Learn C Programming Full Course Free

Learn C Programming: Full Course
Free
By DheerajPatidar.com
Do you want to learn C programming for free?, Do you want to start
programming career?, Do you want to explore C programming notes
online?, then this Quick short C programming course is for you.
Because in this Post, I will share you Complete C programming
Course.
************************************

Introduction to Programming Language
Q. What is Language and Computer Programming
Language?
Ans.=> Language is a set of instruction or rules (grammer) by the
help of which we can communicate to each other. For example we
use Hindi and English language for communication.
We all know that computer is an electronic dump machine. To
communicate with computer we need to use programming
languages or Computer Languages like c,c++,java, python,etc…
Need of Computer Languages:-
We need computer languages to develop or create programs, after
combining n number of programs one software is developed. Each
of the program of software performing a particular task and these
programs are developed through different different programming
languages or may be same.
Why we Develop Programs & Softwares?
We create programs and softwares to solve particular problem in
quick manner. The working speed of computer is much faster than
human being that’s why we develop softwares and programs for
computer to perform any task in quick manner.
Q. What types of applications (Software) we can develop
using programming languages?
Ans=> we can develop 2 types of application using programming
languages :-
i) Standalone Applications:
the applications which must be installed in computer. This type of
applications only compatible for single operating system. The

application which are compatible for one operating system is not
compatible for another operating system. These applications are
always dependent to operating system.
For Example:
windows operating system having there own MS word, MS
office, video player, audio player, etc
In another hand MAC operating system having their on MS word,
MS office, video player, audio player, etc. We cannot use
applications of one operating system into another operating system.
That’s why this type of application is called standalone
application.
ii) Web Application:
the applications which can be used without installing in computer is
called web applications. It is not mandatory to download this type of
applications in the computer. These applications are independent
(Not depend) to any operating system.
We can use these type of Applications in Any browser. There is no
need to install them. standalone version of these web
applications are also available but it is our choice to download
them and to use them by browser.
For Example:
WhatsApp, Facebook,YouTube, Gmail, and all other social
applications can be used in computer without installing and these
applications are comes under web applications. In this type of
application some payment transactions web applications are
also include like icici bank.
Q. Why we are not using Standalone Applications in Another
Operating System?

Because different different operating system having there own
Extensions just like files. It is not possible to open .txt extension file
in any mp3 player.because mp3 player can only understand .mp3
extension. The file having .txt extension can only be open in any
notepad.
Just in same way we cannot use windows operating system
applications in another operating system like MAC OS. Because
windows application having .exe extension.
Windows OS =>> .exe,
MAC OS =>> .dmg,
Linux OS =>> .rpm, .tar, etc.
Note: C and C++ is used to Develop only Standalone Applications
thats why major parts of different different OS is Developed through
C and C++. In other hand through all other Programming
Languages we can develop either web application or Standalone
Applications.
*******************
1. Introduction to C
Q. What is C Programming?
Ans=> C is a programming language developed at Bell telephone
laboratories in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie. It is one of the oldest and
finest programming language. C programming language is reliable
simple and easy to use structured programming language. Major
parts of popular operating system like windows, Unix, Linux, etc are
written in C. it is the most appropriate language for learning
computer programming.

C programming language is high level language and in another high
level language the Syntax rule of of C language is used hence it is
the basic language for all other high level languages.
Some Important Facts about C :-
● C is invented to Write Linux operating system.
● C is a successor of B language which was introduced around 1970.
● C was formalized in 1988 by the American National standard
Institute (ANSI)
● Today’s most popular Linux OS and RDBMS MySQL have been
written in C
● She was originally first implemented on the DEC PDP-11 computer
in 1972.
Applications of C:-
C was initially used for system development work, particularly the
programs that make-up the operating system. It was initially used
in System Development because it produces code that runs nearly
the code of assembly language. Some examples of the use of C are
–
Operating Systems, Language Compilers, Assemblers, Text Editors,
Print Spoolers, Network Drivers, Modern Programs, Databases,
Language Interpreters
Utilities
Character Set of C Programming :-
1. Alphabets => A to Z, a to z.
2. Digits => 0 to 9.
3. Special Symbols => ~ ! @ # % ^ & * ( ) _ – + : { } [ ] ; , < > . ?
/ $ “” ”
Q. Why to Learn or use C Programming
Ans=> we learn or use C Programming Because of Some Features
and Advantages of C :-

● Easy to learn
● Structured language
● It produces efficient programs
● It can handle low-level activities
● It can be compiled on a variety of computer platforms
*******************
2.Basic Concepts of C
Variable, Constant, & Keywords in C
Variables
variables are the storage place where we can store n number of
Values. We can store Data in computer through Variables. To store
any value in computer we need to help variables. Through variables
we can easily Store values in computer and also accessing them
easily.
Ex.=> a=2, b=’a’, c=2.5
Rules for Declaring or Naming Variables in C programming :-
1. The first character must be an alphabet or underscore(_).
2. No commas, blanks allow.
3. No special symbol other than underscore is allowed.
4. Variable names are case sensitive
Constants
An entity whose value doesn’t change is called a constant. if we
change value of constant during execution of program then we get
compilation error. Constants are the values which are storaged in
Computer thought Variables. Means variables holds constant values
in them.

Types of constant
Primarily there are 3 types of constant :-
● Integer constant = -1,6,7,9
● Real constant = -322.1,2.5,7.0
● Character constant = ‘a’,’$’,’@’(must be enclosed within single
inverted commas).
Keywords
keywords are predefined reserved words in a programming
language. these keywords help us to use the functionality of C
programming. Due to their special meaning we cannot be used them
for other purpose.
There are 32 keywords available in C programming :-
auto double int struct
break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
const for short void
continue float signed while
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static unsigned

***The basic structure of a C program***
All c programs have to follow a basic structure. A c program starts
with the main function and executes instructions presents inside it.
Each instruction terminated with a semicolon(;).
There are some basic rules which are applicable to all the c
programs :-
1. Every program’s execution starts from the main function.
2. All the statements are terminated with a semi-colon.
3. Instructions are case sensitive.
4. Instructions are executed in the same order in which they are
written.
5. For printing output of any C Program we Need to use predefined
function of stdio.h header file Called printf( ).
6. For taking input there is one more predefined function of stdio.h
header file is used called scanf().
Program to add Two numbers
/* Program to add two Numbers */ //Comment
#include<stdio.h> // Header File with Preprocessor
void main() //Main Function
{ //Function Body Starting
int a,b,c; //Variable Declaration
printf(“n Enter two Numbers: “); //Output Statement for Taking Input
scanf(“%d%d“,&a,&b); //Input Statement
c=a+b; //Arithmetic Operation / Processing
printf(“nSum= %d“,c); //Output Statement for Output Printing
} /Function Body End
Explanation of Above Program Structure :
Comments
Comments are used to understand program in better way.
Comments are not executed by Compiler. Comment are not part of

program. They are used for just small note about program Writer in
program to understand program clearly. We can add comment
anywhere in c program after terminating Instruction using
semicolon.
There are 2 types of comment available in C:-
● Single line comment: //This is a comment.
● Multi line comment: /*This is multi line comment*/
Header files
In C programming collection of header files is called library and
collection of related predefined functions is called Header
files. To use any predefined function in c program we need to to
declare related header file of this function before main function.
C library is consist of n number of header files and these header
files having n number of related predefined functions. Each of the
function in different different header file having special functionality
to perform particular task.
There are n numbers of Preprocessors available in C and one of
them is #include Preprocessor. With the help of Preprocessor
#include we can Declare any header file in c program.
Ex.=> stdio.h header file contains n number of functions like
printf(), scanf(), fprintf(), fscanf(), fopen(), fgets(), fputs(), etc…
Some Header files and their Functions :-
math.h => pow(), rand(), sqrt(), etc..
graphics.h => setcolor(), setbkcolor(); circle(), bar(), line(),
outtextxy(), textstyle(), etc…
string.h => strlen(), strrev((, strcat(), strcpy(), strcmp(), etc…
conio.h => clrscr(), getch(), getche((, textcolor(),
textbackground(), etc…
main function

main function is a predefined function in c programming. This
function is compulsory to to start writing any program because C
program execution is starting from main function. Without main
function execution of program is not possible.
We can also create other functions like main function but all other
functions are calling directly or indirectly from main function. But
main function is not calling from inside to program because it is a
predefined function which is calling by operating system. We can
pass arguments to main function by command line.
Variable Declaration
we all know that to store any value in computer we need to help
variables. Through variables we can easily Store values in computer
and also accessing them easily. In the declaration of a variable it is
mandatory to to specify its data type. In C programming some
predefined primitive data types are available to declare variables.
These are int, float, char, and void.
● int variable can hold one integer value in it
● float variable can hold one real (floating) value in it.
● char variable can hold one character value in it.
● void variable can hold one value of any type.
printf function
printf function is a predefined function of stdio.h header file. It is
used in C program in 2 ways:-
1. To take value from End-user.
2. To print output of program.
Prototype or Syntax of printf function in 2 ways:-
● For Requesting input from End-user: printf(“request statement
(char*string)”);

● For Printing output of program: printf(“ouput statement
(char*string)”, variables list);
scanf function
scanf is also predefined function of stdio.h header file which is used
to store value given by End-user through printf function. To store
value in variables we need address of operator (&). We can store n
number of values in n Number of variables through scanf using
format specifies and using address of operator (&) before
variable name.
Prototype or Syntax of scanf function:-
scanf (“formate specifiers”,&variable1, &variable2,…);
Ex=> scanf(“%d%f%c”,a,b,c);
***Flow Chart & Algorithm***
Flow Chart
Flow Chart is a Pictorial or Diagrammatic Representation of
Institutions of programs. With the help of flowchart we can easily
understand flow of any program. flowchart uses various symbols to
represent different operations involved in the solution of a program.
Following symbols are used to draw flow Chart of any program :-

