Lecture1- Aircraft basic construction (ASTU).pdf

Objective of the course
• The objective of an Aircraft Structural Mechanics
and Materials course is to teach students the
principles of structural and solid mechanics to
design and analyze aerospace structures.
• Students learn about the materials and structures
used in aircraft, how to analyze loads and forces
in aircraft structures, and how to apply theories to
analyze aircraft structural components.

The aims of this course are to:
• know the basic structures and materials used in aircraft
and aerospace.
• provide familiarity with important analytical methods for
aircraft structural analysis;
• provide familiarity with correct application of analytical
aircraft structural component analysis in presence of
realistic loads;
• help students to develop analytical skills and understanding
of structural mechanics in airframe components;
• introduce students to concepts of aircraft structural
optimisation and their relevance for sustainable aviation;

Intended Learning Outcomes of Course
• By the end of this course students will be able to:
q Evaluate shear force and bending moment (response of
airframe structures to external loading) diagrams for
various continuous airframe structures;
q Select and implement appropriate techniques of
structural analysis of airframe components in present of
realistic loads;
q Evaluate section properties for non-symmetric structural
members;
q Evaluate the loading distribution within single or multi-
cell boxes and assess possibility of structural failure;
q Justify aircraft structural component preliminary design
and optimisation choices for sustainable aviation

OVERVIEW
• Structural mechanics is the study of the mechanical behavior
of solids and structures.
• Aerospace structures differ from other structures due to their
high demands for performance and lightweight.
• Modern aerospace structures typically require the use of
composite materials, advanced multifunctional materials and
thin-walled constructions.
• To obtain the level of performance required from flight
structures, thorough knowledge of material limitations,
structural stability, structure health and strength
considerations are needed.

A Brief History of Aviation
• The original idea of kite-flying from China was the first attempt
of humankind to fly some man-made object high into the air.
Chinese used to send messages, lift humans, measure
distances, and test winds during the 5th - 7th Century AD. They also
prepared Hot Air Balloons to scare away enemies in the 3rd
Century BC.
• Later during the period of Renaissance, Leonardo Da Vinci
studied the flying principles of birds and anticipated that the equal
amount of resistance is offered by an object to the air, just as the
resistance air offers to the object.

Early history of airplane/aircraft
Le Bris and his glider (1868)
Boys flying a kite in 1828
The fixed wings of a delta-shaped
kite
Wright Flyer III piloted by Orville Wright , 4 October 1905
flying boat after it completed the first crossing of the Atlantic in 1919,
A glider (sailplane) being winch-launched
Ultralight "airchair" Goat 1 glider

Hot air balloon (Otto Lilienthal in 1896)
• Aviation began in the 18th century with the
development of the hot air balloon, an apparatus
capable of atmospheric displacement through
buoyancy.
• The most significant advancements in aviation
technology came with the controlled gliding flying
of Otto Lilienthal in 1896; then a large step in
significance came with the construction of the first
powered airplane by the Wright brothers in the
early 1903s.
Lilienthal in mid-flight, Berlin
c. 1895
First powered and controlled flight by the Wright brothers, December 17, 1903

• The American brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright were inspired by
and had developed a fully practical biplane (double-winged)
glider that could be controlled in every direction.
• Fitting a small engine and two propellers to another biplane, the Wright
brothers on December 17, 1903, made the world’s first successful human-
carrying engine-powered heavier-than-air flight at Kill Devil Hills, North
Carolina , at 120 ft high for 12 sec.
• The Wright brothers made the first successful powered, controlled and
sustained airplane flight, made possible by their invention of three-axis
control.
Wright brothers in early 1900s

• The W took aloft the first passenger, Charles
Furnas, one of their mechanics, on May 14, 1908
• Only a decade later, at the start of World War I, heavier-than-
air powered aircraft had become practical for reconnaissance,
artillery spotting, and even attacks against ground positions.
• Though initially used for aerial reconnaissance, aircraft were
soon fitted with machine guns to shoot at other aircraft and with
bombs to drop on ground targets.
• Military aircraft with these types of missions and armaments
became known, respectively, as
War I (1914–18)

Transatlantic and transpacific flights(1920s and 1930s )
• During the 1920s and 1930s great progress was made in the field
of aviation, including the first transatlantic flight of Alcock and
Brown
• In 1919, by Charles Lindbergh's solo transatlantic flight in 1927
Charles Kingsford Smith's transpacific flight the following year.
• One of the most successful designs of this period was the Douglas
DC-3, which became the first airliner to be profitable carrying
passengers exclusively, starting the modern era of passenger
airline service.

