![Declarations
The general format for a declaration is
type variable-name [=value] .
Examples:
• char x; /∗ uninitialized ∗/
• char x=’A’; /∗ intialized to ’A’∗/
• char x=’A’,y=’B’; /∗multiple variables initialized ∗/
• char x=y=’Z’;/∗multiple initializations ∗/
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Lecture 02 Programming C for Beginners 001
- 1. 6.087 Lecture 2 – January 12, 2010 Review Variables and data types Operators Epilogue 1
- 2. Review: C Programming language • C is a fast, small,general-purpose,platform independent programming language. • C is used for systems programming (e.g., compilers and interpreters, operating systems, database systems, microcontrollers etc.) • C is static (compiled), typed, structured and imperative. • "C is quirky, flawed, and an enormous success."–Ritchie 1
- 3. Review: Basics • Variable declarations: int i ; float f ; • Intialization: char c=’A’; int x=y=10; • Operators: +,−,∗,/,% • Expressions: int x,y,z; x=y∗2+z∗3; • Function: int factorial (int n); /∗function takes int , returns int ∗/ 2
- 4. 6.087 Lecture 2 – January 12, 2010 Review Variables and data types Operators Epilogue 3
- 5. Definitions Datatypes: • The datatype of an object in memory determines the set of values it can have and what operations that can be performed on it. • C is a weakly typed language. It allows implicit conversions as well as forced (potentially dangerous) casting. Operators: • Operators specify how an object can be manipulated (e.g.,, numeric vs. string operations). • operators can be unary(e.g., -,++),binary (e.g., +,-,*,/),ternary (?:) 3
- 6. Definitions (contd.) Expressions: • An expression in a programming language is a combination of values, variables, operators, and functions Variables: • A variable is as named link/reference to a value stored in the system’s memory or an expression that can be evaluated. Consider: int x=0,y=0; y=x+2;. • x, y are variables • y = x + 2 is an expression • + is an operator. 4
- 7. Variable names Naming rules: • Variable names can contain letters,digits and _ • Variable names should start with letters. • Keywords (e.g., for,while etc.) cannot be used as variable names • Variable names are case sensitive. int x; int X declares two different variables. Pop quiz (correct/incorrect): • int money$owed; (incorrect: cannot contain $) • int total_count (correct) • int score2 (correct) • int 2ndscore (incorrect: must start with a letter) • int long (incorrect: cannot use keyword) 5
- 8. Data types and sizes C has a small family of datatypes. • Numeric (int,float,double) • Character (char) • User defined (struct,union) 6
- 9. umeric data types Depending on the precision and range required, you can use one of the following datatypes. signed unsigned short short int x;short y; unsigned short x;unsigned short int y; default int x; unsigned int x; long long x; unsigned long x; float float x; N/A double double x; N/A char char x; signed char x; unsigned char x; • The unsigned version has roughly double the range of its signed counterparts. • Signed and unsigned characters differ only when used in arithmetic expressions. • Titbit: Flickr changed from unsigned long (2 32 − 1) to string two years ago. 7
- 10. Big endian vs. little endian The individual sizes are machine/compiler dependent. However, the following is guaranteed: sizeof(char)<sizeof(short)<=sizeof(int)<=sizeof(long) and sizeof(char)<sizeof(short)<=sizeof(float)<=sizeof(double) "NUXI" problem: For numeric data types that span multiple bytes, the order of arrangement of the individual bytes is important. Depending on the device architecture, we have "big endian" and "little endian" formats. 8