Algorithm
Algorithm is a set of instruction to perform a given task in a definite
time, written in normal English language is known as algorithm.
Algorithm is a step-by-step procedure which define flow of execution
of instructions one by one to produce desired output.
Characteristics of an Algorithm:
● Unambiguous:- All the Steps Should be Clear and lead to be one
meaning.
● Input:- should have 0 or more well defined inputs
● Output:- should have 1 or more well defined outputs.
● finiteness:- must be terminated after a finite number of steps.
● Feasibility:- Algorithm Should be Correct with Available Resources.
● Independent:- it should be independent of any programming
language.
***Flow of Program in C***
Step 1: C program (source code) is sent to preprocessor first. The
preprocessor generates an expanded source code.
Step 2: Expanded source code is sent to compiler which compiles
the code and converts it into assembly code.
Step 3: The assembly code is sent to assembler which assembles
the code and converts it into object code. (.o or .obj).
Step 4: The object code is sent to linker which links it to the library
such as header files. Then it is converted into executable code.
(.exe)
Step 5: The executable code is sent to loader which loads it into
memory and then it is executed. After execution, output is sent to
console.
*******************

3. Data Types in C
What is Data Types?
data type is nothing but it is a representation of a data. In the
declaration of any variable it is mandatory to specify its data type.
Syntax of Data type:- data_type variable_name;
Ex.=> int a;
It represents two things:-
● how much memory is required to allocate for variable.
● second is what type of data is allowed to store in a particular
variable.
For example=> In “int a” variable integer data type is allowed and it
required 2 or 4 bytes for memory allocation.
Classifications of Data Types in C
Premitive Data Type
● int
○ short int : 2 bytes memory required
■ signed short : -32768 to 32767
■ unsigned short : 0 to 65535
○ int : 2 or 4 bytes memory required
■ signed int : -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
■ unsigned int : 0 to 4,294,967,295
○ long int : 4 bytes memory required
■ signed long int : -9223372036854775808 to
9223372036854775807
■ unsigned long int : 0 to 18446744073709551615
● float
○ loat : 4 bytes memory required [1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38]

○ double : 8 bytes memory required [2.3E-308 to
1.7E+308]
○ long double : 10 bytes memory required [2.3E-308 to
1.7E+308]
● char : 1 bytes memory required
○ signed : -128 to 127
○ unsigned : 0 to 255
● Derived Data Type
○ Array
○ string
○ function
○ pointer
Some Important Questions about Char Data Type :-
Q. What is ASCII ?
Ans=> ASCII stands for American Standard Code for International
Interchange. This ASCII System Consist of Total 256 (0 to 255)
Characters. Through ASCII System we can Easily Access Characters
in Computer. ASCII System Having Number from 0 to 255 for Each
if the Character. This system is Applied for All Programming
Languages.
Q. Why Char Data Type Range or Limit represent in integer?
Ans=> Because we are representing a character using Character
system Called ASCII. ASCII Consist of total 256 (0 to 255)
character. Due to which each character having perticular number.
We Can Say that it is a Predefined Enumeration of All Characters in
ASCII for All Computer Programming Languages.
Q. Why Any Character Required 1 byte memory in Computer?

Ans=> character Required 1 Byte memory for Allocation Because
total characters in any programming language is definitely not more
than 256. Means 256 is equal to 2^8 and 2^8 is 1 byte. That’s why
one character Required 1 Byte memory in Computer.
***limits.h Header File***
Q. How to determine limits of data types in C programming?
Ans=> we can determine limits of data type through predefined
global variables of “limits.h” header file. limits.h header file
contains n number of predefined global variables. They are also
called macros of limit.h header file.
All these n number of global variables of limits.h having Constant
values means we cannot modify them.
All these predefined global variables of limits.h header file are as
follows:-
Macros /Variables Values Description
CHAR_BIT 8 Define the number of
bits in a byte.
SCHAR_MIN
CHAR_MIN
-128 Minimum value of a
signed char.
SCHAR_MAX
CHAR_MAX
127 Maximum value of a
signed char.

UCHAR_MAX 255 Maximum value of
an unsigned char.
SHRT_MIN -32768 Minimum value of a
short int
SHRT_MAX 32767 Maximum value of a
short int
USHRT_MAX 65535 Maximum value of
an unsigned short int
INT_MIN -2147483648 Minimum value of an
int
INT_MAX 2147483647 Maximum value of
an int
UINT_MAX 4294967295 Maximum value of
an unsigned int
LONG_MIN -
9223372036854775
808
Minimum value of
long int
LONG_MAX 9223372036854775
807
Maximum value of
long int

ULONG_MAX 1844674407370955
1615
Maximum value of
an unsigned long int
***sizeof() operator***
Q. What is sizeof operator and what is the use of it in C
programming?
Ans=> size of operator is a unary operator which is used to
determine the size of any operand. It returns this size of a variable.
It can be applied to any data type like int, float, char, pointer,
structure, typedef, union, etc.
Syntax or Prototype :- int sizeof(operand or data type)
Ex. => sizeof(a) , sizeof(int), sizeof(struct emp), sizeof(arr),
sizeof(str).
*******************
4.Instructions in C
Q. What is Instructions in C?
Ans.=> Instructions are the commands given to program for
compiler to do certain specific tasks. Without instructions there is no
programming language. Each of the statement of any program is
part of instructions.
There are three types of instructions available in C programming:-
1. Type Declaration Instruction : this instruction is used to declare
data type of variables. We all know that before writing any variable
in program it is mandatory to to specify its data type.
2. Arithmetic Instructions: arithmetic instructions are those
statements of c program by the help of which program perform
mathematical operations like multiplication, addition, substraction,

division, etc. To perform mathematical operations in C program we
need some operators (+, -, *, /, %).
3. Control Instructions: control instructions are those predefined
statements in C program which are used to perform Special tasks
like decision making. On the basis of of different different Special
tasks control instructions are further classified into four types :-
○ Sequence control instruction: sequence control
instruction ensure that the C program is executed in the
same order in which they written.
○ Decision Control Instruction: Decision control
Instructions allow the computer to take a decision as to
which instruction is to be executed next. Decision control
instruction works on the basis of Given Condition
(true/false).
Decision control instructions includes:-
if-else statement: It is used to execute next Instruction of
program on the basis of Condition. If the condition is true, then the
if block will be executed, otherwise, the else block will be executed.
In if-else statement else block is not necessary but optional. On the
basis of requirements we can also use nested if, nested if
else and else if logic in the C program.
Syntax:
if ( condition to be checked) {
Statements-if-condition-true ;
}
else{
statements-if-condition-false ;
}
Example of if-else:

int a=10; //we can input value from end user also
if(a=11){
printf(“I am 11”);
}
else{
printf(“I am not 11”);
}
Shorthand syntax for if-else:- (Conditional
Operators)
Condition ? expression-if-true : expression-if-false;
Ex=> a>1 ? printf(“Greater”) : printf (“Smaller”);
Flow Chart of if-else:
○ Loop Control Instructions: Loop control statements in C
are used to perform looping operations until the given
condition is true. Control comes out of the loop statements
once condition becomes false. There are 3 types of loop
control statements in C:-

i) while loop: In this Loop block keeps executing as
long as the condition is true. It will be terminate after
condition become false. It check the condition before executing
the loop body. We can also use Nested while loop according
to the requirement. “If the condition never becomes false, the
while loop keeps getting executed. Such a loop is known as an
infinite loop“.
Syntax:
while(condition) {
statement(s);
}
Example:
int i=0; //initialisation
while (i<10){
printf(“The value of i is %d”,i); i++;
}
Flow Chart of while Loop:

ii) do while loop: Do-while loop works very similer to while
loop. But the main difference between while and do-while loop
is that “while loop first check the condition &then execute
block” and “do-while first executes the block & then checks the
condition. do while loop execute at least once.
syntax of do-while:
do {
statement(s);
}while(condition)
Flow chart of do-while loop:
iii) for loop:
syntax:
for ( init; condition; increment or decrement operators) {
statement(s);
}
Example:
for(i=0; i<3; i++)
{
printf(“%d”,i);
printf(“n”);
}
Flow chart of for loop:

4. Case Control Instructions: The statements which are used to
execute only specific block of statements in a series of blocks are
called case control Instructions.
There are 4 Case Control Instructions available in c:-
i) switch: Switch case statements are used to execute
only specific case statements based on the switch expression.
Syntax=>
switch (expression)
{
case label1: statements;
break;
break;
break;

default: statements;
break;
}
Flow chart of switch:
ii) break: Break statement is used to terminate the while
loops, switch case loops and for loops from the subsequent
execution. Whatever the condition loop is terminated after using
break statement.
Syntax: break;
Example:
for (i=0; i<1000; i++){
printf(“%d,”,i);
if (i==5){
break;
}
}

Output: 1,2,3,4,5
Flow chart of break:
iii) continue: Continue statement is used to continue the next
iteration of for loop, while loop and do-while loops. Whatever the
statements below continue will skip and control comes to next
iteration of loop.
Syntax: continue;
Example:
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
if(i==5 || i==6)
{
continue;
}
printf(“%d “,i);
}
Output: 0,1,2,3,4,7,8,9
Flow Chart:

iv) goto: this case control statement is used to move control of
program to perticular statement. goto statement is used to transfer
the normal flow of a program to the specified label in the program
means control move to perticular statement where we want. we can
say that goto statement is used for customise flow of Program
according to us. it is used for unconditional jump to labled
statement.
Syntax:
goto label;
..
.
label: statement;
flow chart of goto:

*******************
5. Operators in C
Q. What are Operators in C Programming?
Ans=> operators are the special symbols that tells the compiler to
perform specific mathematical or logical operations.
Types of Operators in C
On the basis of different different functionality, operators are
classified into 6 type in C programming:-
1. Arithmetic Operators :-
( int a= 10, b=20;)
Operator Description Example

+ Add two operands a + b = 30
– Subtracts second
operand from the
first.
a – b = -10
* Multiplies both
operands.
a * b = 300
/ Divides numerator
by denominator
b / a = 2
% divide numberator
by denominator and
return remainder.
b % a = 0
++ Increment operator
increases the integer
value by one. (called
modify operator)
Pre increment
++a = 11
Post increment
a++ = 11
— Increment operator
decreases the
integer value by one.
(Called modify
operator)
Pre decrement
–a = 9
Post Decrement
a– = 9

Modify Operators in C
Modify Operators are also called unary operator because they
perform operation on single operands at a time.
There are 2 types of modify Operators available in C :-
● Increment Operator: used to increase integer value by one.
There are 2 types of increment:-
i) pre-increment: printing value after increment.
ii) post-increment: printing value before increment.
● Decrement Operator: used to decrease integer value by one.
There are 2 types of decrement:-
i) pre-decrement: printing value after decrement.
ii) post-decrement: printing value before decrement.
Process of execution of modify Operators in C program step
by step:-
Step1: Pre-increment / Pre-decrement
Step2: Substitution
Step3: Evaluation
Step4: Assignment
Step5: Post-increment / Post-decrement
2. Relational Operators:
(int a=10, b=20;)

