Lifespan Development Class XII ICSE PPT Psychology
- 1. Presentation by, Angeline Mary Barron Chapter III Lifespan Development
- 2. Syllabus Meaning of Development, growth and maturation. Why is the study of lifespan development important? Context of development –Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory. Infancy - motor, cognitive development, socio-emotional development. Motor Development – definition of motor milestone, reflexes- rooting, moro, grasping, Babinski; cognitive development – Piaget's Sensory Motor Stage; socio-emotional development – attachment (definition). Mary Ainsworth's & Lamb’s strange situation test(four patterns of attachment). Childhood - motor, cognitive development and moral development. Motor development- gross motor and fine motor skills (definitions only); cognitive development – Piaget’s Theory(Preoperational and Concrete). Moral development – Kohlberg’s perspective Experiment on Moral Dilemma – preconventional, conventional and postconventional morality. Adolescence - physical changes, cognitive development ; some major concerns. Physical changes at puberty (in brief);Cognitive development – Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage; Some major concerns – substance abuse (drugs and alcohol) –meaning of substance abuse and symptoms of drug abuse and alcoholism; eating disorders- bulimia, anorexia (meaning and symptoms)
- 3. What is Development? Development is the pattern of progressive, orderly, and predictable changes that begin at conception and continue throughout life.
- 4. Influences of Development Biological Processes • Genes and Inheritance: Traits like height, weight, and organ development. • Physical Growth: Brain, heart, and lungs. Cognitive Processes • Mental Activities: Knowing, thinking, and experiencing. • Key Skills: Perception, attention, and problem- solving. Socio-Emotional Processes • Interactions and Emotions: How we interact with others and our emotional responses. • Examples: • A child's hug to their mother. • A young girl's affection for her sibling. • An adolescent's sorrow at losing a match.
- 5. Life-Span Perspective on Development Development is Lifelong Occurs from conception to old age. Development is interrelated Biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes are interconnected. Development is Multidirectional Some abilities increase, others decrease. Example: Wisdom increases with age, but speed may decrease. Development is Plastic Skills and abilities can improve or develop throughout life. Historical Influence Development is shaped by historical events and conditions. Example: Life experiences differ across generations. Development is Multidisciplinary Studied by psychology, anthropology, sociology, and neuro-sciences. Contextual Influence Influenced by inherited traits, physical environment, social, historical, and cultural contexts. Example: Life events like death, accidents, or positive events like awards impact development.
- 6. Key concepts in Human Development Growth • Increase in the size of body parts or the organism as a whole. • Example: A child's height increases from 2 feet at age 2 to 3 feet at age 4. Development • Process by which an individual grows and changes throughout the life cycle, involving directional changes related to previous and future states. • Example: A child's ability to speak progresses from babbling at 6 months to forming complete sentences by age 3. Maturation • Changes that follow an orderly sequence dictated by genetics, which unfold as the individual reaches readiness. • Example: Most children can sit without support by 7 months, stand with support by 8 months, and walk by one year. Evolution • Species-specific changes through natural selection, favoring individuals best adapted to survive and reproduce. • Example: Human beings evolved from great apes over millions of years, with Homo sapiens emerging around 50,000 years ago.
- 7. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory Overview: Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory emphasizes the significant role of environmental factors in an individual's development. Key Idea: Development is influenced by multiple layers of environment, each interacting with the individual and each other. Purpose: Understanding how different contexts impact a child's growth and development helps in creating supportive environments for optimal development.
- 8. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory • Microsystem : Immediate Environment: Family, peers, teachers, and neighborhood. Example: A child's interaction with their family and friends. • Mesosystem: Interactions Between Microsystems. Relationships between different settings. Example: How a child's parents communicate with their teachers. • Exosystem: Indirect Environment: Social settings that affect the child indirectly. Example: A parent's job transfer affecting the family's stress levels and resources. • Macrosystem : Cultural Context: The broader culture in which the individual lives. Example: Societal beliefs and traditions. • Chronosystem: Time and Historical Context: Life events and socio-historical circumstances. Example: The impact of parental divorce or economic setbacks on a child.