• By the beginning of , many towns
and cities had built airports, and there were
numerous qualified pilots available.
• The war brought many innovations to aviation,
including the and
• Manufacturers such as Cessna, Piper, and
Beechcraft expanded production to provide light
aircraft for the new middle-class market.
During world war II (1939 - 1945)
The Cessna 172 is the most produced aircraft in history
Piston-engined propeller craft
Airbus A380

After world war II (1945--)
• By the 1950s, the development of civil jets grew, beginning with
the de Havilland Comet, though the first widely used passenger
jet was the Boeing 707, because it was much more economical
than other aircraft at that time. At the same time, turboprop
propulsion began to appear for smaller commuter planes,
making it possible to serve small-volume routes in a much wider
range of weather conditions.
• Since the 1960s composite material airframes and quieter, more
efficient engines have become available, and Concorde
provided supersonic passenger service for more than two
decades, but the most important lasting innovations have taken
place in instrumentation and control.
British Airways Concorde in 1986
A low-wing, four-engined jet aircraft, the 707 in 1958.

Aircraft for space flight
• On June 21, 2004, SpaceShipOne became the
first privately funded aircraft to make a
spaceflight, opening the possibility of an
aviation market capable of leaving the Earth's
atmosphere.
• Meanwhile, the need to decarbonize the
aviation industry to face the climate crisis has
increased research into aircraft powered by
alternative fuels, such as ethanol, electricity,
hydrogen, and even solar energy, with flying
prototypes becoming more common.
SpaceShipOne after its flight
into space, June 2004
SpaceX's Crew Dragon capsule approaching the International Space Station in Earth orbit

Fixed wing aircrafts
• A fixed-wing aircraft is a heavier-than-air flying
machine, such as an airplane, which is capable of flight
using wings that generate lift caused by the aircraft's
forward airspeed and the shape of the wings.

Rotary-wing aircraft
Magni M-16 Tandem Trainers

• Airplane flight is one of the most significant technological
achievements of the 20th century. The invention of the airplane
allows people to travel from one side of the planet to the other in
less than a day, compared with weeks of travel by boat and train.
• Understanding precisely why airplanes fly is an ongoing
challenge for aerospace engineers, like me, who study and design
airplanes, rockets, satellites, helicopters and space capsules.
• Now a day flying through the air/ space is safe and reliable
method of transportation when compared to other type of
transportation means (i.e. cars, buses, trains or boats).
• But although aerospace engineers design aircraft that are
stunningly sophisticated, we might be surprised to learn there are
still some details about the physics of flight that we don’t fully
understand.

Principles of flight
• The four forces making up the
principle of flight are lift, weight,
drag, and thrust.
• The forces all interact together to
determine an airplane’s trajectory.
• Lift and weight are opposing forces, as
are thrust and drag.
• All are equally important, and they
must be balanced to maintain level
flight.

• An aircraft in straight and level flight is acted upon
by four forces: lift, gravity, thrust and drag.
• The opposing forces balance each other: Lift equals
gravity, and thrust equals drag.
• Thrust: The force that moves an airplane forward
through the air. Thrust is created by a propeller or a
jet engine.
Principles of flight and how an aircraft flies

Principles of flight and how an aircraft flies

is the process by which an object moves through a
space without contacting any planetary surface, either within
an atmosphere (i.e. air flight or aviation) or through the vacuum
of outer space (i.e. spaceflight).
• The faster an airplane moves, the more lift there is.
When the force of lift is greater than the force of
gravity, the airplane is able to fly, and because of
thrust, the airplane is able to move forward in flight.
According to Newton's third law of motion, the action
of the wings moving through the air creates lift.