== Checks if the values
of two operands are
equal or not. If yes,
then the condition
becomes true.
(a == b) is not true
!= Checks if the values
of two operands are
equal or not. If the
values are not equal,
then the condition
becomes true.
(a != b) is true
Checks if the value of
left operand is
greater than the
value of right
operand. If yes, then
the condition
becomes true.
(a > b) is not true
< Checks if the value of
left operand is less
than the value of
right operand. If yes,
then the condition
becomes true.
(a<b) is true
>= Checks if the value of
left operand is
greater than or equal
to the value of right
(a>=b) is true

the condition
becomes true.
<= Checks if the value of
left operand is less
than or equal to the
value of right
the condition
becomes true.
(a<=b) is nit true
3. Logical Operators:
(int a=1, b=0)
&& Called Logical AND
operator. If both the
operands are non-
zero, then the
condition becomes
true.
(a &&b ) is false.
|| Called Logical OR
Operator. If any of
the two operands is
non-zero, then the
(A || B) is true.

condition becomes
true.
! Called Logical NOT
Operator. It is used
to reverse the logical
state of its operand.
If a condition is true,
then Logical NOT
operator will make it
false.
!(A && B) is true.
4. Bitwise Operators:
In arithmetic-logic unit (which is within the CPU), mathematical
operations like: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are
done in bit-level. To perform bit-level operations in C programming,
bitwise operators are used.
There are 6 bitwise Operators available in c programming :-
5. Assignment Operators:
= “Simple
assignment”
operator. Assigns
values from right
C = A + B will assign
the value of A + B to
C

side operands to left
side operand
+= “Add AND
assignment”
operator. It adds the
right operand to the
left operand and
assign the result to
the left operand.
C += A is equivalent
to C = C + A
-= “Subtract and
assignment”
operator. It subtracts
the right operand
from the left operand
and assigns the
result to the left
operand.
C -= A is equivalent
to C = C – A
*= Multiply and
assignment
operator. It
multiplies the right
operand with the left
operand and assigns
the result to the left
operand.
C *= A is equivalent
to C = C * A

/= Divide and
assignment
operator. It divides
the left operand with
the right operand
and assigns the
result to the left
operand.
C /= A is equivalent
to C = C / A
%= Modulus and
assignment operator.
It takes modulus
using two operands
and assigns the
result to the left
operand.
C %= A is equivalent
to C = C % A
<<= Left shift and
assignment
operator.
C <<= 2 is same as
C = C << 2
>>= Right shift and
assignment
operator.
C >>= 2 is same as
C = C >> 2
&= Bitwise AND and
assignment
operator.
C &= 2 is same as C
= C & 2
^= Bitwise exclusive
OR and
C ^= 2 is same as C
= C ^ 2

assignment
operator.
|= Bitwise inclusive
OR and
assignment
operator.
C |= 2 is same as C
= C | 2
5) Misc Operators: (sizeof & ternary)
sizeof() Returns the size of a
variable or data
types.
int a;
sizeof(a), where a is
integer, will return 4.
& Returns the address
of a variable.
&a; returns the
actual address of the
variable.
* Pointer to a variable. *a;
? : Conditional
Expression.
Used in Short Hand if
statement:
Condition ?
expression-if-true :
expression-if-false;
***Operator Presidence in C***

Operators priority or Operators Presidence determine in C program
that which operator execute first in any statement. This term is also
called hierarchy of operators. According to the statement condition
Hierarchy of operators decides that which operator having higher
priority for execution and which operator having lower priority in
execution.
Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of
the table, those with the lowest appear at the bottom.
Priority b/w Some Basic Operator:-
Category Operators Associativity
Not operator ! Right to left
Multiplicative *, /, % left to right
Additive +,- Left to right
Relational Operators <>,<=,>= Left to right
Equality ==,!= Left to right
Logic AND && Left to right
Logic OR || Left to right
Assignment =, +=, -=, *=,
/=, %=
Right to left
*******************

6. Function & Recursion
Q. What is Function?
Ans=> function is a block of instructions having identity which
takes input it as an argument, process that input and produce an
output. A function declaration tells the compiler about a function’s
name, return type, and parameters.
Syntax:
return_type function_identity( parameter list ) {
body of the function
}
Parts of function:-
● Return type: A function may return a value. Return type means
which type of data function will return it must be specified.
Some functions perform the desired operations without
returning a value. In this case, the return_type is void.
● Identity: This is the actual name of the function by the help of
which function Called from main function.
● Parameters: parameters are placeholder for arguments passing
from main function. Parameters are optional that is, a function may
contain no parameters according to the Condition.
● Function Body: In the body a function perform its specific task.
***Function Declaration***
A function declaration tells the compiler about a function name and
how to call the function. The actual body of the function can be
defined separately. Function declaration is also called function
prototype.
Declaration or Prototype:
function_name( parameter list );

Ex.=> int max(int num1, int num2);
***Calling a function***
Function Calling means passing value/values from main function to
perform specific task. function always calling from another function
like main, etc. we can pass value from main function directly or
indirect.
In C programming there are 2 ways of calling function:
1. Call by Value:
passing value directly or indirectly from the main function to the
function parameter as an argument is called Call by Value. In this
case, changes made to the parameter inside the function have no
effect on the argument. In call by value function parameter must be
variables to store that values.
2. Call by Reference:
passing addresses of variables directly or indirectly from the main
function to the function parameter as an argument is called call by
reference. This means that changes made to the parameter affect
the argument. We are passing address of arguments with the help
of Pointers. In Call by Reference concept function parameter must
be pointer to store the addresses of variables.
***Type of Function in C***
There are two types of function in C programming:

C library is the collection of header file and each header file is the
collection of predefined functions.
For example we use printf() and scanf() function by declaring
stdio.h header file through #include Preprocessor directive.
Some Header files and their Predefined Functions :-
math.h => pow(), rand(), sqrt(), etc..
graphics.h => setcolor(), setbkcolor(); circle(), bar(), line(),
outtextxy(), textstyle(), etc…
string.h => strlen(), strrev((, strcat(), strcpy(), strcmp(), etc…
conio.h => clrscr(), getch(), getche((, textcolor(),
textbackground(), etc…
You can also create functions as per your need. Such functions
created by the user are known as user-defined functions. These
functions can only called from main function directly or indirectly.
***why we are using functions***
The advantages of using functions are:
1) Avoid repetition of codes.
2) Increases program readability.
3) Divide a complex problem into simpler one.
4) Reduces chances of error.
5) Modifying a program becomes easier by using function.
Q. What is Recursion? Types of Recursion?
Ans=> A function that calls itself is known as a recursive function.
And, this technique is known as recursion.

The recursion continues until some condition is met to prevent it. If
we are not giving any condition than it will works as an infinite loop.
So one condition is compulsory for terminating recursive function.
Syntax:
Ex.=> Factorial of a given number by recursion using this formula:
fact(n) = n*fact(n-1)
Types of Recursions
There are 2 type of Recursion:-
1. Direct Recursion:
the function Calls itself again is called direct recursion. And that
function is called direct recursive function. Means it is normal
recursion which we discussed above.
Example=> Factorial of a given number by recursion using
this formula: fact(n) = n*fact(n-1)

#include<stdio.h>
int fact(int);
int main()
{ int num,f;
printf(“Enter Number: “);
scanf(“%d”,&num);
f= fact(num);
printf(“factorial of %d is %d”,num,f);
return 0;
}
int fact(int n) {
if(n>=1)
return n*fact(n-1);
else
return 1;
}
2. Indirect Recursion:

when 2 functions calling each other in circular manner is called
Indirect recursion. And that function is called Indirect recursive
function
Syntax of Indirect Recursive Function:
Program of Indirect Recursive Function:
/* Program to print number from 1 to 10 in such a way that when
number is odd, add 1 and when Number is even, substract 1.*/
#include<stdio.h>
void odd();
void even();
int n=1;
int main() {
odd();
return 0;
}
void odd() {
if(n<=10) {
printf(“%d “,n+1);

n++;
even();
}
return;
}
void even() {
if(n<=10) {
printf(“%d “,n-1);
n++;
odd();
}
return;
}
*******************
7. Pointers
Q. What is Pointer?
Ans=> pointer is variables that stores the address of another
variable. Generally pointers are used to to access the information of
a memory location.
Syntax:
data type* variable;

Or
data type *variable;
Declaration: int *a;
Type of Pointer :-
1. Typed Pointer:
always points to specific type of data. Like integer pointer, double
pointer, struct emp pointer, string pointer, array pointer.
2. Untyped Pointer:
Can points to any type of data. Also called generic pointer. Only void
pointer comes under generic pointer.
Generally in pointer concept we need to take the help of two
Operators to perform any task:
Address of operator (&): used to returns the address of a
perticular variable.
Ex.=> &i=> 87994, &j8=>8799
Pointer Operator (*): used to return the value of address or
memory location.
Ex.=> *(&i) = 72
*(&j) = 87994 //it holds the address of pointer.
program for better understanding:-
void main(){
int i=100;
int *ptr;
ptr=&i;

printf(“%dn”,i); // Value of i
printf(“%dn”, *(&i); // Value of i
printf(“%dn”, *ptr; // Value of i
printf(“%un”, ptr; // Address of i
printf(“%un”, &i; // Address of i
printf(“%un”, &ptr; // Address of Pointer
}
Note:-
Pointer always holds 2 byte memory because it only store address
of a variable not value. Address of variable is always unsigned
integer type. That’s why we are using “%u” format specifier for
printing address of a variable.
●
Pointer size always very on compiler type or computer architecture.
If it is 16 bit compiler then the size of int and integer pointer is 2
byte. And if it is is 32 bit compiler then the size of of int and
integer pointer is 4 byte.
●
***Pointer to function***
Calling function with the help of pointer is called Pointer to function.
Generally we know that how to create pointer to primitive data type
like float, char, int, double ect. the declaration of a pointer in all the
primitive data type is same. But in the concept of function pointer
declaration is totally different.
declaration of a pointer to function is completely depend on
the prototype of function. Means that the function prototype and
declaration of pointer should be same.