- 9. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
- 10. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): • Infants learn about the world through their senses and actions. • Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. • Actions are initially reflexive, but gradually become more intentional. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): • Ability to use symbols (such as words or images) to represent objects that are not physically present. • Egocentrism: difficulty in seeing the world from perspectives other than their own. • Animism: attributing life-like qualities to inanimate objects. • Centration: focusing on one aspect of a situation or object, neglecting other important features. • Inability to recognize that quantities remain the same despite changes in shape or appearance.
- 11. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): • Ability to perform operations and think logically about concrete objects and events. • Recognizing that quantities remain the same despite changes in shape or appearance. • Ability to classify objects into different sets and understand relationships between them. • Understanding that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form. • Beginning to see things from others' perspectives. Formal Operational Stage (11-15 years and onwards): • Ability to think about abstract concepts and hypothetical situations. • Ability to develop hypotheses and systematically deduce the best path to solve problems. • Ability to evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real-world circumstances. • Thinking becomes more flexible and can consider multiple solutions to a problem.
- 12. Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development Level I: Preconventional Morality •Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation •Moral decisions are based on avoiding punishment. •Behavior is driven by obedience to authority figures to avoid negative consequences. •Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange •Moral decisions are based on self- interest and personal gain. •Actions are justified by gaining rewards or satisfying personal needs. Level II: Conventional Morality •Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships •Moral decisions are guided by conformity to social norms and approval from others. •Actions are evaluated based on maintaining relationships and meeting societal expectations. •Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order •Moral decisions emphasize obeying laws, rules, and maintaining social order. •Actions are evaluated based on the broader social context and upholding authority. Level III: Postconventional Morality •Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights •Moral decisions are based on understanding social contracts and mutual benefit. •Actions are evaluated based on respect for individual rights and democratic principles. •Stage 6: Universal Principles •Moral decisions are guided by universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. •Actions are evaluated based on personal moral principles that transcend societal norms and laws.
- 13. Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
- 14. Infancy Definition : The period from birth to around two years of age. o A critical stage of rapid growth and development in a child's life. o Significant increases in height and weight. o Rapid formation of neural connections. o Development of basic motor skills like crawling, standing, and walking. o Early stages of language, perception, and problem-solving. o Formation of early bonds with caregivers and recognition of familiar faces and voices. o Expression of basic emotions like joy, fear, and distress.
- 15. Motor Development at Infancy Motor Milestones : Automatic, innate responses to stimuli. Reflexes • Automatic, built-in responses to stimuli. • Genetically-carried survival mechanisms. • Examples: Coughing, blinking, yawning (persist throughout life). Role of Reflexes • Help newborns survive before they learn voluntary movements. • Some reflexes disappear as brain functions mature and voluntary control develops. Physical Development • Brain and Muscle Maturation : Leads to the development of finer motor skills. • Basic Motor Skills : Grasping and reaching for objects, Sitting, Crawling, Walking, Running.
- 16. Reflexes in Infants Reflex Description Developmental Course Rooting Turning the head and opening the mouth when touched on the cheek Disappears between 3 and 6 months Moro Startled response to a loud noise, arms thrown outward and then brought together Disappears by 6 to 7 months (reaction to loud noises persists) Grasp Closing fingers around an object when pressed against the palm Disappears by 3 to 4 months; replaced by voluntary grasping Babinski Toes fan out and then curl when the bottom of the foot is stroked Disappears by 8 to 12 months
- 17. Cognitive Development at Infancy Jean Piaget's Theory • Active Construction: Children actively construct their understanding of the world. • Developmental Stages: Children progress through stages of thought from infancy to adolescence. Developmental Stages by Piaget • Sensorimotor Stage (Infancy): • Characteristics: Interaction with the world through senses and actions (looking, hearing, touching). • Object Permanence: Understanding that objects continue to exist even when not seen. • Example: Infant doesn't search for a hidden toy, assuming it no longer exists. • Development: Begins to pursue partially hidden objects around 8 months of age. Verbal Communication : Babbling starts between 3 to 6 months of age. Basis for future verbal communication and language development.
- 18. Socio - Emotional Development at Infancy Early Social Behaviors • Preference for Familiar Faces: Infants start preferring familiar faces soon after birth. • Parental Interaction: Responds to parents' presence with cooing and gurgling. • Mobility and Preference: Becomes more mobile by 6-8 months and shows preference for mother's company.