1. Lift
• Lift is mostly generated by the wings, but
smaller elements of lift are generated by the
horizontal stabilizer and even the fuselage.
• Lift acts through the center of pressure (CP)
and at 90° to the relative airflow.
• Wings aren’t entirely equal and change in
shape from the root to the tip. As a result, they
generate different amounts of lift.
• The center of pressure describes the sum of
these different amounts. It is often expressed
using the wing’s chord line as a reference.
� =
1
2
�∞�∞
2
��
� = Lift
�∞ = density of fluid
�∞ = speed of the object
relative to the fluid
�� = drag coefficient
� = cross sectional area

2. Thrust
• The thrust vector acts in a forward direction
and is normally generated by the airplane
engine.
• By adding thrust (by pushing the throttle
forward), we can increase the thrust vector,
making the aircraft move faster.
• An airplane is super dynamic. It can move in
three dimensions with unlimited possibilities!
• And explaining each and every possible
combination is almost impossible.
� = �� + �� − ��

3. Weight
• Weight is the force generated by the
gravitational attraction of the earth on
the airplane. We know when one thing is
heavy and when another thing is light. But
w e i g h t , t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e , i s
fundamentally different from the aerodynamic
forces, lift and drag.
• Aerodynamic forces are mechanical forces
and the airplane has to be in physical contact
with the air which generates the force.
W= � ∗ �

Weight
• The gravitational force is a field force; the
source of the force does not have to be in
physical contact with the object to generate a
pull on the object.
• The more items on board the aircraft, the
greater their mass, the greater their weight.
Every item is summed together to make up
how much the aircraft weighs. But where
does this force act?
• The center of gravity is the point through
which all forces of weight act.

Weight
• Consider the ‘pivot’ point through
which the weight acts, much like
the central pivot on a see-saw.
• The airplane also turns around its
center of gravity.
• The CG always acts towards the
earth’s center, regardless of the
aircraft’s attitude or orientation.

4. Drag
• Drag is the force that resists
movement of an aircraft
through the air. There are two
basic types:
1. parasite drag and
2. induced drag.
• The first is called parasite
because it in no way functions
to aid flight, while the second,
induced drag, is a result of an
airfoil developing lift.
� =
1
2
�∞�∞
2
��
� = drag
�∞ = density of fluid
�∞ = speed of the object relative to the fluid
�� = drag coefficient
� = cross sectional area

Types of Drag Force
• There are different types of drag force, when we considering the flight
of airplanes:
1. Parasitic Drag—Drag caused by the object's shape, material, and
construction type.
a) Form Drag—The drag due to the shape of the object moving through the fluid.
b) Skin Friction Drag—The drag due to the roughness of the object's surface.
c) Interference Drag—The drag resulting from two airflows of different speeds meeting
and interfering.
2. Induced Drag—The drag resulting from lift (It is also called lift
induced drag).
3. Wave Drag—The drag due to shockwaves.

• The drag force is the force that opposes the relative
motion between an object and a fluid. The direction of
the drag force is always opposite to the relative motion.
• Common types of drag force include parasitic drag,
form drag, skin friction drag, interference drag, induced
drag, and wave drag.
• For most simple scenarios (if the velocity is high, the viscosity of the fluid is low,
and the object isn't tiny), the equation for drag force is:
• We can use Stokes's Law to find the drag force when a situation doesn't meet
the requirements necessary to use the drag force.

• Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in
the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a
decrease in static pressure or the fluid's
potential energy. Air acts just like a fluid.
• For aviators, this means that if the air is sped up
above a wing, then there is a lower pressure
above the wing than below. This speeding up is
caused by the wings camber, a fancy aviation
term that means ‘curved on top’.
• The difference in pressure creates a force on the
wing that lifts the wing up into the air.

• A curved line is longer than a
straight line, meaning the air must
travel further to get to the wing’s
trailing edge.
• Thus the high pressure build up
beneath the wing and low pressure
on top of wing.
• The wing moves up into the area of
low pressure, and we call this force
lift

• The air approaching the leading edge of an airfoil is first
slowed down. It then speeds up again as it passes over or
beneath the airfoil.
• As the velocity changes, the dynamic pressure changes and,
according to Bernoulli's principle, the static pressure also
changes.
• Air that is passing above and below the airfoil has speeded up
to a value higher than the flight path velocity and will produce
static pressures that are lower than ambient static pressure.

• The maximum velocity and minimum static pressure will occur
at a point near-maximum thickness. The shape of the wing
directly impacts the airflow.
• The differential pressure so produced when multiplied by the
plan area of the airfoil generates an upward resultant force
normal to chord line.
• Component of this resultant force normal to the relative wind
direction is called “lift” and the component in the direction of
the relative wind is called “drag”.