Syntax: return type (*identity) (arg list);
Declaration: int (*ptr) (int, int)
This is the exact Declaration of pointer to function. In this example
this pointer can points to any function which is taking two integer
arguments and return integer data.
Q. How to call any function by pointer?
To call any Function anywhere in the program we need to assign
address of that Function into pointer using Address of Operator.
Syntax: pointer = address of function
Ex=> ptr=&add
Program for better understanding:-
#include stdio.h
int add(int, int);
int subs(int, int);
int main(){
int (*ptr) (int,int). // This function pointer points to both function
ptr= &subs; //calling subs function
printf(“%dn”, subs(9,5);
ptr= &add; // calling add function
printf(“%d”, add(4,3);
}
int add(int a, int b){

return a+b;
}
int subs(int a, int b){
return a-b;
}
Output: 4
7
Explanation: in above Program one pointer point to 2 function one
is subs function and second is add function. Means this Pointer
can points to those functions in program which is accept 2 argument
and return integer data. We can call any function after assigning
address of function into pointer using Address of Operator (&).
***Dangling Pointer***
Q. What is Dangling Pointer?
Ans=> dangling pointer is a pointer which holds the non-existing
memory address. Means we can say that Dangling pointer is a
pointer pointing to a memory location that has been freed (or
deleted).
There are different different conditions in which any pointer become
dangling pointer :-
● When Variable goes out of scope

● When Function call
● When De-allocation of memory by free function
Variable goes out of scope :-
1.
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int *ptr;
{
int x;
ptr=&x;
ptr=NULL //to avoid dangling pointer problem
}
return 0;
}
Explanation: In above Program we Declare a pointer ptr which
Store the address of x variable. means ptr points to x variable.
Here, ptr is become a dangling pointer after the execution of inner
block in which x variable is Declared. because scope of variable
x is only in inner block means x variable will not exist out of inner
block.

now x variable will be deleted due to its scope. And allocated
memory location of variable x is also freed.
Now, but ptr still hold the address which was previously freed
(deleted) by program. Means ptr still Store non-existing memory
address. That’s why ptr is called dangling pointer of that program.
To avoid this problem we assign NULL to pointer ptr. Now ptr
returns NULL pointer means 0.
When Function Call:-
2.
The pointer pointing to local variable becomes dangling when
local variable is not static.
when function call to main function than “segmentation
fault” error will be show.
Ex=>
int *show(void) {
int n = 76; /* … */
return &n;
}
When De-allocation of Memory by free function
3.

main() {
float *p = (float *)malloc(sizeof(float));
//dynamic memory allocation.
free(p);
//after calling free() p becomes a dangling pointer
p = NULL;
//now p no more a dangling pointer.
*******************
8. Array
Q. What is Array?
Ans.=> An array is a variable that can store multiple values of the
same data type. Array is Comes under derived data type. For
example, if you want to store 100 integers, you can create an array
for it.
With the help of Array we can store n number of elements in a
single variable of same data type.
Syntax:– dataType identity[size of array];
Declaration:- int marks[5];
Initialisation:- int marks[5]={12,23,34,45};
Q. How Memory will be Allocated in Array Consept?
2120 2122 2124 2126 2128

Suppose the address of mark[0] is 2120. Then, the address of the
mark[1] will be 2122. Similarly, the address of mark[2] will be 2124
and so on.This is because the size of a int is 2 bytes. That’s why the
address gapping is also 2.
1.
Array variable always holds the base aadress of memory block. Here
marks variable holds the address of first element which is suppose
2120. That means the base address of marks array is 2120.
2.
In primitive data type like int, float, char we use pointer for
storing the address of a variable. But in array for storing address of
all elements, pointer is not used. Here array variable holds the base
address that is why it is called internal pointer variable. In above
example marks variable is used to store address of array.
3.
Q. How to Access an Array Elements?
We can access array elements with the help of indexing number like
marks[0], marks[1],…marks[4]. Array Indexing Start with 0.
2120 2122 2124 2126 2128
Here marks variable holds base address of array memory block
which is called Internal pointer variable. Address of marks is
2120.
If the size of an array is n, to access the last element, the n-1 index
is used. In this example, mark[4] is Last element.
Q. How to initialise array?

Ans=> There are some common ways of initialising array:-
1. Direct initialisation using Curly Braces { }:
Ex=> int marks[4]={45,67,56,34};
2. By Assigning value one by one:
Ex=> int mark[4];
marks[0] = 45;
marks[1] = 67;
marks[2] = 56;
marks[3] = 34;
3. By using Loop: storing values from user by loop and also
printing with the help of loop.
Ex=>
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int arr[4];
for(int i=0; i<4; i++) {
printf(“Enter Element %d: “, i+1);
scanf (“%d”,&arr[i]);
}
for(int i=0; i<4; i++) {
printf(“Value of element %d is %dn”, i+1, arr[i]);
}

return 0;
}
Q. How to process (use) the elements of array?
Ans.=> We can process the elements of Array using iterators like
while loop, for loop, do-while loop.
***Local & Global Declaration of an Array***
Local Declaration
Declaration of an array inside of any function is called local
declaration of an array. There are three situation in which local
declaration initialised:-
1. Case 1: int arr[4];
In this case, if we are not initialising array then all the
elements of array initialised with garbage values.
2. Case 2: int arr[4]={23,34};
In this case remaining elements of array initialised with 0.
3. Case 3: int arr[4]={23,34,45,12};
In this case, all the elements of Array normal initialised with
given values.
Global Declaration

Declaration of an array out of of all the functions is called Global
declaration of an array. Means that in global declaration all the
elements initialised with 0.
Examples:
● int arr[4]; => initialised with 0.
● int arr[4]={12}; => remaining elements initialised with 0.
● int arr[4]={12,23,45,9} => all the elements initialised with given
values.
***Types of array***
There are three types of array in C Programming :-
1. One Dimensional Array:
The type of array which is having only one subscript is called 1-D
array. 1-D Array is used to store data in linear form.
Syntax:- dataType identity[size of array];
Declaration of 1d array: int arr[4];
Initialisation of 1d array: arr[4]={23,45,67,12};
we are initialise 1-D array just like variable. But the main difference
is that we are using curly braces { } for initialising all the elements
of array.
2. Two Dimensional Array:
The type of array which is having 2 subscript is called 2-D array.
Two dimensional array is also called matrix or table.

Syntax:
dataType identity[Number of Rows][Number of Columns];
There are two methods of declaring & initialising 2D array :-
Method 1:
Declaration=> int arr[2][3];
Initialisation=> arr[2][3]={12,13,14,15,16,17};
In this method we are initialising all the elements of two rows in
single line
Method 2: declaration=> int arr[2][3];
initialisation=> arr[2][3]={
{12,13,14};
{15,16,17};
};
In this method we are initialising element of 1st and 2nd row
separately using two inner curly braces. One curly brace for
1st row and 2nd curly brace for 2nd row. Both curly braces
enclosed with another outer curly brace.
3. Multidimensional array:-
The type of array which is having more than 2 subscript is called
M-D array. In C programming, you can create an array of arrays is
known as multidimensional arrays.
Syntax:

dataType identity[N of 2d array][N of Rows][N of Columns];
Declaration: int arr[2][3][4];
Initialisation: int test[2][3][4] = {
{{3, 4, 2, 3}, {0, -3, 9, 11}, {23, 12, 23,
2}},
{{13, 4, 56, 3}, {5, 9, 3, 5}, {3, 1, 4, 9}}
};
If any array having 3 subscript then the total elements of
array is [sub1]*[sub2]*[sub3].
For example: int arr[2][3][4];
This M-d array can holds 2*3*4=24 elements.
Array Program example:
/* Program to find smallest number in list*/
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{ int list[100];
int n, min;
printf(“Enter Limit: “);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
for(int i=0; i<n; i++) {
printf(“Enter Number %d: “, i+1);
scanf(“%d”,&list[i]);
}

min= list[0];
for(int i=1; i<n; i++) {
if(list[i]<min) {
min= list[i];
}
}
printf(“Smallest Number is %d”,min);
return 0;
}
***Pointer to Array***
Q. What is Pointer to Array?
Ans=> we all know that a Pointer holds the address of a variable. If
pointer is int type than it holds the address of only int variable.
In same way pointer to Array is the collection of addresses in
a single pointer variable like int (*ptr)[10]. In this example one
pointer variable holds n number of addresses due to Array of
pointers.
For example: if we want to store the addresses of array elements (
like int arr[5]) than we will create array of pointers (like int
(*ptr)[5]). Now this array of pointers is capable to hold the address
of each of the element one by one in contigues block.
Ex=>

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
/*pointer to single variable*/
int a=2;
int *p;
p=&a;
/*printing the values of a by pointer p*/
printf(“value of a is = %dn”, *p);
/*Pointer to Array*/
int arr[5]= {12,34,56,33,21};
int (*ptr)[5]; //array of pointers
ptr=&arr;
/*printing values of array by for loop*/
for(int i=0; i<5; i++) {
printf(“value of arr[%d] is = %dn”,i, (*ptr)[i]);
}
return 0;
}

Output:
value of a is = 2
value of arr[0] is = 12
Explanation:-
● In this program we differentiate pointer to variable and pointer to
array. The process of creating array pointers is just same like
pointer to variable.
● but the only main difference is that we are creating array of
pointers for storing address of Each of the element of array.
● And one more difference is that the syntax of pointer to array is
different like that int (*ptr)[5]. Means we use paranthesis for
pointer to array and after that giving size like [5] means it can
hold 5 addresses.
******************
9. String
Q. What is String?
Ans=> string is a one dimensional character array terminated by a
null (‘0’). When the compiler encounters a sequence of characters
enclosed in the single quotation marks, it appends a null character
0 at the end by default. Null Character (0) Means terminating
String and the ASCII value of Null (0) character is 0.