- 19. What is Attachment? • Close emotional bond between infants and caregivers. • Infants form attachment with responsive caregivers, not solely based on feeding. • Attachment to objects like toys or blankets provides emotional comfort and security. Erikson's Theory Trust vs. Mistrust (First Year): Developmental stage influenced by responsive parenting. • Impact of Trust: Builds a sense of security and expectation of a safe world. • Secure Attachment: Result of sensitive, affectionate parenting; leads to positive exploration and play. • Insecure Attachment: Results from insensitive parenting, leads to anxiety and fear of separation.
- 20. Mary Ainsworth's & Lamb’s Strange Situation Test The Strange Situation Test, developed by Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues, is a standardized procedure used to assess the quality of attachment between infants (typically aged 12-18 months) and their caregivers. This test is designed to observe how infants behave under conditions of mild stress and how they seek proximity to their caregiver when faced with a novel or stressful situation. Procedure • The infant and caregiver enter a room that is unfamiliar to the infant. The room is equipped with toys and other objects to explore. • The infant is allowed to explore the new environment freely while the caregiver is present. This phase establishes a baseline for the infant's behavior when feeling safe and secure. • The caregiver briefly leaves the room, leaving the infant alone or with a stranger. This phase is designed to observe the infant's response to the caregiver's absence and how they cope with being alone. • The caregiver returns to the room and reunites with the infant. This phase examines how the infant reacts to the caregiver's return and how quickly they seek proximity, seek comfort, or show distress.
- 21. Mary Ainsworth's & Lamb’s Strange Situation Test Secure Attachment • Infants who show distress upon separation but are easily comforted upon reunion. They actively seek proximity to the caregiver and use them as a secure base for exploration. Insecure-Avoidant Attachment • Infants who show little distress upon separation and avoid contact with the caregiver upon reunion. They may actively avoid or ignore the caregiver. Insecure-Resistant Attachment • Infants who show intense distress upon separation and mixed reactions upon reunion. They may seek comfort from the caregiver but resist it at the same time, showing ambivalent behavior. Disorganized Attachment • Infants who show confused or contradictory behaviors during the reunion phase. This may include freezing, dazed expressions, or erratic movements. It is often associated with inconsistent caregiving or unresolved trauma.
- 22. Childhood • Growth slows down compared to infancy. • Physical development: gains height and weight, learns to walk, run, jump, and play with a ball. • Social development: world expands from parents to family and nearby adults, development of morality (concepts of good and bad). • Increased physical capacities: perform tasks independently, set goals, meet adult expectations. • Cognitive development: enhanced by brain maturation and experiences.
- 23. Motor Development in Childhood Gross Motor Skills: • Involve the use of arms and legs. • Moving around with confidence and purpose in the environment. Fine Motor Skills: • Finger dexterity and eye-hand coordination. • Improve substantially during early childhood. • Preference for left or right hand develops.
- 24. Motor Development in Childhood Age in Years Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor Skills 3 years Hopping, jumping, running Build blocks, pick objects with forefinger and thumb 4 years Climb up and downstairs with one foot on each step Fit jigsaw puzzle precisely 5 years Run hard, enjoy races Hand, arm, and body all coordinate with eye movement
- 25. Cognitive Development in Childhood Preoperational Thought (2-7 years): • Mentally represent an object not physically present. • Engage in symbolic thought, drawing figures to represent real objects. • Egocentrism: See the world only from their own perspective, unable to appreciate others' viewpoints. • Animism: Attribute life-like qualities to inanimate objects (e.g., "road hurt me"). Intuitive Thought (4-7 years): • Ask questions to understand the world (e.g., "Why is the sky blue?"). • Centration: Focus on a single characteristic or feature (e.g., preferring a tall narrow glass over a short broad one for juice).