- 11. Big endian vs. little endian (cont.) • Big endian: the most significant bits (MSBs) occupy the lower address. This representation is used in the powerpc processor. Networks generally use big-endian order, and thus it is called network order. • Little endian : the least signficant bits (LSBs) occupy the lower address. This representation is used on all x86 compatible processors. Figure: (from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_endian) 9
- 12. Constants nts are literal/fixed values assigned to variables or used in expressions. atype example meaning int i=3; i long l=3; long ger unsigned long ul= 3UL; unsigned long int i=0xA; hexa int i=012; octal float pi=3.14159 floa g point float pi=3.141F float double pi=3.1415926535897932384L double 10
- 13. Constants (contd.) Datatype example meaning character ’A’ ’x41’ ’0101’ character specified in hex specified in octal string "hello world" "hello""world" string literal same as "hello world" enumeration enum BOOL {NO,YES} enum COLOR {R=1,G,B,Y=10} NO=0,YES=1 G=2,B=3 11
- 14. Declarations The general format for a declaration is type variable-name [=value] . Examples: • char x; /∗ uninitialized ∗/ • char x=’A’; /∗ intialized to ’A’∗/ • char x=’A’,y=’B’; /∗multiple variables initialized ∗/ • char x=y=’Z’;/∗multiple initializations ∗/ 12
- 15. Pop quiz II • int x=017;int y=12; /∗is x>y?∗/ • short int s=0xFFFF12; /∗correct?∗/ • char c=−1;unsigned char uc=−1; /∗correct?∗/ • puts("hel"+"lo");puts("hel""lo");/∗which is correct?∗/ • enum sz{S=0,L=3,XL}; /∗what is the value of XL?∗/ • enum sz{S=0,L=−3,XL}; /∗what is the value of XL?∗/ 13
- 16. 6.087 Lecture 2 – January 12, 2010 Review Variables and data types Operators Epilogue 14
- 17. Arithmetic operators operator meaning examples + addition x=3+2; /∗constants∗/ y+z; /∗variables∗/ x+y+2; /∗both∗/ - subtraction 3−2; /∗constants∗/ int x=y−z; /∗variables∗/ y−2−z; /∗both∗/ * multiplication int x=3∗2; /∗constants∗/ int x=y∗z; /∗variables∗/ x∗y∗2; /∗both∗/ 14
- 18. Arithmetic operators (contd.) operator meaning examples / division float x=3/2; /∗produces x=1 (int /) ∗/ float x=3.0/2 /∗produces x=1.5 (float /) ∗/ int x=3.0/2; /∗produces x=1 (int conversion)∗/ % modulus (remainder) int x=3%2; /∗produces x=1∗/ int y=7;int x=y%4; /∗produces 3∗/ int y=7;int x=y%10; /∗produces 7∗/ 15
- 19. Relational Operators Relational operators compare two operands to produce a ’boolean’ result. In C any non-zero value (1 by convention) is considered to be ’true’ and 0 is considered to be false. operator meaning examples > greater than 3>2; /∗evaluates to 1 ∗/ 2.99>3 /∗evaluates to 0 ∗/ >= greater than or equal to 3>=3; /∗evaluates to 1 ∗/ 2.99>=3 /∗evaluates to 0 ∗/ < lesser than 3<3; /∗evaluates to 0 ∗/ ’A’<’B’/∗evaluates to 1∗/ <= lesser than or equal to 3<=3; /∗evaluates to 1 ∗/ 3.99<3 /∗evaluates to 0 ∗/ 16
- 20. Relational Operators Testing equality is one of the most commonly used relational operator == operator. != Gotchas: meaning equal to not equal to examples 3==3; /∗evaluates to 1 ∗/ ’A’==’a’/∗evaluates to 0 ∗/ 3!=3; /∗evaluates to 0 ∗/ 2.99!=3 /∗evaluates to 1 ∗/ • Note that the "==" equality operator is different from the "=", assignment operator. • Note that the "==" operator on float variables is tricky because of finite precision. 17
- 21. Logical operators operator meaning examples && AND ((9/3)==3) && (2∗3==6); /∗evaluates to 1 ∗/ (’A’==’a’) && (3==3) /∗evaluates to 0 ∗/ || OR 2==3 || ’A’==’A’; /∗evaluates to 1 ∗/ 2.99>=3 || 0 /∗evaluates to 0 ∗/ ! NOT !(3==3); /∗evaluates to 0 ∗/ !(2.99>=3) /∗evaluates to 1 ∗/ Short circuit: The evaluation of an expression is discontinued if the value of a conditional expression can be determined early. Be careful of any side effects in the code. Examples: • (3==3) || ((c=getchar())==’y’). The second expression is not evaluated. • (0) && ((x=x+1)>0) . The second expression is not evaluated. 18
