Learning principles for behaviour modification
- 1. 1 Dr. Sushma Rathee Assistant Clinical Psychologist , PGIMER, Chandigarh Email: sushmaratheecp@gmail.com
- 2. Through modelling, observation, and then imitation, children develop new behaviours. Modelling can be as simple as having a child watch another child sharpen a pencil. By watching the model, a child can learn a new behaviour, inhibit another behaviour, or strengthen previously learned behaviour (e.g. saying "thank you"). To use modelling effectively, you must determine whether a child has the capacity to observe and then imitate the model. In classroom settings, a student's response to modelling is influenced by three factors: 1) The characteristics of the model (e.g. is this a student whom the other students like and respect?), 2) The characteristics of the observer (e.g. is this child capable of observing and imitating the behaviour), 3) The positive or negative consequences associated with the behaviour. Children are more likely to respond to teacher modelling when they view their teachers as competent, nurturing, supportive, fun, and interesting. Children are also more likely to imitate behaviour that results in a positive consequence. 2 Modelling
- 3. In 1970, Kaplan described a ripple effect in transactions between teachers and misbehaving students that affected not only those students but also the entire classroom. Teachers who were firm reduced the problem behaviors both from the first child who misbehaved and from those students who saw the initial problem behavior. When teachers enforced rules, the ripple effect worked in their favor. When they failed to follow through with rules, the ripple effect worked against them. Furthermore, the misbehaving student's social standing in the classroom was also an issue. When teachers successfully managed the behavior of high-status troublemakers, their control tended to benefit the entire classroom. Likewise, the ripple effect when high-status offenders were not managed increased negative behaviors among others. Finally, when managing a disruptive behavior, it is important to focus on tasks and behaviors rather than on approval. In the latter situation, teachers may focus on their relationship with the disruptive student when trying to get that student to behave. This strategy, unfortunately, is usually ineffective over the long term. 3 Cont….
- 4. Waiting for the appropriate target behavior or something close to that behavior to occur before reinforcing the behavior is referred to as shaping. Shaping can be used to establish behaviors that are not routinely exhibited. Walker and Shea (1991) described the steps to effective shaping: 1. Select a target behavior and define it. 2. Observe how often the behavior is exhibited. 3. Select reinforcers. 4. Decide on close approximations and reinforce successive approximations to the target behavior each time it occurs. 5. Reinforce the newly established behavior. 4 Shaping
- 5. Reinforce the old behavior on a variable schedule, and begin reinforcing the new behavior on an every-time or continuous schedule. The key to successful shaping is to reinforce closer approximations and not reinforce lesser approximations. Any behavior that remotely resembles the target behavior should initially be reinforced. Prompts can be used and then faded. Shaping can be used for all kinds of behavior in the classroom, including academics. Steps toward successive approximation, however, must be carefully thought out; otherwise, behaviors that are not working toward the desired goal may inadvertently be reinforced. Cont…
- 6. Time-out from reinforcement excludes children from the opportunity to participate with others and receive any kind of positive reinforcement. Time-out is by far the best known disciplinary technique among teachers. It is also the most likely to be overused and misused in the classroom. Although a brief time-out of a few minutes duration can exert a positive influence on classroom behaviour when applied appropriately, many teachers apply time-out ineffectively as often as effectively (Walker & Walker, 1991). The least restrictive form of time-out consists of removal of certain reinforcing activities or objects from the misbehaving child for a short period. Time-out, in a restricted environment outside of the classroom is the most extreme form of this type of discipline. The child cannot see the classroom nor interact with others. 6 Time-out
- 7. The effectiveness of time-out is well established; however, additional research is needed to identify specific situations, parameters, and procedures associated with the success of time-out for children with ADHD. Clearly, time-out holds a low probability of directly affecting children's ADHD symptoms for the better. Time-out can be quite effective for noncompliant children, but for children with ADHD, you must distinguish between noncompliant behaviours and behaviours resulting from ADHD. Cont…
- 8. In general, for time-out to be effective: students should be separated from reinforcement, the time should be short, confrontation should be avoided, verbal interaction should be limited, and a time-contingent release should be provided (Bean & Roberts, 1981). Time-contingent release refers to the amount of time and the contingencies (e.g. sitting quietly) required to earn release. These contingencies should be explained and provided to the child prior to entering time- out. Children warned less in time-out also respond better (Roberts, 1982). Cont…
- 9. A warning that time-out may come should be offered. The child should be consistently removed and placed in time-out when the behavior reoccurs. A specific location should be defined for time-out. A specific duration for time-out should be set. The consistent schedule for time-out use should be defined. A defined behavior should lead to time-out. Clear contingencies should be defined for the child to be released from time-out 9 Eight parameters should define the use of time-out (Scarboro, & Forehand, 1975):
