting an invitation, …

All these functions happen
inside a social context. Wilkin’s
Functional Notional Approach
formed the basis of
Communicative Approach.

Functions are what we do with
the language, but Notional
categories are: time, sequence,
quantity, location, frequency.

Communicative Approach,
Communicative Language
Teaching, functional Approach
and Notional Functional
Approach have almost the same
goals.

Knowledge of forms, meanings
and functions can be positive if
they help the learner in the
process of meaning exchange .

There are two versions of
Communicative Approach:
1. Weak Version (standard): the
goal is to provide chances to
use English for communication.

This is called ‘learning to use’ or
‘language for communication’.
2. Strong Version: language as
communication – using
language to learn.

The linguistic theory behind
Communicative Approach is
Dell Hymes’ communicative
competence (1972).

He believed that Chomsky’s
‘linguistic competence’ was too
limited. Linguistic competence
doesn't justify social and
functional rules of the
language.

Hymes’ competence deals with
both knowledge (usage) and
use.

Principles:
1. Authentic language in real
context:sports columns from a
recent newspaper

2. Ability to figure out someone’s
intentions:communicative
competence

3.Language: a vehicle for
communication, not the object
of study (language for
communication).

4. One function in different
linguistic forms (the goal is to
convey meaning with a ny
possible and suitable form).

5. Language use at higher levels
(supra sentential, text or
discourse level).

Note: Discourse or
communication has three
elements: 1. Real communication
(information gap), 2. Task based
activities, 3. Meaningfulness
(authenticity).

In discourse analysis: cohesion
(physical connectedness) and
coherence (connectedness in
meaning)

6. The importance of games as
real communication (task
based activities)
Note: Immediate feedback
ensures the learner of the
result.

7. Opportunities for self
expression
8. Errors as natural outcome of
development of communication
skills.

9. Establishment of situations to
promote communication (strip
story).

10. Cooperation and team work
as a chance to negotiate
meaning.
11. Role play as an example of
social context (language for
communication)

12. Language forms with respect
to social communicative norms
(talking to your boss vs. talking
to your colleague)

13. The teacher as an advisor
giving guidelines to groups
14. A choice about what to say
(linguistic competence) and
how to say (communicative
one).

15. Grammar and vocabulary
from functions, situational
context and roles.

16. Listening to authentic
language as homework.

What is the goal of the teacher?
To develop communicative
competence in the learners.
Form, meaning and function
are all critical.

What are the roles of the
teacher?
1. Facilitator of learning process,
2. Manager of classroom
activities, 3. Advisor, 4. Co-
communicator

What is the role of the student?
The learner is a communicator,
actively engaged in transferring
meaning and a responsible
manager of the social activities.

Characteristics of the process?
Usage and use are both
important. Activities – role play,
problem solving tasks, games –
are communication oriented.

Note: information gap is a critical
issue: a real interaction is made
to exchange meaning – to
reveal make unknown
information.

The nature of student-teacher
interaction?
The teacher is the initiator of
activities. The interaction is
basically student-student.

How about the student’s
feelings?
The students are more motivated
if they do something real and
purposeful with the language.

Note: Team work and
cooperation also fosters the
feeling of security. They
integrate L2 with their
personality.

How are language/culture
viewed?
Language: form, meaning and
function. Culture is part of real
communication (e.g., the use of
nonverbal behavior).

The important areas of
language?
Functions over forms. The
syllabus is functional and a
variety of form are introduced
in each function.

Note: at first easier functions are
used to introduce easier forms.
In general function determines
form not the other way round.

Note: the students learn about
cohesion and coherence in real
communication, not in an
explicit way (by scrambling and
unscrambling the text).

What is the role of L1?
L1 has almost no role.
Communication happens in L2
context.

How is evaluation
accomplished?
Both accuracy and fluency are
evaluated. The ideal learner is a
the best communicator. The
use of forms is not valuable by
itself.

Note: Evaluation here is informal
and happens in the process of
acting communicatively. But
the test is a communicative test
which deals with functions.