Syntax:- char identity[size];
Declaration:- char name[20];
Q. How Memory Will be Allocated in String?
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
● In Sting variable (array name) holds the base address of string
memory block. string variable is also called Internal pointer
variable.
● Each of the character of string takes 1 byte memory for Allocation.
● In above example there are 4 characters in c string but including
null Character (0) there are 5 Characters.
● Suppose the address of c[0] is 2000. Then, the address of the c[1]
will be 2001. Similarly, the address of c[2] will be 2002 and so
on.This is because the size of char is 1 bytes. That’s why the
address gapping is also one.
Q. How to initialised a string?
You can initialize strings in number of ways:-
1. char c[] = {‘a”https://dheeraj-
patidar.blogspot.com/2022/07/,”b”https://dheeraj-
patidar.blogspot.com/2022/07/,”c”https://dheeraj-
patidar.blogspot.com/2022/07/,”d”https://dheeraj-
patidar.blogspot.com/2022/07/,”0’};
2. char c[5] = {‘a”https://dheeraj-
patidar.blogspot.com/2022/07/,”b”https://dheeraj-
patidar.blogspot.com/2022/07/,”c”https://dheeraj-
patidar.blogspot.com/2022/07/,”d”https://dheeraj-
patidar.blogspot.com/2022/07/,”0’};
3. char c[] = “abcd”; // Value after d is ‘0’ by default
4. char c[50] = “abcd”; // Value after d is ‘0’ by default
Q. How to access the Elements (characters) of string?

Ans=> we can access the characters of string through indexing like
name[0], name[1], name[2]… and so on. String Indexing Start with
0.
The last element of string is null character which is automatically
added when we are initialising string in such way:-
char str[20]=”abcd”;.
Q. How to process the elements of string?
Ans=>
● In string we use %s format specifier for reading & writing all the
character of string at once.
● For %s there is no need of iterators (loops).
● We can also use %c format specifier of character but through this
format specifier we can access one character at a time. For
accessing all the elements of string or word we use %S.
● There is no need to provide address when we are using %s format
specifier, because variable of string holds the Base address of string
and from the base address what all characters End-user input
character by character %S will collect by scanf function and print by
printf function.
***String Handling Functions***
Some Special Functions iof string.h header file are used for handed
any string in program.
These Special Functions are as follows:-
1. gets()
The gets() function in C reads characters from stdin (standard
input) and stores them until a newline character is found or end of
file occurs. When gets funtion encounter new line character then it
will terminate and stop reading characters.
In Simple words we can say that this Function is used to read multi-
strings until new line character. When we press enter than it will be

terminate. scanf function can only read one string thats why we are
using gets() function to read multi-strings like line, paragraph.
Syntax: char *gets(char *str);
Declaration: gets(str);
Parameter: Here, in the parameter of this function str is a pointer
to an array of chars (ArrayName holds the base address) where
the String is stored.
Return: this function returns str on success, and on error it will
return NULL.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main () {
char str[50];
printf(“Enter a string : “);
gets(str);
printf(“You entered: %s”, str);
return(0);
}
2. puts() =>
The puts() function in C print a string to stdout (Standard Output)
but not including the null character. A newline character is
appended to the output.
In simple word we can say that it is a Function which is used to print
muti-strings on console. printf function can only print one string

that’s why we are using puts Function for printing multi-string like
line, paragraph.
Syntax: int puts(const char* str);
Declaration: puts(str);
Parameter: Here in the parameter of this function str is the
constant string that is to be printed.
Return Value: If successful, non-negative value is returned. On
error, the function returns EOF.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{char name[20];
printf(“Enter your name: “);
gets(name);
printf(“Your name is “);
puts(name);
return 0;
}
3. strlen() =>
this function of string.h header file is used to calculate the length of
string excluding Null (‘0’) character.

The strlen() function takes a string as an argument and returns its
length. The returned value is of type size_t (the unsigned integer
type).
Syntax:
size_t strlen( const char* str)
Declaration: strlen(str);
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main() {
char name[]=”Dheeraj Patidar”;
printf(“Length of Your name is: %d”, strlen(name));
}
Output: Length of Your name is: 15
4. strcat() =>
this function of string.h header file is used to contcatenates (joins)
two string. This Function takes two arguments. first is destination
string and 2nd is Source string.
The strcat() function concatenates the destination string and the
source string, and the result is stored in the destination string.
Syntax:
char *strcat(char *destination, const char *source);
Example:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{char str1=”Hello “;
char str2=”World.”;
strcat(str1,str2);
printf(“Concatenation string is = %s”, str1);
return 0;
}
Output: Concatenation String is = Hello World.
5. strcpy() =>
this function bof string.h header file is used to cooy one string into
another including Null character (‘0’).
Syntax: char* strcpy(char* destination, const char* source);
Declaration: strcpy(str1,str2);
when we are using this function, the destination size should be
equal or greater than source string. Otherwise this function
misbehave.
Example:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{ char str1=”Hello”;
char str2=”World”;
printf(“value of str1 is = %s”,str1);
printf(“value of str2 is = %s”,str2);
strcpy(str1,str2);
printf(“Now value of str1 is = %s”, str1);
return 0;
}
Output: value of str1 is = Hello
value of str2 is = World
Now value of str1 is = World
6. strcmp
this function of string.h header file is used to Compare 2 string and
return integer value.
Syntax: int strcmp(const char *str1, const char *str2);
Declaration: strcmp(str1,str2);
Some ASCII System Value Points:-

● The integer values of all upper case letters (65-90) are less than
integer Values of all lower case letter (97-122).
● Digits value are less than letters values (48-57).
● Space character ASCII Value (32) is less than all the printed
characters.
String Comparison function returns integer value in such a
way that:-
● If s1<s2, then it returns a value which is less than 0.
● If s1>s2, then it returns a value which is greater than 0.
● If s1==2, then it returns 0.
How strcmp function work:-
● strcmp function first compare the length of 2 strings. According to
condition it will give output but if the length of both strings are
equal than it compare one by one character of both strings.
● Whenever it found any mismatch character than it will Compare
both characters ASCII Value and according to condition it return
value.
● Now if all the characters of both strings are same than it will return
0.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int main()
{ char str1[10];
char str2[10];
int cmp;
strcpy(str1,”AbcD”);
strcpy(str2,”Abcd”);
cmp=strcmp(str1,str2);
if(cmp<0) {
printf(“str1 is less than str 2n”);
}
else if(cmp>0) {
printf(“str2 is less than str1n”);
}
else {
printf(“both are equaln”);
}
printf(“the value return by strcmp is: %d”,cmp);

return 0;
}
Output: str1 is less than str 2
the value return by strcmp is: -128
*******************
10. Structure
Q. What is Structure?
Ans=> structure is a user defined data type. Using structure we
can Store n number of elements of different data type in a single
variable.
For example in Array Consept we can store n number of element
but of same data type. due to this disadvantage of array the
concept of structure is introduced.
Syntax:

struct structureName
{
dataType member1;
dataType member2;
………
………
};
Declaration:
struct emp
{
char ename[20]; //use of string for storing name
int ecode;
float esalary;
};
One more important thing about structure is that Primitive data type
having only single word like int, float, char. but user Defined
dataType is a collection of word like structure emp.
Ex=>

#include<stdio.h>
struct emp
{
char ename[20];
int ecode;
float esalary;
};
int main(){
int a; // Here int is a dataType of variable a
struct emp e1; // here struct emp is a dataType of variable e1
/*
……
some code
……
*/
}
Q.How Memory will be allocated in structure?
Ans=>
● When a struct type (struct emp) is declared, no storage or memory
is allocated. To allocate memory of a given struct type (struct emp)
and work with it, we need to create variables (Like e1,e2, etc).

● When we are Declaration variable (e1), a block of memory will be
allocated for (e1) variable according to structure members (like
ename, ecode, esalary).
● ename get 20 byte, ecode get 2 byte, esalary get 4 byte in 16 bit
Compiler. Means total memory will be allocated for (e1) variable is
total of all members (20+2+4=26) byte.
● How much memory will be allocated by structure variable is
totally depend on the members of structure.
● In this diagram, e1 holds 26 byte memory and also e2 holds 26 byte
memory. for both e1 and e2 variables seperate memory block will
be allocated. Inside of these blocks 3 variables declared due to
structure. e1 holds 2000 to 2025 memory addressed and e2 holds
3000 to 3025 memory addresses. here e1 is called Internal pointer
variable of its memory block and e2 is also callex Internal pointer
variable of its memory block because they store’s the base address
of their Memory block.
Q. How to access the members of structure?
Ans=> There are two types of operators used for accessing
members of a structure.
● Accessor (.) => Used in structure to access the members of
structure by variables. For example: e1.ename, e1.ecode,
e1.esalary, etc.
● Arrow operator (->) => used in the concept of pointer to
structure. for example: ptr->ename, ptr->ecode, ptr->salary, etc.

Q. How to initialise structure?
Ans=> we can initialised any structure just like an array. but the
main difference b/w initialisation of structure and array is that there
is no need to specify the size of structure variable because we are
using the member of a structure for storing elements. And in the
concept of array it is mandatory to specify the size of array because
all the elements are of same data type.
For Example:
struct emp e1={“vishal”,6253, 30000};
int arr[10]={12,34,56,22};
There are 2 ways of initialising structure:-
1. Direct Initialisation.
2. Input values from End-user using prinf function.
***Size of Structure by sizeof Operator***
we can find sizebof structure withb2 method:-
1. By passing structure variable:
printf(“Size of Structure is %d”, sizeof(e1));
2. By passing struct type:
printf(“Size of Structure is %d”, sizeof(struct emp));
***Local & Global Structure***
Local structure
A Structure which is declared inside a particular function is called
local structure.
and the declaration of a structure inside the function is called local
declaration of structure.

Global structure
A structure which is declared outside to all the functions is called
Global structure.
And the declaration of a structure outside to all the functions is
called Global declaration of a structure.
***Pointer to Structure***
we can also use pointer concept in structure. In this concept we are
just creating struct type pointer (like struct emp *ptr;) and assign
the aadress of variable of a structure to that Pointer (like struct
emp *ptr=&e1;).
Now we can access the members of structure through pointer by
passing address of variable. In this concept we can access members
of struct type by arrow operator (->) in place of accessor (.).
Example:-
#include<stdio.h>
struct emp{
char name[20];
int code;
float salary;
};
int main()
{
struct emp e1; //Declaring a Variable

struct emp* ptr; //Declaration of structure pointer
ptr= &e1; //assigning address of e1 variable to ptr
printf(“Enter name of e1: “);
scanf(“%s”,ptr->name);
printf(“Enter code of e1: “);
scanf(“%d”,&ptr->code);
printf(“Enter salary of e1: “);
scanf(“%f”,&ptr->salary);
printf(“nname of e1 is: %sn”, ptr->name);
printf(“code of e1 is: %dn”,ptr->code);
printf(“salary of e2 is: %.2fn”,ptr->salary);
return 0;
}
***Array of structure***
As we all know that structure is a collection of different data types.
Whereas array of structure is nothing but the collection of
structure.
For exampleIf we want to store the record of one student by
structure but if we want to to store the records of n number of
students then it becomes very complicated and waste of time, that’s
why we are using the concept off array of structure. In this concept
we can collect and number of Students records.

