Localization algorithms and strategies for wireless sensor networks 1st Edition Guoqiang Mao
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- 5. Localization algorithms and strategies for wireless sensor networks 1st Edition Guoqiang Mao Digital Instant Download Author(s): Guoqiang Mao, Baris Fidan, Guoqiang Mao, Baris Fidan ISBN(s): 9781605663975, 1605663972 Edition: 1 File Details: PDF, 17.98 MB Year: 2009 Language: english
- 7. Localization Algorithms and Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks Guoqiang Mao University of Sydney, Australia Barış Fidan National ICT Australia, Australia & Australian National University, Australia Hershey • New York InformatIon scIence reference
- 8. Director of Editorial Content: Kristin Klinger Senior Managing Editor: Jamie Snavely Managing Editor: Jeff Ash Assistant Managing Editor: Carole Coulson Typesetter: Jeff Ash Cover Design: Lisa Tosheff Printed at: Yurchak Printing Inc. Published in the United States of America by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: cust@igi-global.com Web site: http://www.igi-global.com/reference and in the United Kingdom by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 3 Henrietta Street Covent Garden London WC2E 8LU Tel: 44 20 7240 0856 Fax: 44 20 7379 0609 Web site: http://www.eurospanbookstore.com Copyright © 2009 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Localization algorithms and strategies for wireless sensor networks / Guoqiang Mao and Baris Fidan, editors. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: "This book encompasses the significant and fast growing area of wireless localization technique"--Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-1-60566-396-8 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-60566-397-5 (ebook) 1. Wireless sensor networks. 2. Proximity detectors. 3. Location problems (Programming) I. Mao, Guoqiang, 1974- II. Fidan, Baris. TK7872.D48L63 2009 621.382'1--dc22 2008052196 British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
- 9. List of Reviewers Brian Anderson, Australian National University and National ICT Australia, Australia Adrian Bishop, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden Chun Tung Chou, University of New South Wales, Australia Soura Dasgupta, University of Iowa, USA Kutluyıl Doğançay, University of South Australia, Australia Jia Fang, Yale University, USA Tolga Girici, TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Turkey Fredrik Gustafsson, Linköping University, Sweden Hatem Hmam, Defence Science and Technology Organisation, Australia Julien Hendrickx, Université catholique de Louvain, Belgium Tibor Jordán, Eötvös University, Hungary Anushiya Kannan, University of Sydney, Australia Emre Köksal, Ohio State University, USA Ullrich Köthe, University of Hamburg, Germany Anthony Kuh, University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA Lavy Libman, National ICT Australia, Australia Sarfraz Nawaz, University of New South Wales, Australia Michael L. McGuire, University of Victoria, Canada Garry Newsam, Defence Science and Technology Organisation, Australia M. Özgür Oktel, Bilkent University, Turkey Neal Patwari, University of Utah, USA Parastoo Sadeghi, Australian National University, Australia Yi Shang, University of Missouri-Columbia, USA Qinfeng Shi, Australian National University and National ICT Australia, Australia Bülent Tavlı, TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Turkey
- 10. Preface .................................................................................................................................................xii Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................................ xv Chapter I Introduction to Wireless Sensor Network Localization.......................................................................... 1 Guoqiang Mao, University of Sydney, Australia Barış Fidan, National ICT Australia, Australia & Australian National University, Australia Chapter II Measurements Used in Wireless Sensor Networks Localization.......................................................... 33 Fredrik Gustafsson, Linköping University, Sweden Fredrik Gunnarsson, Linköping University, Sweden Chapter III Localization Algorithms and Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks: Monitoring and Surveillance Techniques for Target Tracking.............................................................. 54 Ferit Ozan Akgul, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA Mohammad Heidari, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA Nayef Alsindi, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA Kaveh Pahlavan, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA Chapter IV RF Ranging Methods and Performance Limits for Sensor Localization.............................................. 96 Steven Lanzisera, University of California, Berkeley, USA Kristofer S.J. Pister, University of California, Berkeley, USA Chapter V Calibration and Measurement of Signal Strength for Sensor Localization ........................................ 122 Neal Patwari, University of Utah, USA Piyush Agrawal, University of Utah, USA Table of Contents
- 11. Chapter VI Graph Theoretic Techniques in the Analysis of Uniquely Localizable Sensor Networks.................. 146 Bill Jackson, University of London, UK Tibor Jordán, Eötvös University, Hungary Chapter VII Sequential Localization with Inaccurate Measurements..................................................................... 174 Jia Fang, Yale University, USA Dominique Duncan, Yale University, USA A. Stephen Morse, Yale University, USA Chapter VIII MDS-Based Localization.................................................................................................................... 198 Ahmed A. Ahmed, Texas State University–San Marcos, USA Xiaoli Li, University of Missouri–Columbia, USA Yi Shang, University of Missouri–Columbia, USA Hongchi Shi, Texas State University–San Marcos, USA Chapter IX Statistical Location Detection............................................................................................................. 230 Saikat Ray, University of Bridgeport, USA Wei Lai, Boston University, USA Dong Guo, Boston University, USA Ioannis Ch. Paschalidis, Boston University, USA Chapter X Theory and Practice of Signal Strength-Based Localization in Indoor Environments....................... 257 A. S. Krishnakumar, Avaya Labs Research, USA P. Krishnan, Avaya Labs Research, USA Chapter XI On a Class of Localization Algorithms Using Received Signal Strength........................................... 282 Eiman Elnahrawy, Rutgers University, USA Richard P. Martin, Rutgers University, USA Chapter XII Machine Learning Based Localization ............................................................................................... 302 Duc A. Tran, University of Massachusetts, USA XuanLong Nguyen, Duke University, USA Thinh Nguyen, Oregon State University, USA Chapter XIII Robust Localization Using Identifying Codes.................................................................................... 321 Moshe Laifenfeld, Boston University, USA Ari Trachtenberg, Boston University, USA David Starobinski, Boston University, USA