• The Bernoulli Equation can be considered to be a statement of
the conservation of energy principle appropriate for flowing
fluids.
• The qualitative behavior that is usually labeled with the term
"Bernoulli effect" is the lowering of fluid pressure in regions
where the flow velocity is increased.
• This lowering of pressure in a constriction of a flow path may
seem counterintuitive, but seems less so when you consider
pressure to be energy density.
• In the high velocity flow through the constriction, kinetic energy
must increase at the expense of pressure energy.

• The angle of attack (also called angle of incidence) (α) is the
angle made between the chord line in the direction of airflow.
• For a given airfoil and at a given airflow velocity, the lift force
increases with angle of attack up to a limit and then decreases.
• Reason for the decrease in lift beyond an angle of attack is
“separation of flow” on the suction surface.
• The lift progressively decreases with an increase in angle of
attack beyond the angle of attack corresponding to maximum
lift. This is the principle behind the operation of spoilers and
canards.
The angle of attack

• Flow separation is a phenomenon that occurs
when the fluid flow around an airfoil no longer
follows the contour of the wing surface.
• It can happen when the angle of attack is too large,
which can lead to a sudden loss of lift and stalling.

• Flow separation occurs when fluid separates from the
surface of an airfoil, and can be caused by an adverse
pressure gradient.
• This can happen when an airfoil is at a high angle of
attack, and the pressure forces overcome the fluid's
inertial forces.
• Flow separation can have serious consequences for
aircraft, including:
– Stall;
– Increased pressure drag;
– Decreased efficiency

Consequences
• Stall: When flow separation occurs at an excessive
angle of attack, it can lead to a sudden loss of lift and
stall.
• Increased pressure drag: The pressure field
modification that occurs when the boundary layer
separates results in an increase in pressure drag.
• Decreased efficiency: Flow separation can cause a
decrease in efficiency.

Laws of Motion
Sir Isaac Newton proposed three laws of motion in 1665.
These Laws of Motion help to explain how a planes flies.
1. If an object is not moving, it will not start moving by itself. If
an object is moving, it will not stop or change direction unless
something pushes it
2. Objects will move farther and faster when they are pushed
harder
3. When an object is pushed in one direction, there is always
a resistance of the same size in the opposite direction.

• If you have ever stuck your hand out
of a moving vehicle and felt the force
of the air pushing on your hand you
should intuitively have a pretty good
idea of the concept of lift and drag.
• In this case the lift force tends to
push your hand upward while the
drag force pushes your hand
backward.
• Here the force being exerted on your hand is being generated by two force
distributions acting on your hand: a pressure distribution and a shear
distribution.

• Similarly, when we consider an airfoil subjected to a flow of air
over its surface: a pressure and shear distribution are present
acting over the entire airfoil surface.
1. The pressure distribution acts locally perpendicular (normal)
to the airfoil surface.
2. The shear distribution acts locally parallel to the airfoil
surface.
• Taking the local pressure contribution at each point along the
surface and adding each contribution together (integration)
results in a net pressure force acting on the airfoil.

• We can therefore specify the resulting aerodynamic force on
the airfoil as a lift and drag force acting at the quarter chord
plus a balancing pitching moment.

Each aerodynamic force is a function of the following
parameters:
• Where: = free-stream velocity = density of the medium =
angle of attack = viscosity of the medium = Free stream
sonic speed
The non-dimensionalized forces and moment are given as:

• Airfoil (American English), or Aerofoil (British
English) is a shaped surface, such as an airplane
wing, tail, or propeller blade, that produces lift and
drag when moved through the air.
• An aerofoil is the term used to describe the cross-
sectional shape of an object that, when moved
through a fluid such as air, creates an aerodynamic
force.
• Aerofoils are employed on aircraft as wings to
produce lift or as propeller blades to produce thrust.
Both these forces are produce perpendicular to the air
flow.
• Drag is a consequence of the production of lift/thrust
and acts parallel to the airflow

TYPES OF AEROFOIL
1. POSITIVE CHAMBERED
AIRFOIL
2. SYMETRIC
AIRFOIL
3. NEGATIVE CHAMBERED
AIRFOIL

Airfoil Nomenclature - NACA 2412
• T h e a n g l e b e t w e e n a
reference line on a body &
the vector representing the
relative motion between
the body and the fluid
through which it is moving
is termed the angle of
attack � .