In the Consept of Array of structure all the syntax is same as simple
structure. Only Multiple structures are used.
More Clarity With example:-
*******************
11. Union
Q. What is union in c programming?
Ans=> union is a user defined data type like structure. But union
members share same memory location for storing and processing
the data.
Example=>
In above example we found that in structure a and b both members
get different memory location but in union a and b share same
memory location.
Syntax:
union unionName
{
dataType member1;
dataType member2;
………

………
};
Declaration:
union abc
{
int a;
char b;
};
Q. How Memory Will be allocated in Union Concept?
Ans=>
In above example, structure int a get 4
byte memory and after that char b get 1 byte memory means both
members get different memory.
● But in union both int a and char b are sharing the same memory
location and that is why both get same memory address.
● In union, members will share same memory location and if we
change value of one member than the values of another variable will
replaced with that values. for example int a=10 and int b=20, then
value of a become 20 due to replacement of value.
Example for more clarity:-
1. In this above example, we declare a union of member int a, and
member char b. Now after we declare a variable var.

2. Through accessor (.) We initialise var.a by 65 and after that print
it.
3. Now we will print value of b member by var.b.
4. Now in output we found that value of a is 65 and value of b is
also 65 but it will converted into char thats why we found A in
output.
***Size of Union***
Size of union is depend on the size of the largest member of the
union.
Example for more Clarity:-
In this above example from all the members of abc union, double c
is largest in size. Because we all know that double data type is of 8
byte in any system and char, float, int having smaller size compare
to double Data type. Thats way the size of union abc is 8 byte.
As we all know that sizeof() operator is used to find the size of any
primitive, derived, and user-defined dataType. We can use either
union type (union abc) or variable of union (var) for finding size of
union.
Q. How to Access the members of Union?
Ans=> Accessing the members of Union is same as structure. But
we are discussing it again for better understanding..
There are two types of operators used for accessing members of a
union.

● Accessor (.) => Used in union to access the members of union by
variables. For example: e1.ename, e1.ecode, e1.esalary, etc.
● Arrow operator (->) => used in the concept of pointer to union. for
example: ptr->a, ptr->b, ptr->c, etc.
Example of Arrow operator in pointer to union concept:-
*******************
12. Dynamic Memory Allocation
Q. What is Static Memory Allocation?
Ans=> Fixed Memory allocated during the run time is called static
memory. We called static memory is a fixed memory because this
memory size is decided by programmer. If user cannot Store any
element in array then wastage of memory is occur and if user want
to input element across the limit then it is not possible. That’s why
we called static memory is a fixed memory.
Some Problems in Static Memory Allocation:-
If you want to allocate memory for an array during run time then
you have to fix the size of array at the time of declaration because
Size is fixed and user cannot increase or decrease the size at run
time.
1.
If the values stored by the user in array is less than the specified
size then there will be wastage of memory occur.
2.

If the values stored by the user in array is more than the specified
size then the program may crush or misbehave.
3.
Q. What is dynamic memory allocation?
Ans=> To avoid all the problems during static memory they
introduced dynamic memory allocation concept. When Memory
allocation is depend on the increment and decrement of the data is
called dynamic memory allocation.
We can say that Sometimes the size of the array you declared may
be insufficient. To solve this issue, you can allocate memory
manually during run-time. This is known as dynamic memory
allocation in C programming.
Q. How to allocate memory Dynamically?
Ans=> To allocate memory dynamically following 4 function of
stdlib.h Header file are used:-
1. malloc ( ) :-
● used to allocate memory to structures dynamically. The name
“malloc” stands for memory allocation.
● The malloc() function allocate a block of memory of the given
number of bytes. And, it returns an address of a memory block
on success in the form of void pointer which can be casted into
pointers of any form like int*, float*, char*, struct emp*, etc.
● malloc taking only one argument which is size (byte).
● malloc function create a block in Memory and pass address of
this block, which is need to be store in a pointer. Now we are
handled all the data by pointer only.
● All value in malloc initialised with garbage values.
● it returns NULL Pointer on failure.
● Syntax: void *malloc(int num);
or
ptr = (castType*) malloc(size);

● Declaration: ptr = (float*) malloc(100 * sizeof(float));
2. calloc ( ) :-
● used to allocate memory to array dynamically. The name “calloc”
stands for contiguous allocation..
● And, it returns an address of a memory block on success in the form
of void pointer which can be casted into pointers of any form like
int*, float*, char*, struct emp*, etc.
● calloc taking 2 arguments, one is number of elements, and second
is size of the each element.
● Calloc function create n number of block According to end-user and
pass base address which is need to be store in a pointer.
● All value in calloc initialised with zero (0).
● it returns NULL Pointer on failure.
● Syntax: void *calloc(int num, int size);
or
ptr = (castType*)calloc(n, size);
● Declaration: ptr = (int*) calloc(25, sizeof(int));
3. realloc ( ) :-
● used to resize memory which is previously allocated by malloc or
calloc function. The name “realloc” stands for reallocation.
● If the dynamically allocated memory is insufficient or more than
required, you can change the size of previously allocated memory
using the realloc() function.
Syntax: void *realloc(void *address, int newsize);
Or
ptr = realloc(ptr, m);
Declaration in Case of:

malloc => ptr = realloc(ptr, n2 * sizeof(int));
calloc => ptr= realloc(ptr,sizeof(int));
4.free ( ) :-
● Dynamically allocated memory created with either calloc() or
malloc() does not freed automatically thats why we are using free()
function to release memory manually.
● It is just taking address of s block we want to free indirectly it ist
taking address by pointer.
● It is not return any value.
● Syntax: void free(void *ptr);
● Declaration: free(ptr);
Example 1: malloc() & free()
// Program to calculate the sum of n numbers entered by the user
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
int n, i, *ptr, sum = 0;
printf(“Enter number of elements: “);
scanf(“%d”, &n);
ptr = (int*) malloc(n * sizeof(int));
// if memory cannot be allocated
if(ptr == NULL)

{
printf(“Error! memory not allocated.”);
}
for(i = 0; i < n; ++i)
{
printf(“Enter element %d: “,i+1);
scanf(“%d”, ptr + i);
sum += *(ptr + i);
}
printf(“Sum is = %d”, sum);
// deallocating the memory
free(ptr);
return 0;
}
Example 2: calloc() & free()

// Program to calculate the sum of n numbers entered by the user
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
int n, i, *ptr, sum = 0;
printf(“Enter number of elements: “);
scanf(“%d”, &n);
ptr = (int*) calloc(n, sizeof(int));
if(ptr == NULL)
{
printf(“Error! memory not allocated.”);
exit(0);
}
printf(“Enter elements: “);
for(i = 0; i < n; ++i)
{
scanf(“%d”, ptr + i);
sum += *(ptr + i);

}
printf(“Sum = %d”, sum);
free(ptr);
return 0;
}
Example 3: realloc()

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main()
{
int *ptr, i , n1, n2;
printf(“Enter size: “);
scanf(“%d”, &n1);
ptr = (int*) malloc(n1 * sizeof(int));
printf(“Addresses of previously allocated memory: “);
for(i = 0; i < n1; ++i)
printf(“%un”,ptr + i);
printf(“nEnter the new size: “);
scanf(“%d”, &n2);
// rellocating the memory
ptr = realloc(ptr, n2 * sizeof(int));
printf(“Addresses of newly allocated memory: “);
for(i = 0; i < n2; ++i)
printf(“%un”, ptr + i);
free(ptr);

return 0;
}
***Difference between Static & Dynamic Memory***
Static Memory Dynamic Memory

Static Memory is Allocated
during the run time of Program
but it is a fixed size memory
which is previously decided by
programmer.
1.
we cannot increase the size of
array & structure at the run time
of program.
2.
If the values stored by the user
in array is more than the
specified size then the program
may crush or misbehave.
3.
there is no pointer concept is
used to allocate static memory.
4.
static memory is a default
memory which is allocated by
computer when we declare any
array or structure.
5.
Dynamic Memory is also
allocated during the run time of
a program but the size of
memory is depend on the
increment & decrement of
elements.
1.
It is possible to increase the size
of array, structure at the run
time of Program.
2.
This problem is not occur in
dynamic memory allocation
because the size of memory is
depend on the number of
elements.
3.
In the concept of dynamic
memory allocation pointer
concept is used. Because malloc
and calloc function returns the
address of memory block which
is created by them.
4.
Dynamic memory is a custom

No special functions are used to
allocate static memory.
6.
memory which is are located by
computer but declared by malloc
and calloc function according to
the End-user requirement.
5.
To allocate memory dynamically
we need to use 4 special
functions of stdlib.h header file
which is malloc(), calloc(),
realloc(), free().
6.
*******************

13. FILE I/O
Before going to File I/O concept we discuss some important topics
about data and data persistence.
Q. What is data?
Ans=> Data is everything which we Process thought any program.
we can input any type of data in program and hold these data
through variables until the program produce Output. And output is
also a data which is produced by any program after processing.
For example i create a program to add two numbers. After that i’m
putting two values (2,4) in variables (a,b) and after that program
produce desired output (6) through logic (c=a+b) Writen in
program. So in this program 2 and 4 are input data and 6 is the
data produced by program.
But after running program all the data which is inputed in program
is destroy or deleted because whatever the data we passed to
program was loaded inside the RAM. And we all know that RAM is a
volatile memory in which data is destroyed after running any
program. “we can save program in harddisk or any other memory
for using again but we have no option to save the data which is
receive and produced by program inside the harddisk.”
Q. What is data persistence?
Ans=>
data persistence means how as long as data is stored into
the computer.
When we run any program by giving value and producing output in
that condition there is no persistence of data because all the data
and logics of program is loaded in RAM.