- 12. Chapter XIV Evaluation of Localization Algorithms............................................................................................... 348 Michael Allen, Coventry University, UK Sebnem Baydere, Yeditepe University, Turkey Elena Gaura, Coventry University, UK Gurhan Kucuk, Yeditepe University, Turkey Chapter XV Accuracy Bounds for Wireless Localization Methods........................................................................ 380 Michael L. McGuire, University of Victoria, Canada Konstantinos N. Plataniotis, University of Toronto, Canada Chapter XVI Experiences in Data Processing and Bayesian Filtering Applied to Localization and Tracking in Wireless Sensor Networks .............................................................................................................. 406 Junaid Ansari, RWTH Aachen University, Germany Janne Riihijärvi, RWTH Aachen University, Germany Petri Mähönen, RWTH Aachen University, Germany Chapter XVII A Wireless Mesh Network Platform for Vehicle Positioning and Location Tracking ........................ 430 Mohamed EL-Darieby, University of Regina, Canada Hazem Ahmed, University of Regina, Canada Mahmoud Halfawy, National Research Council NRC-CSIR, Canada Ahmed Amer, Zagazig University, Egypt Baher Abdulhai, Toronto Intelligent Transportation Systems Centre, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Canada Chapter XVIII Beyond Localization: Communicating Using Virtual Coordinates .................................................... 446 Thomas Watteyne, Orange Labs & CITI Lab, University of Lyon, France Mischa Dohler, Centre Tecnològic de Telecomunicacions de Catalunya (CTTC), Spain Isabelle Augé-Blum, CITI Lab, University of Lyon, France Dominique Barthel, Orange Labs, France Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 468 About the Contributors.................................................................................................................... 494 Index................................................................................................................................................... 505
- 13. Preface .................................................................................................................................................xii Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................................ xv Chapter I Introduction to Wireless Sensor Network Localization.......................................................................... 1 Guoqiang Mao, University of Sydney, Australia Barış Fidan, National ICT Australia, Australia & Australian National University, Australia Chapter I is an introductory chapter that covers the basic principles of techniques involved in the design and implementation of wireless sensor network localization systems.Afocus of the chapter is on explain- ing how the other chapters are related to each other and how topics covered in each chapter fit into the architecture of this book and the big picture of wireless sensor network localization. Chapter II Measurements Used in Wireless Sensor Networks Localization.......................................................... 33 Fredrik Gustafsson, Linköping University, Sweden Fredrik Gunnarsson, Linköping University, Sweden Chapter II introduces a common framework for analysing the information content of various measure- ments, which can be used to derive localization bounds for integration of any combination of measure- ments in the network. Chapter III Localization Algorithms and Strategies for Wireless Sensor Networks: Monitoring and Surveillance Techniques for Target Tracking.............................................................. 54 Ferit Ozan Akgul, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA Mohammad Heidari, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA Nayef Alsindi, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA Kaveh Pahlavan, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA Chapter III discusses challenges in time-of-arrival measurement techniques and methods to overcome these challenges. A focus of the chapter is on the identification of non-line-of-sight conditions in time- of-arrival measurements and the corresponding mitigation techniques. Detailed Table of Contents
- 14. Chapter IV RF Ranging Methods and Performance Limits for Sensor Localization.............................................. 96 Steven Lanzisera, University of California, Berkeley, USA Kristofer S.J. Pister, University of California, Berkeley, USA Chapter IV gives a detailed discussion on the impact of various factors, that is, noise, clock synchroniza- tion, signal bandwidth and multipath, on the accuracy of signal propagation time measurements. Chapter V Calibration and Measurement of Signal Strength for Sensor Localization ........................................ 122 Neal Patwari, University of Utah, USA Piyush Agrawal, University of Utah, USA Chapter V features a thorough discussion on a number of practical issues involved in the use of received signal strength (RSS) measurements. In particular, it focuses on the device calibration problem and its impact on localization. Chapter VI Graph Theoretic Techniques in the Analysis of Uniquely Localizable Sensor Networks.................. 146 Bill Jackson, University of London, UK Tibor Jordán, Eötvös University, Hungary Chapter VI gives a detailed overview of various tools in graph theory and combinatorial rigidity, many of which are just recently developed, to characterize uniquely localizable networks. A network is said to be uniquely localizable if there is a unique set of locations consistent with the given data, that is, location information of a few specific sensors and inter-sensor measurements. Chapter VII Sequential Localization with Inaccurate Measurements..................................................................... 174 Jia Fang, Yale University, USA Dominique Duncan, Yale University, USA A. Stephen Morse, Yale University, USA Chapter VII presents a class of computationally efficient sequential algorithms based on graph theory for estimating sensor locations using inaccurate distance measurements. Chapter VIII MDS-Based Localization.................................................................................................................... 198 Ahmed A. Ahmed, Texas State University–San Marcos, USA Xiaoli Li, University of Missouri–Columbia, USA Yi Shang, University of Missouri–Columbia, USA Hongchi Shi, Texas State University–San Marcos, USA Chapter VIII presents several centralized and distributed localization algorithms based on multidimen- sional scaling techniques for implementation in regular and irregular networks.
