Learning

INTRODUCTION
• Learning is a key process in human behaviour.
• All living is learning. If we compare the simple, crude ways in which a child
feels and behaves, with the complex modes of adult behaviour, his skills,
habits, thought, sentiments and the like- we will know what difference
learning has made to the individual.
• The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the
environment. This experience makes him to change or modify his behaviour
in order to deal effectively with it. Therefore, learning is a change in
behaviour, influenced by previous behaviour.
• skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes, interests and other personality
characteristics are all the result of learning.

DEFINITION
• Measurable and relatively Permanent change in behavior through
experience, instruction, or study.
• Learning itself cannot be measured, but its results can be.
• In the words of Harvard Business School psychologist Chris Argyris,
learning is “detection and correction of error” where an error means ”any
mismatch between our intentions and what actually happens.”
The act, process, or experience of gaining knowledge or skill.
• Knowledge or skill gained through schooling or study. .
• Psychology Behavioral modification especially through experience or
• conditioning.

ELEMENTS OF LEARNING
• Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour that
occurs as a result of practice and experience”. This definition has three
important elements.
a. Learning is a change in behaviour—better or worse.
b. It is a change that takes place through practice or experience, but
changes due to growth or maturation are not learning.
c. This change in behaviour must be relatively permanent, and it must
last a fairly long time.

NATURE OF LEARNING
1. Learning is Universal.
2. Learning is through Experience.
3. Learning is from all Sides
4. Learning is Continuous.
5. It results in Change in Behaviour.
6. Learning is an Adjustment.
7. It comes about as a result of practice.
8. Learning is a relatively Permanent Change.
9. Learning as Growth and Development.
10. Learning is not directly observable.

Factors Affecting Learning
1. Factors associated with the learners.
2. Factors associated with the type of
learning
3. Factors associated with the men and
material.

Factors associated with the learners
• Learner’s physical health
• Learners mental health
• Basic potential of the learner
• The level of motivation
• Goal of life
• Readiness and will power
• Maturation
• Age
• Emotions
• Gender

Factors associated with learner:
1. Motivation:
•It is the most important factor influencing the learner. If the learner
has no motivation to learn, any amount of force will be futile. More the
motivation better will be the learning. In addition to motivation, the
learner should have a definite goal. It will direct the individual
appropriately and help him to achieve the goal.
2. Readiness and will power:
•This is just like motivation. If the learner is ready to learn, he will
develop motivation to learn. Along with readiness a strong willpower is
also essential to overcome hurdles and problems. Readiness will help
to develop a positive attitude in learner.
• 3. Ability of the learner:
• This refers to the level of intelligence, creativity, aptitude and such
other abilities necessary for learning. Intelligence enables the learner
to learn better and understand things and relationship between them.
It includes both general and specific intelligence related to specific
area of learning.

Factors associated with learner
4. Level of aspiration and achievement:
•Learning depends upon the level of aspiration to achieve. If the
aspiration level is high, the learner will work hard and achieve more.
However, the aspiration level should be in accordance with the ability of
the learner.
•Otherwise, it may affect negatively leading to feelings of inferiority. At
times the learner may not realize his ability and keep low level of
aspiration resulting in low achievement, which is also a tendency to be
rectified.
5. Attention:
•Learner must learn to concentrate his attention on learning.
Attentiveness helps to grasp learning material. Distraction of attention
affects learning.

Factors associated with learner
• 6. General health condition of the learner:
• Organic defects like blindness, myopia, deafness, paralysis,
autism, severe handicappedness, etc., will affect learning. Problem
in sense organs will lead to improper perception. Chronic illnesses
may lead to fatigue and lack of interest. In addition to physical
health, the mental health of learner is also important. Adjustmental
problems, minor mental problems like worry, anxiety, stress, and
inferiority complexes will affect learning.
• 7) Maturation of the learner:
• Maturation and learning go hand in hand. We learn things only
according to maturity of our body. For example, a child of 6 months
cannot learn to ride a bicycle even after vigorous training, because
it requires muscular or physical maturity.

4 - 11
Learning Outcomes
• Verbal information
– Includes names or labels, facts, and
bodies of knowledge
– Includes specialized knowledge
employees need in their jobs
• Intellectual skills
– Include concepts and rules
– These are critical to solve problems,
serve customers, and create products

4 - 12
Learning Outcomes (continued)
• Motor skills
– Include coordination of physical
movements
• Attitudes
– Combination of beliefs and feeling that
pre-dispose a person to behave a certain
way
– Important work-related attitudes include
job satisfaction, commitment to the
organization, and job involvement
• Cognitive strategies
– Regulate the process of learning

4 - 13
Learning Theories
Reinforcement
Theory
Social Learning
Theory
Goal Theories
Need Theories
Expectancy Theory
Adult Learning
Theory
Information
Processing Theory

4 - 14
Reinforcement Theory
• Emphasizes that people are
motivated to perform or avoid certain
behaviors because of past outcomes
that have resulted from those
behaviors.
– Positive reinforcement
– Negative Reinforcement
– Extinction
– Punishment

4 - 15
Reinforcement Theory (continued)
• From a training perspective, it suggests that
for learners to acquire knowledge, change
behavior, or modify skills, the trainer needs
to identify what outcomes the learner finds
most positive )and negative).
• Trainers then need to link these outcomes to
learners acquiring knowledge, skills, or
changing behaviors.