Note: the tests are integrative
such as writing a letter to a
friend which is a function and
conveys meaning. It si also a
social activity.

How are the errors treated?
Errors of form are tolerated as a
natural outcome. Linguistic
knowledge is not very critical
for communicative ability.

Techniques and materials:
1. Authentic materials (real
world)
2, scrambled sentences
(cohesion and coherence)

3. Language games (information
gap, choice and feedback)
4. Picture strip story (information
gap, team work, problem
solving and negotiating
meaning)

5. Role play (different social
contexts lead to different roles
and each role uses certain
forms for each function).

The goals of the teacher?
To accelerate the process of
learning for communication.
The learner’s mental powers
must be trapped by
dessuggesting.

The role of the teacher?
He is the authority. He should be
trusted and respected (placebo
effect).

Features of teaching/learning?
A. Students are comfortable.
Furniture and decoration are
important. Music accompanies.

B. Posters displaying
grammatical information are on
the wall (peripheral learning).
New names and biographies
(new identities)

C. lengthy dialogs in L2 with L1
translation and notes on
vocabulary and grammar. In the
first major phase (receptive) the
teacher reads the dialog along
the music.

D. Now the whole brain (left and
right) is involved (similar to
TPR). The students also see he
translation.

In the second major phase
(activation) the students
engage in various activities:
dramatization, games, songs,
question and answer exercises.

The nature of interaction?
The teacher initiates. The when
they feel relaxed the students
also initiate interaction.

How are the feelings dealt with?
They have to be relaxed and
confident. Learning comes
naturally not by force
(suggestion and desuggestion).

How is language/culture viewed?
A. Communication is a two plane
activity. In the first plane
language happens. In the
second nonverbal factors
affect.

B. culture includes the life of L2
speakers and the fine arts.

What areas/skills are
emphasized?
Vocabulary is emphasized.
Grammar is dealt with explicitly
(conscious attention) but
minimally. Speaking is valued.

The role of L1?
L1 makes the dialog clear and
easy so the students get
relaxed.

How is evaluation done?
It is done on the class activities
not through formal tests
(Suggestology).

How are the errors treated?
At the early stages no direct
correction happens. Later they
receive indirect correction on
form.

The goals of the teacher?
Natural communication, learning
about their own learning and
taking responsibility for it,
acting nondefensively:as whole
persons.

The teacher’s role?
He is a counselor first. He is caring
and supportive.

The student’s role?
At first they are totally
dependent like a client to a
counselor. Five stages to move
from dependence to
independence.

Features of teaching and
learning?
A. At first they speak in L1 and
the teacher gives L2 translation
in chunks.

B. Later a transcript is made of
the dialog and L1 words are
written under that. Activities
follow: grammar points, making
new sentences, pronunciation.

The nature of interaction?
A. The nature changes over time.
Sometimes the teacher
removes himself from the circle
to encourage them to interact.

B. Sometimes he gives L1
translation.At later time
students take more
responsibility. Both are
decision makers (student-
teacher centeredness).

How are the feelings treated?
Precise instructions,L1
equivalents, establishing time
limits,easy to handle lessons,
and taking responsibility bring
security.

How is language/culture viewed?
Language is for communication.
Culture is integrated with
language.

What areas are emphasized?
In early stages the students
design the syllabus. The most
important skills are
understanding and speaking
the language.

What is the role of L1?
Security is initially enhanced by
having L1 equivalents.

How is evaluation
accomplished?
There is no particular mode of
evaluation. But teacher made
integrative tests is more
common than discrete point
tests.

How are the errors responded?
Without calling everyone’s
attention to error, the teacher
corrects it indirectly.

Language Teaching:Content based...

Chapter 10
Content-based, task-based, and
Participatory Approaches


Three approaches that make
communication central
Content based instruction
Task-based approach
Participatory approach


These approaches do not focus
on form or function.
They give more importance to
process of learning over linguistic
content.


Here instead of ‘learning to use
English’ we try to ‘use English to
learn’.
Here instead of ‘English for
communication’ we try to gain
‘English as communication’.


ESP (English for special purposes) is
content oriented or content based. English
for pilots, nurses, businessmen are some
examples.


