Lecture 4

1. Forms and
methodology of
scientific cognition.
2. Features of
modern methods.
P l a n

Cognition is “the
mental action or
process of acquiring
knowledge and
understanding through
thought, experience,
and the senses”
It include the processes such as knowledge,
attention, memory and working memory,
judgment and evaluation, reasoning and
“computation”, problem solving and decision
making, comprehension and production of
language. Human cognition is conscious and
unconscious, concrete or abstract, as well as
intuitive (like knowledge of a language) and
conceptual (like a model of a language).

The cognitive processes are analyzed
from different perspectives within
different contexts, particular in the
fields of linguistics, anesthesia,
neuroscience, psychiatry, psychology,
education, philosophy, anthropology,
biology, systemics, logic, and
computer science

Deductive Reasoning
Theory
Hypotheses
Observation
Confirmation
Using deductive reasoning, one
starts with a given theory as the
basis for which we develop
hypotheses and then confirm
these with specific
data acquired using observation
or experimentation
(Is our theory valid or not?)

Inductive Reasoning
Observation
Pattern
Tentative Hypothesis
Theory
Using inductive reasoning,
one starts with a specific
observation
as the basis for which we
develop
a general pattern and
tentative
hypothesis as the
foundation
of a theory

Scientific and Nonscientific Approaches
to Cognition
1. The scientific method is empirical and requires systematic, controlled
observation.
2. To achieve control in a research situation, researchers manipulate
independent variables or select levels of individual differences variables
to determine their effect on behavior.
3. Dependent variables are measures of behavior used to assess the effects
of independent variables.
4. Scientific reporting is unbiased and objective; clear communication of
concepts occurs when operational definitions are used.
5. Scientific instruments are accurate and precise; physical and
psychological measurement should be valid and reliable.
6. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a phenomenon; testable
hypotheses have clearly defined concepts (operational definitions), are
not circular, and refer to concepts that can be observed.
7. Scientists adopt a skeptical attitude and are cautious about accepting
explanations until sufficient empirical evidence is obtained.

Basic forms of
scientific knowledge
Scientific
facts
Problems
Propositions/
Hypotheses
Theories
(principles,
constructs,
laws)
Paradigms

Scientific facts
 Facts are close agreements
between many competent
observers about a series of
observations made.
 It is a fact that the Earth revolves
around the Sun.
 It is a fact that heavy objects and
light objects fall at the same rate
in the absence of air resistance.

A proposition is a statement concerned with
the relationship between concepts. It asserts a
universal connection and logical linkage
between concepts. Propositions are at a higher
level of abstraction than concepts.
Example: All people need to have a rest.
Hypotheses are propositions which are
empirically testable. They are usually
concerned with the relationships between
variables.
Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double
the production.
12

Zikmund has defined a theory as “a set of
general propositions, used as principles of
explanation of the amount of the relationships
of certain observed phenomena”.
Concepts (or constructs) are the basic
building blocks of theory development. A
concept (or construct) is a generalized idea
about a class of objects, attributes,
occurrences, or processes that have been
given a name. A concept (or construct) may
vary in terms of the level of abstraction.
Examples: Productivity, Leadership, Morale,
Recreational resources.

Examples of scientific theories
Newton's theory of gravity
Newton’s “laws” of motion
The theory of evolution by natural selection
Einstein's theory of gravity
Einstein’s theories of general and specific relativity
Mendel's law of inheritance
A chaos theory
Pythagoras's theorem
Early psychoanalytic theory
Geology: Plate Tectonics
The Jungian theory of the unconscious mind
Germ theory of illness
Rational choice theory
Deterrence theory
Genetic theories of intelligence or personality
(See also:
http://www.radix.net/~bobg/timeline/theories.html)

Qualities of a Good Theory
Often, competing theories are put forth to explain
certain phenomena. One cannot really be 100%
certain that a given theory is correct because, no
matter on how many occasions the results of
experiments agree with the theory, there may
come an occasion when some do not.
Theories must be:
Objective
Verifiable (i.e. within the accepted margins of
error)
Falsifiable / disprovable
Good theories must describe, explain and predict.

Laws and Theories
• When a hypothesis
has been tested over
and over again and
found to be correct it
can become a law.
• Explains WHAT will
happen.
• The strength of
gravity depends on
the mass of the
object and its
diameter is a law of
gravity.
• A theory is synthesis
or collection of a
vast amount of
information which
includes well-tested
and verified
hypotheses.
• Explains WHY
something happens.
• Objects with mass
warp space causing
the effect we see as
gravity is a theory of
gravity.

The Abstraction Way
Observations of Objects,
Events and Occurrences (Reality)
Concepts / Constructs
Propositions
Theory
Levels of
Abstraction
Empirical Level
Abstract Level

Video: “Introduction
to Research Methodology”

The Scientific Method
The “scientific method” is basically an
overarching perspective on how scientific
investigations should be undertaken. It can, in
effect, be considered as a complete set of
principles and methods that help researchers
in all scientific disciplines obtain valid results
for their research studies, and which includes
the provision of clear and universally
accepted guidelines for acquiring, evaluating
and communicating information in the context
of a research study.
The goals of scientific research are, broadly
speaking, to understand, explain and predict.

Elements
of the Scientific Method
 Empirical Approach
 Observation
 Questions
 Hypotheses
 Experiments
 Analysis
 Conclusion
 Replication

Fundamental research approaches:
1) systemic, 2) structural, 3) functional,
2) 4) complex, 5) natural, 6) model, etc.
Methods of empirical research:
1) observation, 2) comparison,
2) 3) measurement, 4) experiment.
Methods of theoretical research:
1) idealization, 2) formalization, 3) axiomatic
method, 4) hypothetical method, etc.
Methods used at the empirical and theoretical
levels: 1) analysis and synthesis, 2) induction
and deduction, 3) abstraction and
concretization, 4) analogy and modeling.

Lecture 4

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Lecture 4