4 - 16
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Ratio Schedules
– Fixed-ratio schedule
– Continuous reinforcement
– Variable-ratio schedule
• Interval Schedules
– Fixed-interval schedule
– Variable-interval schedule

4 - 17
Social Learning Theory
• Emphasizes that people learn by
observing other persons (models)
whom they believe are credible
and knowledgeable.
• Recognizes that behavior that is
reinforced or rewarded tends to be
repeated.
• The models’ behavior or skill that
is rewarded is adopted by the
observer.

4 - 18
Social Learning Theory (continued)
• Learning new skills or behavior comes from:
– directly experiencing the consequences of using
behavior or skills, or
– the process of of observing others and seeing
the consequences of their behavior
• Learning is also influenced by a person’s self-
efficacy.
– Self-efficacy is a person’s judgment about
whether she can successfully learn knowledge
and skills.

4 - 19
Processes of Social Learning Theory
match
Model
ed
Perfor
mance
Attention Retention Motor
Reproductio
n
Motivational
Processes
• Model Stimuli
• Trainee
Characteristics
• Coding
• Organization
• Rehearsal
• Physical
Capability
• Accuracy
• Feedback
• Reinforcement

4 - 20
Goal Theories
• Goal setting theoryGoal setting theory assumes behavior
results from a person’s conscious goals
and intentions.
• Goals influence behavior by directing
energy and attention, sustaining effort over
time, and motivating the person to develop
strategies for goal attainment.
• Research suggests that specific
challenging goals have been shown to
lead to high performance only if people are
committed to the goal.

4 - 21
Goal Theories (continued)
• Goal setting theory is used in training
program design.
• It suggests that learning can be
facilitated by providing trainees with
specific challenging goals and
objectives.
• The influence of goal setting theory
can be seen in the development of
training lesson plans.

4 - 22
Need Theories
• Need theories help explain the value that a
person places on certain outcomes.
• Need theories suggest that to motivate learning:
– trainers should identify trainees’ needs, and
– communicate how training program content
relates to fulfilling these needs
• If the basic needs of trainees are not met, they
are unlikely to be motivated to learn.

4 - 23
Expectancy Theory
• Expectancy theory suggests that a
person’s behavior is based on three
factors:
– Expectancy
– Instrumentality
– Valance

4 - 24
Expectancy Theory (continued)
• Expectancy theory suggests that learning
is most likely to occur when employees
believe:
– They can learn the content of the
program (expectancy)
– Learning is linked to outcomes such as
better job performance, a salary increase,
or peer recognition (instrumentality)
– Employees value these outcomes

4 - 25
Expectancy Theory of
Motivation
X X = Eff
ort
ExpectancyExpectancy InstrumentalityInstrumentality ValanceValance
Effort
Performance
Performance
Outcome
Value of Outcome
Does Trainee Have
Ability to Learn?
Does Trainee Believe
He Can Learn?
Does Trainee Believe
Training Outcomes
Promised Will Be
Delivered?
Are Outcomes Related
to Training Valued?

4 - 26
Adult Learning Theory
• Adult learning theory was developed out of a need
for a specific theory of how adults learn.
• It is based on several assumptions:
– Adults have the need to know why they are
learning something.
– Adults have a need to be self-directed.
– Adults bring more work-related experiences into
the learning situation.
– Adults enter into a learning experience with a
problem-centered approach to learning.
– Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic
and intrinsic motivators.

4 - 27
Implications of Adult Learning Theory for
Training:
Design Issue Implications
Self – concept Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction
Experience Use learner experience as basis for examples and
applications
Readiness Develop instruction based on learner’s interests and
competencies
Time perspective Immediate application of content
Orientation to
learning
Problem – centered instead of subject – centered

4 - 28
Information Processing Theory
• These theories give more emphasis to the
internal processes that occur when training
content is learned and retained.
• This information can come from another
person or the learner’s own observation of
the results of his action.
• If the evaluation of the response is positive,
this provides reinforcement that the
behavior is desirable to be stored in long-
term memory for use in similar situations.

4 - 29
The Learning Process
• This material asks three questions:
– What are the physical and mental processes
involved in learning?
– How does learning occur?
– Do trainees have different learning styles?