Aerofoil Terminology
§ Leading Edge (LE) = Forward edge of the
aerofoil
§ Trailing Edge (TE) = Aft edge of the
aerofoil
§ Chord (C) = Line connecting the leading
and trailing edge. Denotes the length of the
aerofoil
§ Mean Camber Line (MCL) = Line drawn
half way b/n the upper and lower surface of
the aerofoil. Denotes the amount of
curvature of the wing
§ Point of Maximum Thickness = Thickest
part of the wing expressed as a percentage
of the chord
• The Mean Camber Line is
defined to lie halfway between
the upper and lower surfaces.

• The Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, airfoil
series, the 4-digit, 5-digit, and the updated 4-/5- digit, were
generated using analytical equations and analogies that described
the curvature of the airfoil's mean-line (geometric centerline) as
well as the section's thickness distribution along the length.
• Also, the families, which included the 6-Series, were more
complex shapes which were derived using theoretical methods.
• For example, a NACA 2412 airfoil uses a 2% camber (first digit)
40% (second digit) along the chord of a 0012 symmetrical airfoil
having a thickness 12% (digits 3 and 4) of the chord.

• The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
(NACA) was a United States federal agency founded on
March 3, 1915, to undertake, promote, and institutionalize
aeronautical research.
• On October 1, 1958, the agency was dissolved and its assets
and personnel were transferred to the newly created NASA.
• NACA is an initialism, i.e., pronounced as individual letters,
rather than as a whole word (as was NASA during the early
years after being established)

(I) NACA Four-Digit Series:
• The family of airfoils which was curated by utilizing NACA Four-Digit Series.
• In NACA four digit series, the maximum camber in the percentage of the chord
(airfoil length (C)) is given by the first digit,
• The second digit indicates the position of the maximum camber from LE in
tenth
The maximum thickness of the airfoil in the percentage of the chord is provided by the
last two numbers.
• For example, the NACA 2415 airfoil has a maximum thickness of 15% with a
camber of 2% located at 40% chord from the airfoil leading edge (or 0.4c). Using
these values, one can compute the coordinates of the entire airfoil using specific
equations,
NACA 2415 Airfoil
Max. Camber = 2%C
0.4C or 40%C
tmac = 15% C

The NACA four-digit wing sections define the profile by:
Example-2, the NACA 2412 airfoil has:
1. First digit describing maximum camber as percentage of the chord.
2. Second digit describing the distance of maximum camber from the airfoil
leading edge in tenths of the chord.
3. Last two digits describing maximum thickness of the airfoil as percent of
the chord
�� = 2 % �
�� = 4 ∗
�
10
= 0.4 �
�� = 12%� = 0.12�

Equation for a symmetrical 4-digit NACA airfoil
• The formula for the shape of a NACA 00xx foil, with "xx"
being replaced by the percentage of thickness to chord, is

Equation for a cambered 4-digit NACA airfoil
• The simplest asymmetric foils are
the NACA 4-digit series foils,
which use the same formula as
that used to generate the 00xx
symmetric foils, but with the line
of mean camber bent. The formula
used to calculate the mean camber
line is:
where
• m is the maximum camber (100 m is
the first of the four digits),
• p is the location of maximum camber
(10 p is the second digit in the NACA
xxxx description).

(II) NACA Five-Digit Series:
• The NACA Five-Digit Series and the Four-Digit Series are quite similar as they use
the same thickness forms, but the mean camber line is defined differently and the
naming convention is a bit more complex.
• The design lift coefficient (��)� is given by the first digit, when multiplied by 3/2,
yields it in tenths.
• The next two digits, when divided by 2, give the position of the maximum
camber from LE in tenths of the chord.
• The final two digits again indicate the maximum thickness in a percentage of chord.
• Taking an example, the NACA 24013 has a peak thickness of 13%C, a design lift
coefficient of 0.3, and the maximum camber located 20% behind the leading edge.
NACA 24013 Airfoil
(��)� =
�
�
∗
�
��
=
�
��
= �. ��
(��)�� =
��
�
∗
�
��
=
��
��
= ��%�

(III) NACA 6 and 6A Series Aerofoil Sections
• These aerofoil sections are designed to produce laminar flow and low drag over a
reasonable range of angles of attack.
• The thickness distribution is based on a prescribed velocity distribution for the
specific symmetric section required. The camber line is a polynomial function
based on the desired ideal lift coefficient. For 6 Series Sections the designation
numbers represent the aerofoil aerodynamic properties as:
64(1)-215
6 -- 6 series designation number.
4 -- location of Cp(min) as 1/10ths chord.
(1) -- 1/2 width of drag bucket in CL counts (0.2)
2 -- Ideal (or Design) CL value.
15 -- Max thickness to chord ratio, 1/100ths chord
64(1)-215
64(1)-215

Stressed-skin construction
• Stressedskin construction is a method of aircraft
construction that uses the outer covering, or skin, of the
plane to carry loads and provide structural rigidity:
• Structural rigidity: The skin is bonded or pinned to the
frame, which provides structural rigidity by resisting
distortion.
• Weight: Stressed-skin construction is lighter than a full
frame structure.
• Design: Stressed-skin construction is less complex to
design than a full monocoque.
• Eliminates internal trusses: Stressed-skin construction
eliminates many internal trusses and braces within the wing
and fuselage.

AIRCRAFT BASIC CONSTRUCTION
• Naval aircraft are built to meet certain specified
requirements. These requirements must be selected so
they can be built into one aircraft.
• It is not possible for one aircraft to possess all
characteristics; just as it isn't possible for an aircraft to
have the comfort of a passenger transport and the
maneuverability of a fighter.
• The type and class of the aircraft determine how strong it
must be built.
• A Navy fighter must be fast, maneuverable, and equipped
for attack and defense.
• To meet these requirements, the aircraft is highly
powered and has a very strong structure

Airframe of aircraft
a. The airframe of a fixed-
wing aircraft consists of the
following five major units:
1. Fuselage
2. Wings
3. Tail section (Emepenage)
4. Flight controls surfaces
5. Landing gear
b. A rotary-wing aircraft
consists of the following
four major units:
1. Fuselage
2. Landing gear
3. Main rotor assembly
4. Tail rotor assembly

a. Fuselage
• The fuselage is the central body of an airplane and
i s d e s i g n e d t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e c r e w ,
passengers, and cargo.
• It also provides the structural connection for the
wings and tail assembly.
• Older types of aircraft design utilized an open
truss structure constructed of wood, steel, or
aluminum tubing.
• The most popular types of fuselage structures
used in today’s aircraft are the monocoque
(French for “single shell”) and semimonocoque as
given in Fig. Below.

Wing (Contd.)
• High-wing
• Mid-wing
• Low-wing
• Monoplanes – one set of wings
• Biplanes – two set of wings
• Ailerons
• Flaps

PARTS OF TAIL SECTION (Contd.)
• Vertical stabilizer
• Horizontal stabilizer
• Rudder
• Elevator
• Trim tabs

Landing Gear
• Two main wheels and a third wheel at the
front or rear
• Parking,Taxiing, Take off, Landing
• Wheels - common
• Floats – water operation
• Skis - snow

Power Plant (Types)
• Pistonprop
• Turboprop
• Turbojet
• Turbofan
• Ramjet

Single-spool Axial Flow Turbo Jet

Lift, Thrust, Weight, and Drag

Bernaulli’s Equation
This is Bernoulli’s equation for an incompressible fluid, i.e. a fluid that cannot
be compressed or expanded, and for which the density is invariable.
First term is the internal energy of unit mass of the air, ½ v² is the kinetic energy
of unit mass and gz is the potential energy of unit mass. Thus, Bernoulli’s
equation in this form is a statement of the principle of conservation of energy in
the absence of heat exchanged and work done.

Air flow over an aerofoil inclined
at a small angle

Pressure Distribution over Aerofoil

Principal Aerodynamic Forces
During Flight

Primary Flight Controls
• Aileron
• Elevator
• T-tail
• Canard
• Rudder
• V-tail

Secondary Flight Controls
• Flaps
• Leading Edge Devices
• Spoilers
• Trim Devices

Trim Systems
• Trim Tabs
• Balance Tabs
• Anti-servo Tabs
• Ground Adjustable Tabs
• Adjustable Stabilizer

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