- 22. Increment and decrement operators Increment and decrement are common arithmetic operation. C provides two short cuts for the same. Postfix • x++ is a short cut for x=x+1 • x−− is a short cut for x=x−1 • y=x++ is a short cut for y=x;x=x+1. x is evaluated before it is incremented. • y=x−− is a short cut for y=x;x=x−1. x is evaluated before it is decremented. 19
- 23. Increment and decrement operators Prefix: • ++x is a short cut for x=x+1 • −−x is a short cut for x=x−1 • y=++x is a short cut for x=x+1;y=x;. x is evaluate after it is incremented. • y=−−x is a short cut for x=x−1;y=x;. x is evaluate after it is decremented. 20
- 24. Bitwise Operators operator meaning examples & AND 0x77 & 0x3; /∗evaluates to 0x3 ∗/ 0x77 & 0x0; /∗evaluates to 0 ∗/ | OR 0x700 | 0x33; /∗evaluates to 0x733 ∗/ 0x070 | 0 /∗evaluates to 0x070 ∗/ ˆ XOR 0x770 ^ 0x773; /∗evaluates to 0x3 ∗/ 0x33 ^ 0x33; /∗evaluates to 0 ∗/ « left shift 0x01<<4; /∗evaluates to 0x10 ∗/ 1<<2; /∗evaluates to 4 ∗/ » right shift 0x010>>4; /∗evaluates to 0x01 ∗/ 4>>1 /∗evaluates to 2 ∗/ Notes: • AND is true only if both operands are true. • OR is true if any operand is true. • XOR is true if only one of the operand is true. 21
- 25. Assignment Operators Another common expression type found while programming in C is of the type var = var (op) expr • x=x+1 • x=x∗10 • x=x/2 C provides compact assignment operators that can be used instead. • x+=1 /∗is the same as x=x+1∗/ • x−=1 /∗is the same as x=x−1∗/ • x∗=10 /∗is the same as x=x∗10 ∗/ • x/=2 /∗ is the same as x=x/2 • x%=2 /∗is the same as x=x%2 22
- 26. Conditional Expression A common pattern in C (and in most programming) languages is the following: i f ( cond ) x=<expra >; else x=<exprb >; C provides syntactic sugar to express the same using the ternary operator ’?:’ sign=x>0?1:−1; isodd=x%2==1?1:0; i f ( x >0) i f ( x%2==1) sign =1 isodd=1 else else sign=−1 isodd=0 Notice how the ternary operator makes the code shorter and easier to understand (syntactic sugar). 23
- 27. 6.087 Lecture 2 – January 12, 2010 Review Variables and data types Operators Epilogue 24
- 28. Type Conversions When variables are promoted to higher precision, data is preserved. This is automatically done by the compiler for mixed data type expressions. int i ; fl oa t f ; f = i +3.14159; / ∗ i i s promoted to f l o a t , f =( f l o a t ) i +3.14159 ∗ / Another conversion done automatically by the compiler is ’char’ → ’int’. This allows comparisons as well as manupilations of character variables. isupper =(c>=’A’ && c<=’Z’ )? 1: 0 ; / ∗ c and l i t e r a l constants are converted to i n t ∗ / i f ( ! isupper ) c=c−’a’+’A’ ; / ∗ subtrac tio n i s possible because of intege r conversion ∗ / As a rule (with exceptions), the compiler promotes each term in an binary expression to the highest precision operand. 24
- 29. Precedence and Order of Evaluation • ++,–,(cast),sizeof have the highest priority • *,/,% have higher priority than +, • ==,!= have higher priority than &&,|| • assignment operators have very low priority Use () generously to avoid ambiguities or side effects associated with precendence of operators. • y=x∗3+2 /∗same as y=(x∗3)+2∗/ • x!=0 && y==0 /∗same as (x!=0) && (y==0)∗/ • d= c>=’0’&& c<=’9’/∗same as d=(c>=’0’) && (c<=’9’)∗/ 25
- 30. MIT OpenCourseWare http://ocw.mit.edu 6.087 Practical Programming in C IAP 2010 For information about citing these materials or our Terms of Use,visit: http://ocw.mit.edu/terms.