What is the special contribution of ESP?
It integrates language and content.


What was the purpose of ‘language
across the curriculum’ movement?
It was for native speakers in England
(1970s) to integrate reading and writing
into all other subjects.


In ESP, the selection and sequence of
language items arise from communicative
needs, not predetermined syllabi (plural of
syllabus).


OBSERVATIONS AND
PRINCIPLES


The subject matter (content) is the
platform for language learning. Language
learning is not happening in general
English text and discourse.


Previous knowledge is the basis. It helps
them learn better. So if the text is about
geography we begin with Iran.


Relevance of language to the students’
academic needs motivates them. For
example, nurses like to know the
terminology of their major. This is a means
to an end, not an end in iteself.


In other words, here the language is the
medium of instruction and not the purpose
(end) of that.


If the content of communication is
interesting to the students, learning
happens with greater speed and depth.


With the presence of contextual clues,
vocabulary learning is easier. (cloze test
and fill in the blanks)


Authenticity means content + use.
Even with authentic texts, the learners
need support by providing examples.


Learners work with meaningful, cognitively
demanding, and authentic texts and tasks
(learning by doing).


They work within the framework of all
language skills, not just conversationally.
This is what real communication is. This is
an example of an immersion program.


ADJUNCT MODEL:
In adjunct model, the students take a
normal academic course and a language
course related to that academic course.
Content teacher and language teacher
teach their courses in a way to help the
other course too.


Sheltered language instruction (content
based):
Both native and non native speakers of a
language take academic courses but for
non native speakers ‘sheltered’ instruction
is provided to help them through the
difficult process of studying content in a
foreign language.


All what we said is also applicable if we
combine language and vocational/job
purposes.


Whole Language Approach:
Language is taught holistically not in
pieces like grammar and vocabulary (it
comes from Gestalt psychology where the
whole is emphasized rather than the
pieces and segments).


Holistic approaches are ‘top down’ in the
sense that they work from meaning to
linguistic form.


In ‘bottom up’ methods, the students start
with pieces and then try to put the pieces
together to make a whole
(audiolingualism).


In ‘whole language learning’ errors are
natural parts of learning process. Here
Vygotsky’s idea about social nature of
learning is encouraged.


In ‘language experience approach’, which
is an example of ‘holistic learning’,
students read texts about their own life
experience. Students mention their stories
in the first language and the teacher
converts them into L2. This is done to
facilitate learning.


Process writing and journal keeping are
also examples of Whole Learning. In the
former, writing is seen as a process in
which the teacher and students
collaborate to build up ideas. It is not just
an assignment to be done by students.


The latter is like keeping a diary in which
students write their feelings and anything
else they want to communicate with the
teacher. The teacher ‘dialogues’ with the
writings and writes responses on them but
does not correct the form.


Task-Based Instruction


Task based approach also uses natural
context. ‘Do to Learn’ is the basic concept.
You learn better while you perform and
interact with other students. ‘problem
solving’ is the key concept. In problem
solving you develop new knowledge by
focusing on the old.


Observations and
experiences


The tasks in the class are clear and
purposeful.
The task needs to be challenging.
The task develops by teacher-learner
interaction.


The teacher uses normal language with
normal speed.
The teacher helps them find correct
answers.
Language is used to perform a task, not
just for linguistic development.


Authentic activity through authentic
language use is encouraged.
The focus is on meaning.
They receive feedback for what they did.


Three types of tasks (Probhu)
1. Information gap activity: exchanging
information to perform a task (students
exchange information about their weekly
schedules)


2. Opinion gap activity: students give their
feelings to perform (finding solutions for
unemployment)


3. Reasoning gap activity: students derive
new information from the data they were
given (finding he best way to a city by
looking at and discussing a map)


The last type - reasoning gap – involves
more engagement and is more
challenging.


Long and Crooks (1993): three other types
of tasks (syllabi)
1. Procedural: the example is the lesson
given in the book


2. Communication interaction: the
students along with the teacher decide
upon the task to do.
3. Meaningful interaction: working on
meaning while drawing attention to form.