4 - 30
The Learning Process:
Mental and Physical Processes
LEARNING
Expectancy
Perception
Working
Storage
Semantic
Encoding
Long –Term
Storage
Retrieval
Generalizing
Gratifying

4 - 31
The Learning Process:
Learning Styles
• Diverger
– Concrete experience
– Reflective observation
• Assimilator
– Abstract
conceptualization
– Reflective observation
• Converger
– Abstract
conceptualization
– Active
experimentation
• Accommodator
– Concrete experience
– Active
experimentation

4 - 32
Implications of the Learning Process for
Instruction:
• Employees need to know why they
should learn.
• Employees need meaningful
training content.
• Employees need opportunities to
practice.
• Employees need to commit training
content to memory.

KOLBS learning styles model
• “Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created
through the transformation of experience”
• David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984 from
which he developed his learning style inventory.
• Kolb's experiential learning theory works on two levels: a four
stage cycle of learning and four separate learning styles.
Much of Kolb’s theory is concerned with the learner’s internal
cognitive processes.
• Kolb states that learning involves the acquisition of abstract
concepts that can be applied flexibly in a range of situations.
In Kolb’s theory, the impetus for the development of new
concepts is provided by new experiences.

The Experiential Learning Cycle
Kolb's experiential learning style theory is typically represented by a
four stage learning cycle in which the learner 'touches all the bases':

The Experiential Learning Cycle
• 1. Concrete Experience - (a new experience of
situation is encountered, or a reinterpretation of
existing experience).
• 2. Reflective Observation (of the new
experience. Of particular importance are any
inconsistencies between experience and
understanding).
• 3. Abstract Conceptualization (Reflection gives
rise to a new idea, or a modification of an
existing abstract concept).
• 4. Active Experimentation (the learner applies
them to the world around them to see what
results).

Effective learning
Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four
stages: of (1) having a concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and
reflection on that experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract
concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used
to test hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences.

Learning Styles
• different people naturally prefer a certain single different
learning style.
• Various factors influence a person's preferred style. For
example, social environment, educational experiences,
or the basic cognitive structure of the individual.

Diverging learning style
• These people are able to look at things from different
perspectives.
• are sensitive, prefer to watch rather than do, tending to
gather information and use imagination to solve
problems.
• are best at viewing concrete situations at several
different viewpoints.
• these people perform better in situations that require
ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming.
• have broad cultural interests and like to gather
information.
• They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative
and emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts.
• People with the diverging style prefer to work in groups,
to listen with an open mind and to receive personal
feedback.

Assimilating learning style
• The Assimilating learning preference is for a concise, logical
approach. Ideas and concepts are more important than people.
• require good clear explanation rather than practical
opportunity.
• excel at understanding wide-ranging information and
organizing it in a clear logical format.
• are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and
abstract concepts. People with this style are more attracted to
logically sound theories than approaches based on practical
value.
• important for effectiveness in information and science careers.
• In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer
readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having
time to think things through.

Converging learning style
• People with a converging learning style can solve problems and
will use their learning to find solutions to practical issues.
• prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and
interpersonal aspects.
• best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories.
• can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions to
questions and problems.
• more attracted to technical tasks and problems than social or
interpersonal issues.
• A converging learning style enables specialist and technology
abilities.
• People with a converging style like to experiment with new ideas,
to simulate, and to work with practical applications.

Accommodating learning style
• The Accommodating learning style is 'hands-
on', and relies on intuition rather than logic.
• These people use other people's analysis, and
prefer to take a practical, experiential approach.
• They are attracted to new challenges and
experiences, and to carrying out plans.
• They commonly act on 'gut' instinct rather than
logical analysis.
• People with an accommodating learning style
will tend to rely on others for information than
carry out their own analysis. This learning style
is prevalent within the general population.

Implications
• Both Kolb's (1984) learning stages and cycle could be used by teachers and
trainers to critically evaluate the learning provision typically available to
students/ trainees, and to develop more appropriate learning opportunities.
• Educators should ensure that activities are designed and carried out in ways
that offer each learner the chance to engage in the manner that suits them
best.
• Also, individuals can be helped to learn more effectively by the identification
of their lesser preferred learning styles and the strengthening of these
through the application of the experiential learning cycle.

Four stages of learning
• the theory was developed at Gordon Training
International by its employee Noel Burch in the 1970s.
• It has since been frequently attributed to Abraham
Maslow, although the model does not appear in his major
works.
• provides a model for learning.
• It suggests that individuals are initially unaware of how
little they know, or unconscious of their incompetence.
• As they recognize their incompetence, they consciously
acquire a skill, then consciously use it.
• Eventually, the skill can be utilized without it being
consciously thought through: the individual is said to have
then acquired unconscious competence

The four stages of competence
1. Unconscious incompetence
2. Conscious incompetence
3. Conscious competence
4. Unconscious competence

Learning

More Related Content

What's hot (20)

Viewers also liked (20)

Similar to Learning (20)

More from Kirti Shivakumar (6)

Recently uploaded (20)

Learning