If we want to save the data inside the computer then the only way
is to create file. After creating the file we can Store the data inside
the hard disk through files.
Q. What is file & uses of file?
Ans=> Files is the collection of data in which we can Store data
permanently inside the hard disk. In simple words we can that A file
is a container in computer storage devices used for storing data.
Technically we can say that File is a collection of bytes that is stored
on secondary storage devices like disk.
There are two types of files:
Text files(.txt, .c) => Writer in plan text.
Binary files(.jpg, .dat) =>written in 0’s and 1’s.
We use file for following Perpose:-
● When a program is terminated after once running, the entire data is
lost. Storing in a file will preserve your data even if the program
terminates.
● If you have to enter a large number of data, it will take a lot of time
to enter them all. However, if you have a file containing all the data,
you can easily access the contents of the file using a few commands
in C.
● You can easily move your data from one computer to another
without any changes though files.
Q. What is File Handling or File I/O?
Ans=> file handling means all the activities which are perform by
program is stored into a file and accessing that information at the
time of requirement is called file handling or FILE I/O.

In simple word we can say that storing the information into the file
and accessing that information at the time of requirement through
some functions is called file handling.
Q. What is FILE Pointer?
Ans=> If we want to work with file we need to use file pointer
through with we can hold the base address of file and access it into
RAM. After that we can perform some operations like opening,
reading, writting, etc. Basically file pointer is a communication way
b/w program & file.
Syntax of file pointer: FILE *<identity>;
Declaration: FILE *fptr;
***Basic File Operations In C Programming***
There are 4 basic operations that can be performed on any files in C
programming language. They are,
● Opening/Creating a file
● Closing a file
● Reading a file
● Writing in a file
Stdio.h header file functions are used in File Handling
1.Opening/Creating a File:-
fopen() => this is the most important function which is used
to open a file in different modes like write mode, read mode,
append mode, etc. Return type of this function is FILE poinetr.
Syntax: FILE* fopen(“file name”https://dheeraj-
patidar.blogspot.com/2022/07/,”mode”);
Declaration: fptr=fopen (“example.txt”https://dheeraj-
patidar.blogspot.com/2022/07/,”r”);;

Here fopen function is taking two arguments, one is file name (like
“file1.txt”) and second is in which mode you want to open file like
read, write, etc.
On success, it open the file & return the address of file.
On failure, it returns NULL Pointer.
Program for better understanding:-
#include <stdio.h>
int main () {
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen(“file.txt”https://dheeraj-
patidar.blogspot.com/2022/07/,”w”);
/* ………..
………..
……….. */
fclose(fp);
return(0);
}
***Opening Modes in FILE I/O***
Mode Meaning of mode During
Inexistence of file

r Open for reading. If the file does not
exist, fopen()
returns NULL.
rb Open for reading in binary mode. If the file does not
exist, fopen()
returns NULL.
w Open for writing. If the file exists, its
contents are
overwritten.
If the file does not
exist, it will be
created.
wb Open for writing in binary mode. If the file exists, its
contents are
overwritten.
exist, it will be
created.
a Open for append.
Means Data is added to the end of
the file.
exist, it will be
created.

ab Open for append in binary mode.
Means is added to the end of the
file.
exist, it will be
created.
r+ Open for both reading and writing. If the file does not
exist, fopen()
returns NULL.
rb+ Open for both reading and writing
in binary mode.
exist, fopen()
returns NULL.
w+ Open for both reading and writing. If the file exists, its
contents are
overwritten.
exist, it will be
created.
wb+ Open for both reading and writing
in binary mode
If the file exists, its
contents are
overwritten.
exist, it will be
created.
a+ Open for both reading and
appending.
exist, it will be
created.

ab+ Open for both reading and
appending in binary mode.
exist, it will be
created
There are total 12 modes of open file.
2. Closing a File:-
fclose () => fclose() function is used to closes the opening
file.
Syntax: int fclose(FILE *fptr);
Declaration: fclose(fp);
It is taking one argument which is file pointer pointing to that
file.
This function returns zero if the file is successfully closed. On
failure, EOF is returned.
3. Reading a file:-
For reading file 2 Predefine functions are used:-
fgetc() => this function is used to read file character by character.
It is taking one character at time from file. We use loop for
Collecting data by fgetc and it will stop Collecting characters when it
reaches EOF (End of the file). EOF returns -1.
Syntax: int fgetc(FILE *fptr);
Declaration: fgetc(fptr);
It is taking one argument which is file pointer pointing to
that file.

fscanf() => this function is used to read number from file.
Syntax: fscanf(file ptr, “format specifier”,var. Address);
Declaration: fscanf(fptr, “%d”,&num);
This function is taking 3 arguments, first is file pointer,
second is formate specifiers, 3rd is address of a variable.
4. Writing a file:-
For Writing file we use 2 functions:-
fprintf() => this function is used to write data into any file.
Syntax: fprintf(file pointer, “formate specifiers”,
variables);
Declaration: fprintf(fptr, “Number is %d”, num);
fputc() => this function is used to write character by character into
file.
Syntax: fputc(“character”,fptr);
Declaration: fputc(“T.”, fptr);
Note:- There are n number of predefined functions are used in file
handling concept. All above Functions are most useful.
*******************
14. typedef
Q. What is typedef?
Ans=>
● In C programming, typedef is a keyword which is used to give a
name to any dataType in a program. In simple word we can say that

typedef keyword is used to create duplicate name or Alias name of
any data type.
● typedef is a user defined data type.
● With the help of typedef keyword we can give dublicate name to any
primitive (int, float,char), derived (array, string) , and as well as
user defined datatype (structure, union).
● We can use typedef either globally and locally.
Syntax: typedef dataType name;
Declaration: typedef int myint;
Example of typedef in primitive data type:-
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
/* Local Declaration of typedef in primitive datatype*/
typedef int myint; //typedef in int
typedef char mychar; //typedef in char
typedef float myfloat; //typedef in float
/* use of these dublicate names*/
myint i= 40; //in place of int we can use myint
myfloat f=123.23; //in place of float we can use myfloat
mychar c=”T”; //in place of char we can use mychar
printf(“value of i is %dn”,i);

printf(“value of f is %.2fn”,f);
printf(“value of c is %cn”,c);
return 0;
}
Output:
value of i is 40
value of f is 123.23
value of c is T
Example of typedef in derived dataType:-
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
/* typedef Declaration of array */
typedef int arr[5];
/* use of dublicate name of array */

arr x={10,20,30,40,50};
for(int i=0; i<5; i++){
printf(“%d “,x[i]);
}
return 0;
}
Output:
10 20 30 40 50
Example of typedef in User defied dataType:-
#include<stdio.h>
typedef struct /*optional name*/{
int code;
char name[20];
float sal;
}emp;
int main()
{
/* use of this dublicate name*/

emp e1={543, “Vinay”, 60500};
printf(“code of e1 is %dn”, e1.code);
printf(“Name of e1 is %sn”, e1.name);
printf(“salary of e1 is %.2f”, e1.sal);
return 0;
}
Output:
code of e1 is 543
Name of e1 is Vinay
salary of e1 is 60500.00
*******************
15. Storage Classes in C
Every Variable in C Programming has two properties one is
dataType and second is Storage class.
We all know that dataType is a representation of data like how
much memory is required, which type of data is allowed, etc. Now
one more question is arrise:-
Q. What represents Storage class about Variable?
storage class represent many things that is:-
● Where variable gets memory allocation.
● What is the default value of a variable.

● What is the scope of a variable like block scope, method or function
scope, program scope.
● What is the lifetime of a variable
Types of scope:-
1. Block scope:-
when we declare a variable inside of any particular block then we
cannot access that variable out of that block is called block scope of
that variable.
2. Method or Function scope:-
when we declare a variable inside of any particular function then we
cannot access that variable in another function is called function
scope of that variable.
when we declare any Global variable then it can be access in any
function of that program. It is called the Program scope of a
variable.
Types of storage classes in C
1. automatic storage class:-
In the declaration of a local variable, if we are not specifying any
storage class then by default it is an auto storage class.
Keyword: auto

Memory: RAM
Default Value: Garbage value
Life time & Scope: Declaration either inside block or method. Auto
variables are always local variables. We cannot Declare any auto
variable globally. we can Access only within the block or method in
which it define. Lifetime of auto variable is unti the block or
method execution completes.
Example:-
#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
auto int a=10; //method scope
{
auto int a; //block scope
printf(“value of a is %dn”,a); //Garbage Value
}
printf(“value of a is %d”,a); //10
return 0;
}
Output:
value of a is 1970428340
value of a is 10

2. Register storage class :-
register variable can only be Declared locally mean with in the
block or function.
Keyword: register
Memory: CPU Register
Default value: Garbage Values
Life time & Scope: declaration of Register variable is within
the block or method means we can access register variable within
the block or method. We cannot access and declare register variable
globally. Lifetime of Register variable until the block or method
execution completes.
Register variable and auto variable having same logic but the main
difference between them is that we can access register type variable
much faster than auto variable because auto variable gets memory
allocation inside the RAM but register variable get memory
allocation in the process space (part) of CPU called register.
if you want to use any variable repeatedly like in loop concept then
we should go for register variable because they are faster than auto
variable.
Every program processing is always taken place in register memory
of CPU which is the fastest memory of computer. Whenever we
declare any auto variable then it will allocate memory inside the
RAM but RAM is not process data for this work it call to register
memory inside the CPU. It should be noted that memory allocation
of a program inside the RAM but 4 process RAM call to register

means RAM giving one by one instruction to register and this
process is time consuming.
For this drawback of auto variable we should go for register variable. After
declaring register variable in place of auto variable it will gets memory
allocation directly in register memory of CPU. For register memory it is easy
to process the data without taking instructions one-by-one from RAM. That
is the reason auto and register variable is different from each other.
Maximum Size of register memory is 8 to 16 bytes thats why we are
not Declaring register variable globally. Local variable are temporary
variables thats why they get less memory compare to global
variables.
It is not possible to declare all the variables with register class
because register memory is maximum 16 byte in computer. The
register should only be used for variables that require quick access
such as loop counters.
3. static storage class:-
● When we declare any static variable it will not destroyed when
control comes out of the block or method. Static variable is not
destroyed after the execution of any function or block it will destroy
when the program execution is complete.
● In another word we can say that auto and register only works with
the function and deallocate after control comes out of the function

or block. If we are not want to deallocate memory of a variable then
we should go for static variable.
● The keyboard static instruct the compiler to keep a local variable
until the execution of a program.
● When we declare a static variable globally it always update their
value until the program is executed.
● Static variable will not get memory allocation again and again. This
type of variables get memory allocation once in a program. We can
use them by updating values only.
Example:-
#include<stdio.h>
void fun(void);
void main()
{
fun();
fun();
fun();
}
void fun(void){
static int a=5;
printf(“a: %dn”, a+=2);
}