What is ‘Project Work Approach’?
Here the students elect a project to do, for
example they decide to publish a school
news paper.


The first step is planning through
collaboration.
The second step is collecting information.
The final step is reviewing their report.


In all stages, the teacher acts as a
counselor and consultant not as a project
director.


Participatory Approach
By: Paula Freire


It begins with meaningful content. Form
emerges from content.
The content is not about subject matter,
but about issues of interest.


Freire engaged the students with
immediate social problems
(unemployment, low income, addiction).


The purpose is not just linguistic
development, but for taking actions and
thinking about the problems.
Education is not value free (it is value
loaded where feelings are involved)


As an example: compare discussing
addiction with talking about the use of
elevators in carrying things.


Observations and Principles


The class activity is tuned to outside world
events.
The syllabus is not predetermined or
apriori. It is a posteriori, determined
through discussion.


For example, the first session they tak and
read about addiction and they find out that
the main reason is unemployment, so the
next session they discuss unemployment.


Education is very effective if it is
experience oriented. This also motivates
them.
Students see themselves as active
participants in the social life.


Language form follows and is geared to
content. Form is not dealt with in isolation.
Students can create materials to be used
in the following session.


Self evaluation is encouraged. The
students see the outcome and evaluate
the process of learning.

Language Teaching:Learning Strategy...

Chapter 11


Learning Strategy Training,
Cooperative Learning, and
Multiple Intelligences


These are three methodological
innovations.
The focus of all is on the learner; they are
learner oriented (opposite of teacher
oriented methods such as Grammar
translation).


Learning Strategy Training


What is a learning strategy?
The techniques or devices a learner may
use to acquire knowledge. (Rubin 1975)


What are the features of good language
learners?
They are willing and accurate guessers.
They have great desire to communicate
although they may look foolish.


They pay attention to both meaning and
form.
They practice and monitor their own and
others’ speech.


These strategies should be taught.
Learning strategies training is as important
as language training. (Wenden 1985)


Observations and Principles


Prior knowledge and experiences are
used to build up new knowledge.
Studying strategies of learning leads to
academic success.
Learning should be taught, as well as
language.


Autonomy is encouraged: students should
become independent and self regulated
learners. Self assessment-evaluating
one’s own progress- also helps autonomy.


Learners should be capable of transferring
strategies to new learning situations. If
they are trained to use prefixes to
understand meaning, they need to
practice it at home.


Remember that the methodological trends
in chapter 11 complement the ones
presented in chapter 10.


For example, strategies should be taught
within the framework of content area texts.


The strategies we practiced in chapter 11
are ‘metacognitive strategies’ according to
Chamot and O’Malley (1994).


Metacognitive strategies are used to plan,
monitor, and evaluate a learning task.
They also include: arranging the
conditions that boost learning; setting long
and short term goals; checking one’s
comprehension during listening or
reading.


Chamot and O’Malley also identify two
other categories: cognitive strategies
which involve learners’ interaction and
manipulation of materials, and ...


Social / affective strategies where learners
interact with other persons. Affective
factors include feelings and attitudes.


Cooperative Learning


Cooperative learning means learning in
group (an affective/social strategy). The
way they cooperate is important.


‘positive interdependence’ is encouraged.
Each students helps the other to learn
vocabulary items. Cooperation instead of
competition and individualistic learning.


Groups are fixed for some time and
include people of different ethnic,
religious, social background and mixed
gender.


By working in groups they take different
roles and learn to cooperate in different
circumstances.


Self evaluation and assessment and
judgment about others’ work is urged.
Social skills-asking for apology, repetition,
help, ...- are taught.


They take the test individually to learn to
accept the outcome of cooperative effort.
Teachers teach language and
cooperation.


Multiple Intelligences


In addition to different strategies of
learning, students have different strengths
and weaknesses. In other words, they
have different learning or cognitive
styles.


For instance, visual learners vs. aural
learners.
Data gatherers vs. rule formers ( the
former have fluency with little accuracy;
the latter have the reverse)


Students have seven different intelligences
that can be developed:
2. Logical/mathematical (ability to use
numbers and reasoning)
3. Visual/spatial (awareness of size,
dsitance, color, movement, ...)