- 26. Cognitive Development in Childhood Concrete Operational Thought (7-11 years): • Logical thought replaces intuitive thought. • Perform mental actions that are reversible. • Understand conservation (e.g., same amount of clay in different shapes). • Decreased egocentrism: Appreciate different perspectives. • Consider alternatives and mentally retrace steps. • Still unable to perform abstract thinking (e.g., algebraic equations). Language Development: • Growing cognitive abilities facilitate language acquisition. • Development of vocabulary and grammar
- 27. Moral Development in Childhood • Children learn to distinguish rightness or wrongness of actions. • Develop feelings of guilt and empathy. • Learn to help others in trouble. Stages of Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg): • Pre-Conventional Level (Before 9 years): • Think in terms of external authority. • Actions are wrong due to punishment, right due to rewards. • Conventional Level (Early Adolescence): • Moral reasoning based on rules of others (parents, societal laws). • Internalize rules to be virtuous and win approval, not just to avoid punishment. • View rules as absolute guidelines, moral thinking is inflexible.
- 28. Moral Development in Childhood • Post-Conventional Level: • Develop a personal moral code over time. • Development by End of Childhood: • Gradual growth rate enables skill development in coordination and balance. • Language and logical reasoning improve. • Increased social involvement in family and peer groups.
- 29. Adolescence • The term "adolescence" comes from the Latin word "adolescere," meaning "to grow into maturity." • It is the period in a person’s life between childhood and adulthood. • Adolescence starts with the onset of puberty, marking sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce. • This stage is characterized by rapid biological and psychological changes. Cultural Influence on Adolescence • Adolescents' experiences depend on cultural views. • In some cultures, adolescence is seen as problematic and confusing, while in others, it signifies the beginning of responsible adult behavior. • Although most societies have a period of adolescence, it is not a universal experience across all cultures.
- 30. Physical Development in Adolescence - Puberty • Boys: Pubertal changes include growth acceleration, facial hair, and voice changes. • Girls: Girls experience rapid growth in height about two years before menarche (onset of menstruation). • Growth spurt generally begins at age 12-13 for boys and 10-11 for girls. • It is normal for there to be variations in the pubertal sequence among individuals. Factors Influencing Puberty • Genetics: Genetics play a significant role; identical twins often reach menarche closer in time than fraternal twins. • Socioeconomic Status: Girls from affluent families typically experience menarche earlier than those from poorer families. • Historical Trends: The age of menarche has been declining in industrialized nations due to better nutrition and medical care.
- 31. Psychological Changes in Adolescence • Increased Interest: Adolescents show increased interest in the opposite sex and sexual matters. • Awareness: There is a new awareness of sexual feelings due to biological changes and societal emphasis. • Influences: Peers, parents, and society heavily influence adolescent views on sexuality. • Misconceptions: Many adolescents lack adequate knowledge or have misconceptions about sex and sexuality.
- 32. Psychological Changes in Adolescence Sexual Identity Development • Development of a sexual identity defines sexual orientation and guides sexual behavior. • Establishing a sexual identity is a crucial developmental task for adolescents. • Adolescents are preoccupied with self-image and develop individual perceptions of their appearance. Challenges in Adolescent Sexuality • Many adolescents lack adequate knowledge about sex and sexuality. • Parents often find it difficult to discuss sexual matters, leading to secrecy and communication challenges. • Concerns over sexually transmitted diseases, including AIDS, have intensified in recent times.
- 33. Cognitive Changes in Adolescence • Puberty involves cognitive changes, including increased ability to think abstractly. • Adolescents also undergo significant social changes, including new social roles and responsibilities. • Developing a realistic and acceptable self-image is crucial for healthy development. Cognitive Developmental Changes • Abstract Thinking: Adolescents' thought becomes more abstract, logical, and idealistic. • Self-Examination: They become capable of examining their own thoughts, others' thoughts, and what others think about them. • New Awareness: Developing reasoning abilities lead to enhanced cognitive and social awareness.
- 34. Cognitive Changes in Adolescence Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage • Formal operational thought appears between ages 11 and 15. • Adolescent thinking expands beyond concrete experiences to abstract reasoning. • Adolescents think about ideal characteristics and compare themselves and others to these standards. • Adolescent thinking becomes more systematic in solving problems. • Logical thinking involves considering possible courses of action and systematically seeking solutions. • Logical thought influences the development of flexible moral reasoning. • Adolescents recognize alternative moral courses and explore options. • They decide on a personal moral code, which might conflict with societal norms. Examples: Participating in protests or questioning societal rules based on personal ethics.