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- 12. Activity Hands and Feet to Self Listen to Parent Mealtime Playtime Sticker Sheet (You need 4 Stickers to get TV time)
- 13. Shea and Bauer (1987) described the following process to apply positive reinforcement effectively: 1. Select a target behavior to increase, define the behavior, and choose a reinforcer. 2. Observe the child and watch for the behavior. 3. Reinforce the target behavior every time it is exhibited. 4. Comment in a positive way about the behaviour when providing reinforcement. 5. Be enthusiastic -and interested. 6. Offer assistance. 7. Vary the reinforcer. 13 Effectiveness of Positive Reinforcement
- 14. Table 4.2. Technique, behaviour, consequence, and probable effect Classification Exhibited behavior Consequences Probable future effect on behavior Positive reinforcement Jane cleans her room. Jane's parents praise her. Jane will continue to clean her room. Negative reinforcement Jason complains that older boys consistently beat him up, and he refuses to attend school. Jason's parents allow him to remain at home because of his complaints. Jason will continue to miss school. Extinction Jim washes his father's car. Jim's car washing behavior is ignored. Jim will stop washing his father's car. Punishment Takeo puts Gwen's pigtails in the paint. The teacher administers the paddle to Takeo's posterior. Takeo will not put Gwen's pigtail in the paint. 14
- 15. IFEED-AV rules Immediately The I stands for reinforcing the student immediately. The longer the teacher waits to reinforce a student, the less effective the reinforcer will be. This is particularly true of younger students or students with severe disabilities. For example, reinforcer effectiveness is limited if the student has to wait until the end of the week to receive it. Frequently The F stands for frequently reinforcing a student. It is especially important to frequently reinforce when a student is learning a new behavior or skill. If reinforcers are not given frequently enough, the student may not produce enough of a new behavior for it to become well-established. The standard rule is three or four positive reinforcers for every one negative consequence (including negative verbal comments) that the teacher delivers. If, in the beginning, there is a great deal of inappropriate behavior to which the teacher must attend, positive reinforcement and recognition of appropriate behavior must be increased accordingly to maintain the desired three or four positives to each negative. The reinforcer can be a simple social reinforcer such as, "Good job. You finished your math assignment." Enthusiasm The first E stands for enthusiasm in the delivery of the reinforcer. It is easy to simply hand an edible reinforcer to a student; it takes more effort to pair it with an enthusiastic comment. Modulation in the voice and excitement with a congratulatory air convey that the student has done something important. For most teachers, this seems artificial at first. However, with practice, enthusiasm makes the difference between a reinforcer delivered in a drab, uninteresting way and one that indicates that something important has taken place in which the teacher is interested. 15 Rhode, Jenson, and Reavis (1992) provided a well- defined model for reinforcement in the classroom.
- 16. Eye contact It is also important for the teacher to look the student in the eyes when giving a reinforcer, even if the student is not looking at him or her. Like enthusiasm, eye contact suggests that a student is special and has the teacher's undivided attention. Over time, eye contact may become reinforcing in and of itself. Describe the behavior D stands for describing the behavior that is being reinforced. The younger the student or the more severe the disability, the more important it is to describe the appropriate behavior that is being reinforced. Teachers often assume that students know what it is they are doing right that has resulted in the delivery of reinforcement. However, this is often not the case. The student may not know why reinforcement is being delivered or may think that it is being delivered for some behavior other than what the teacher intended to reinforce. Even if the student does know what behavior is being reinforced, describing it is important. First, describing the behavior highlights and emphasizes the behavior the teacher wishes to reinforce. Second, if the behavior has several steps, describing it helps to review the specific expectations for the student. An example is, "Wow, you got yourself dressed - look at you! You have your socks on, your shoes are laced, your pants are on with a belt, and your shirt has all the buttons fastened and is tucked in." This is much more effective than saying, "Good job dressing." Anticipation Building excitement and anticipation for the earning of a reinforcer can motivate students to do their very best. The more "hype" the teacher uses, the more excited students become to earn the reinforcer. Presenting the potential reinforcer in a mysterious way also builds anticipation. Variety Just like adults, students get tired of the same things. A certain reinforcer may be highly desired, but, after repeated exposure, it loses its effectiveness. It is easy to get caught up in giving students the same old reinforcers time and time again. However, variety is the spice of life for everyone. Generally, when teachers are asked why they do not vary their reinforcers, they indicate that it worked very well once. It is necessary to change reinforcers frequently to make the reinforcement more effective. 16
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