1. Body/kinesthetic (the ability to use one’s
body to express oneself and solve
problems).
2. Musical/rhythmic (the ability to cope with
melody and rhythm).
3. Interpersonal (cooperation and mutual
understanding).


1. Intrapersonal (understanding oneself and
practicing self discipline.
2. Verbal/linguistic (using language
effectively and creatively).


It is assumed that everyone has all these
abilities but at different levels. Each
activity may be built up by using one or
more of these intelligences and teachers
should be aware of them.


Christison (1996) and Armstrong (1994)
provide examples that fit each type of
intelligence:
2. Logical/mathematical (puzzles and
games, logical, sequential presentations,
classifications and categorizations


1. Visual/spatial (charts and grids, videos,
drawing)
2. Body/kinesthetic (hands-on activities,
field trips, pantomime)
3. Musical/rhythmic (singing, playing music,
jazz chants)


1. Interpersonal (pair work, project work,
group problem solving)
2. Intrapersonal (self evaluation, journal
keeping, options for homework)
3. Verbal/linguistic (note-taking, story
telling, debates)


A teacher may develop special lessons to
develop each intelligence. For example,
providing vocabulary lessons in the form
of puzzles and games to develop
logical/mathematical intelligence.


Gardner (1999) has added the 8th
intelligence-the naturalist- someone
knowledgeable about and comfortable in
the natural world.


In conclusion, teachers should be aware of
the unique qualities of each student.

Language Teaching: Conclusion

Chapter 12
Conclusion

After discussing methods individually, we
try to deal with the m collectively.
Each method and approach is
summarized according to three aspects of
language/culture, language learning and
language teaching (page 178) which were
fully discussed in the related chapters.

All these methods and approaches are
practiced today but with different weights
and distributions.

In the present century the use of
technology , strategies, styles,
innovations, interaction, cooperation, and
affective factors are given primary
attention.

The greatest similarity among methods is
the goal to communicate in the second
language.
All methods have been practiced in
classes; in future virtual education and
technology based instruction will gain
importance.

Most methods deal with the issue of
culture very implicitly. It is sometimes
referred to as the fifth skill plus reading,
writing, listening and speaking.

Differences among the methods: (two types)
Complementary differences: the differences
that do not contradict each other. Being a
drill conductor and a counselor as teacher
roles do not contradict but complement
each other.

Contradictory differences:
For example, in Grammar translation the
use of L1 is prescribed while in
Comprehension Approach and Direct
Method it is proscribed (forbidden).

What is the best method ad how does a
teacher choose one?
A teacher should consider the values,
experiences, goals, fundamental views
about teaching, learning, learners and
teachers, use of technology and similar
factors to decide.

The best method is eclectic method.
Eclectic method is not a method by itself.
It means using different methods and
different techniques of different methods
depending on the age, gender, goal (short
term and long term), ....

... available audio visual devices, available
materials, learners’ needs, defined
objectives of the course, views about
learning and teaching, and views about
dealing with strategies and styles.

For example, although Grammar
Translation looks outdated, a teacher may
decide to work on translation as an
integrative skill. Repetition and drill work
from audio lingual method is very useful
for children.

Rule description in brief works best for
adults since adults are rule formers.
Some methods work better at a special
level f language proficiency.
Relativism: for each situation one method
should be applied.

Pluralism (eclecticism): there is some
value to each method. Different methods
or parts of methods should be practiced in
the same context.
Principled eclecticism happens when a
teacher makes method of his own by
combining different parts of methods.

Teachers as managers of classroom
should know that a number of
methodological options exist which are
guided by a number of factors such as
values, experience and commitment to a
set of learning outcomes.

If they are asked, ‘Do you use, for
example, translation or mechanical
drilling?, they say: IT DEPENDS. It
depends on many factors.

The main point here is that teaching as a
profession is not a product but a process;
we learn to teach and also we teach to
learn. It might be a lifelong process.

Language Teaching

The End

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