- 35. Moral Development in Adolescence • Egocentrism: Adolescents develop a special kind of egocentrism. • Imaginary Audience: Belief that others are as preoccupied with them as they are with themselves, leading to extreme self-consciousness. Examples: Worrying about an ink spot or a pimple being noticed by everyone. • Sense of Uniqueness: Adolescents feel their experiences are unique and not understood by others. • Fantasy Worlds: To maintain their sense of uniqueness, they create stories and fantasies. Examples: Believing no one understands their hurt or feelings, common in adolescent diaries.
- 36. Forming an Identity • Key Questions: Who am I? What should I study? Do I believe in God? • The search for identity involves defining one's sense of self, values, commitments, and beliefs. • Establishing an identity separate from parents is a key task of adolescence. • Developing a personalized set of beliefs often involves conflict with parents and self. Identity Crisis and Resolution • Adolescents who cope with conflicting identities develop a new sense of self. • Failure to cope can lead to isolation from peers and family or loss of identity in the crowd (Erikson). • Adolescents fluctuate between desiring independence and seeking support. • Rapid fluctuations between self-confidence and insecurity are typical.
- 37. Forming an Identity & Vocational Commitment Factors Influencing Identity Formation • Cultural and Societal Influences: Cultural background, family values, ethnic background, and socioeconomic status shape identity. • Peer Influence: Increased peer interactions refine social skills and behaviors. • Dual Influences: Both parents and peers influence adolescents, serving complementary roles. Vocational Commitment • Future Planning: Adolescents think about their future and set realistic goals. • Cultural Variations: Freedom to choose an occupation varies across cultures. • Career Guidance: Schools provide career counseling to assist in making informed career choices.
- 38. Major Concerns in Adolescence • Peer Influence and Freedom: Peer pressure and newfound freedom can create difficulties. • Decisions and Consequences: Adolescents face decisions about smoking, drugs, alcohol, and rule-breaking. • Emotional Challenges: Experiences of uncertainty, loneliness, self- doubt, and anxiety are common.
- 39. Delinquency in Adolescence • Behavioral Issues: Delinquency ranges from socially unacceptable behavior to criminal acts. Examples: Truancy, running away, stealing, vandalism. • Associated Factors: Negative self-identity, low achievement, low parental support, inappropriate discipline, family discord. • Socioeconomic Impact: Communities with poverty and unemployment see higher delinquency due to feelings of alienation. Overcoming Delinquency • Positive Changes: Most delinquents do not remain so forever. • Strategies for Change: Changing peer groups, social responsibility awareness, positive role models, and improved self-concept help reduce delinquent behavior.
- 40. Substance Use • Vulnerability: Adolescents are particularly susceptible to smoking, alcohol, and drug abuse • Coping Mechanism: Some use substances to cope with stress, which hinders the development of healthy coping skills and responsible decision-making. • Reasons for Use: Peer pressure, desire for acceptance, acting adult-like, and escaping school or social pressures.
- 41. Substance Use Risk Factors for Substance Abuse • Behavioral Traits: Impulsiveness, aggressiveness, anxiety, depression, unpredictability, low self-esteem, and low achievement expectations. • Peer Pressure: The need to fit in with peers can lead to experimenting with drugs, alcohol, and smoking. • Addiction: Long-term use can lead to physiological dependency and jeopardize adolescents' lives. Prevention and Support • Strong relationships with parents, peers, siblings, and adults are crucial in preventing substance abuse. • Examples like the Society for Theatre in Education Programme in New Delhi, which uses street performances to educate about resisting drugs. • The United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP) endorses the program as a model for other NGOs.
- 42. Eating Disorders • Adolescents’ preoccupation with self-image and peer comparisons can lead to eating disorders. • Media portrayal of thinness as the ideal body image contributes to eating disorders. Anorexia Nervosa • An eating disorder characterized by the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation. • Eliminating certain foods or eating only slimming foods is common among adolescents with this disorder. • The desire to emulate thin media images can lead to anorexia nervosa. Bulimia • An eating disorder involving a binge-and- purge eating pattern. • Binge eating followed by purging through self-induced vomiting or laxative use, sometimes alternating with fasting. • Primarily affects females, especially in urban families
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