Output:
a: 7
a: 9
a: 11
4. External Storage class:
● Extern variable is used to Declare a global variable which is already
define somewhere. Here defination & Declaration both are totally
different.
● for example int a is declaration with definition. And external int a is
only Declaration.
● extern keyword is used to use any global variable of either same
program or another file program into any function.
● we can say that extern keyword is used to import the value of any
global variable inside any block or method which is previously
defined.
● extern keyword is mainly used to call data in perticular file which is
present in another file. Means that this extern variable concept is
used to share data between C project files.
● We can only reuse the data of global variable somewhere by using
extern keyword.
Use of extern within the program or file:-
File name ex=> (program.c)
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
extern int a; //calling that global variable

printf(“%d”,a);
return 0;
}
int a=12;. //Global variable
Output:
12
Use of extern keyword in another file:-
File name example=> program.c
File name example=> program2.c
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
extern int a;
printf(“%d”,a);
return 0;
}
Output:
12
*******************

16. Command Line Arguments
Q. What is Command Line Argument?
Ans=> passing arguments to the program from the command
line is called command line argument.
● We all know that, values value which is passing to the function is
called arguments.
● Here command line is CUI (Character/Command Used Interface)
which is used by any professional programmer. For example Dos
operating system is a command line because from here we can
access computer by passing commands.
● If we are beginner in C Programming then we should go for IDE
such as turbo c, vscode, etc. But professional programmer used
command line from where they pass value to program by main()
function.
Q. Who call main() function?
Ans=> we can call any used defined function directly or indirectly
from main() function but here one more question arises that who
call main function. The answer is operating system means main()
function is called from operating system of computer. It is possible
to pass arguments to the main function of a program when we are
calling it from command line.
Q. What are the different ways of run any program?
Ans=> there are three ways of run program:-
1. Using IDE
we can create program using integrated development
environment like vscode, turbo c, etc. Each of the IDE provides
run option to see the output as well as inputing values for program.
2. By double click

after generating .exe file we can also run program by clicking on
that exe file. We can hold screen in that case by using getch()
function at the end of the program.
this is the professional way of of running any program. We can
handle our program from outside medium using Command line. In
this concept we are passing instruction (value) to the program from
operating system.
**Components of Command Line Arguments**
There are 2 components (values) of Command Line Argument which
are passing to the main function of the program:-
Syntax of main when we are passing values from Command line:-
main(int argc, char* argv[]);
● argc: argc stands for “arguments count”. used to count number of
arguments including file name. It counts number of arguments
thats why it is of int type.
● agrv: argv stands for “arguments vector”. It is used to receive input
from Command line in the form of string. argv collects n number
of string thats why it is char pointer array type.
Program to initialize a structure by reading elements from Command
line:-

#include<stdio.h>
#include<dos.h>
struct emp{
char* name;
long int MoNo;
float salary;
};
int main(int argc, char* argv[]); //this is compulsory syntax
struct emp e1;
e1.name= argv[1];
e1.MoNo= atoi(argv[2]);
e1.salary= atof(argv[3]);
printf(“Name of e1: %s”, e1.name);
printf(“Mobile Number of e1: %li”, e1.MoNo);
printf(“Salary of e1: %f”, e1.salary);
return 0;
}
***Use of atoi() and atof()***
We all know that arguments passing from the command line to main
function is of string type. To convert these strings int and float

type for performing some operations then we need to use dos.h
header file functions which is:-
stands for “automatic int”. used to convert string into integer
type.
Prototype: int atoi(char* str);
2. atof();
stands for “automatic float”. Used to convert string into float.
Prototype: int atof(char* str);
Example: atof(23.45);
Example for more clarity:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<dos.h>
int main(int argc, char* argv[]); //this is compulsory syntax
if(argc>2) //indexing from 0
{
char* str1=argv[1];
char* str2=argv[2];
int x=atoi(s1);
int y=atoi(s2);

/* also written in this form */
/*
int x=atoi(argv[1]);
int y=atoi(argv[2]); */
printf(“sum: %dn”, x+y);
}
else
printf(“Insufficient input values”);
return 0;
}
*******************
17. Graphics in C
Q. What is Graphics in C?
Ans=> Generally C programs runs only in a consol screen of any
IDE that is a black Screen also called Character/ Command user
interface (CUI). Using Functions of graphics.h header file we can
develop GUI in place of CUI.
GUI screen is in Pixels form. And CUI is in Block form where each
block holds one character.
Q. How to initialize Graphic Mode in C?

Ans=> there are two types of modes available in C Programming
one is CUI Mode and Second is GUI Mode.
There is no need to initialise character user interface mode
because it is a default user interface in any programming language.
But graphic user interface mode is need to be initialised and
close.
to initialise and close GUI Mode there are two important functions
of graphics dotage header file are used:-
1. initgraph() :- stands for “initialize graph”. initgraph function or
method is used to convert CUI mode into GUI mode. This function
is used to to initialize graphic mode or System. This function is
not return anything means void type.
Syntax: void initgraph(int * graphdriver, int *graphmode,
char *pathtodriver);
Example:- initgraph(&gd, &gm, “C:TCBGI”);
Here initgraph is taking 3 arguments addresses which is need
to be initialised before this function:-
i) *graphdriver:- there are total 10 graphdriver available in C
graphic. We can initialised graphdriver by numbers from 1 to
10 due to predifine Enumeration. If you don’t know that which
graphdriver is suitable for your system then you should go for
auto detect request by assign 0 or DETECT to graphdriver.
ii) *graphmode:- there are n number of graphics mode
available in C graphic (with Enumeration) but if we are
initialising graphdriver by 0 or DETECT then initgraph function
automatically detect graphmode suitable for our program.

iii) *pathtodriver:- path to drive means the path where
given driver is located. This part is very essential to draw any
diagram or to insert any colour on console.
c:tcbgi contains n number of graphic related functions. Here c it is a
folder in which tc named folder is available and after that in which bgi
named folder is available in which all the functions and header files related
graphics are stored.
BGI stands for Boreland Graphics Interface which is a Bundle of graphics
related libraries from where we can access all the pathdrivers.
2. closegraph() :- this function is used to close graphic mode
which is previously initialised by initgraph() function.
After performing all the task in graphic mode or system it is
mandatory to to close that graphics system. That’s why we are
using closegraph function.
Syntax:- void closegraph();
This function is not taking any argument because it is automatically
detect initgraph() function which is previously declared inside the
program.
This function is not return anything means void type
Example for more clarity about initgraph & closegraph:-

#include<stdio.h>
#include<graphics.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main{
/* initializing graphdriver & graphmode */
int gd=0, gm;
initgraph(&gd, &gm, “c:tcbgi”); //initializing graphic
mode
……
……
……
……
getch(); //for holding console for see output
closegraph(); //closing graph mode or system
}
**Some More essential Function in Graphic Mode**
Accept initgraph & closegraph there are some more very important
functions which are used to perform some activities in graphic mode
or system.
● I classified important functions into 4 types for easy to remember:-
● Shapes related functions in C graphic mode
● Colors related functions in C graphic mode

● Text related functions in C graphic mode
● Function for clear screen in C graphic mode
Now we are discussing about the functions of these four
classifications:-
1. Shape related functions in C graphic mode:-
There are n number of functions available in graphics.h
through which we can draw different different types of shapes
like circle, bar, rectangle, etc. Here we only discuss some
important shapes functions.
● circle() :- This function of graphics.h header file is used to draw
circle.
Syntax: void circle(int x, int y, int radius);
Example: circle(140, 45, 15);
● bar() :- this function of graphics.h header file is used to to draw
bar. Bar means the shape which is having 4 liner sides.
Syntax: void bar(int left, int top, int right, int bottom);
Example: bar(50,20,80,100);
● rectangle() :- this function of graphic dot h header file is used to
draw rectangle.
Syntax: void rectangle( int left, int top, int right, int
bottom);
example: rectangle (200,10,310,75);
● line() :- this function of graphics.h header file is used to draw line.
Syntax: void line(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2);

Example: line(330,10,430,10);
● ellipse() :- this function of graphics.h header file is used to create
ellipse. ellipse is a long circle.
Syntax: void ellipse (int x, int y, int stangle, int
endangle, int x radius, int y radius);
Example: ellipse(470, 42, 0, 360, 20, 35);
2. colours related functions in graphic mode:-
Before discussing colours related functions first of all we are
discussing about colours in C graphics.
There are total 16 colours available in C graphics especially in Dos
based graphic. There are 0 to 15 predefined enumerated codes are
available four accessing each of the colour easily. We can also use
colour name in CAPITAL in place of predefined enumerated codes.
Following are the colours with code:-
For using all the 16 (0-15) colours, graphics.h header file contains n
number of functions. some of them are as follows:-

● setcolor(): This Function of graphics.h header file is used to set
Color of each shape and text on console screen.
Syntax: void setcolor(int color);
Example: setcolor(2); or setcolor(GREEN);
● setbkcolor(): This Function of graphics.h header file is used to set
background color.
Syntax: void setbkcolor(int color);
Example: setbkcolor(2); or setcolor (GREEN);
3. Text Related Functions in Graphic Mode:-
● Outtextxy() :-This functionbof graphics.h header file is used to
print any text message in Graphic mode. It print text in pixel format
that’s why it is taking x and y coordinate along with String.
Syntax: void outtextxy(int x, int y, char* string);
Example: outtextxy(100, 200, “Dheeraj Patidar”);
this function of graphics.h header file is used to customise text
font, text direction, and text size.
Syntax: void settextstyle( int font, int direction, int size);
Example: settextstyle( 1, 0, 3);
settextstyle function is taking 3 integer arguments first is font
of text (0-4), second is direcion of text(0 & 1), and third is size
of font (1 to 10).
Some important points:-
● There are total 5 text fonts available in c graphics. Enumerated
numbers of these five text fonts are from 0 to 4. 0 is used for
default font.

● There are total 2 text directions available in c graphics. Eliminated
number of these two directions are 0 and 1. Here 0 is used for
default direction which is left to right
● There are total 10 text size available in c graphics. Enumerated
number of all text size is from 1 to 10.
Enumerated
value
Size of boxes
1 8×8 size per box
2 16×16 size per box

*** HAPPY ENDING ***
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