- 15. Chapter IX Statistical Location Detection............................................................................................................. 230 Saikat Ray, University of Bridgeport, USA Wei Lai, Boston University, USA Dong Guo, Boston University, USA Ioannis Ch. Paschalidis, Boston University, USA Chapter IX focuses on localization in indoor wireless local area network (WLAN) environments and presents a RSS-based localization system for indoor WLAN environments. The localization problem is formulated as a multi-hypothesis testing problem and an algorithm is developed using this algorithm to identify in which region the sensor resides. A solid theoretical discussion of the problem is provided, backed by experimental validations. Chapter X Theory and Practice of Signal Strength-Based Localization in Indoor Environments....................... 257 A. S. Krishnakumar, Avaya Labs Research, USA P. Krishnan, Avaya Labs Research, USA Chapter X first presents an analytical framework for ascertaining the attainable accuracy of RSS-based localization techniques. It then summarizes the issues that may affect the design and deployment of RSS-based localization systems, including deployment ease, management simplicity, adaptability and cost of ownership and maintenance. With this insight, the authors present the “LEASE” architecture for localization that allows easy adaptability of localization models. Chapter XI On a Class of Localization Algorithms Using Received Signal Strength........................................... 282 Eiman Elnahrawy, Rutgers University, USA Richard P. Martin, Rutgers University, USA Chapter XI surveys and compares several RSS-based localization techniques from two broad categories: point-based and area-based. It is demonstrated that there are fundamental limitations for indoor localiza- tion performance that cannot be transcended without using qualitatively more complex models of the indoor environment, e.g., modelling every wall, desk or shelf, or without adding extra hardware in the sensor node other than those required for communication, e.g., very high frequency clocks to measure the time of arrival. Chapter XII Machine Learning Based Localization ............................................................................................... 302 Duc A. Tran, University of Massachusetts, USA XuanLong Nguyen, Duke University, USA Thinh Nguyen, Oregon State University, USA Chapter XII presents a machine learning approach to localization. The applicability of two learning methods, the classification method and the regression model, to RSS-based localization is discussed.
- 16. Chapter XIII Robust Localization Using Identifying Codes.................................................................................... 321 Moshe Laifenfeld, Boston University, USA Ari Trachtenberg, Boston University, USA David Starobinski, Boston University, USA Chapter XIII presents another paradigm for robust localization based on the use of identifying codes, a concept borrowed from the information theory literature with links to covering and superimposed codes. The approach is reported to be robust and suitable for implementation in harsh environments. Chapter XIV Evaluation of Localization Algorithms............................................................................................... 348 Michael Allen, Coventry University, UK Sebnem Baydere, Yeditepe University, Turkey Elena Gaura, Coventry University, UK Gurhan Kucuk, Yeditepe University, Turkey Chapter XIV introduces a methodological approach to the evaluation of localization algorithms. The authors argue that algorithms should be simulated, emulated (on test beds or with empirical data sets) and subsequently implemented in hardware, in a realistic WSN deployment environment, as a complete test of their performance. Chapter XV Accuracy Bounds for Wireless Localization Methods........................................................................ 380 Michael L. McGuire, University of Victoria, Canada Konstantinos N. Plataniotis, University of Toronto, Canada Chapter XV looks at evaluation of localization algorithms from a different perspective and takes an analytical approach to performance evaluation. In particular, the authors advocate the use of the Wein- stein-Weiss and extended Ziv-Zakai lower bounds for evaluating localization error, which overcome the problem in the widely used Cramer-Rao bound that the Cramer-Rao bound relies on some idealizing assumptions not necessarily satisfied in real systems. Chapter XVI Experiences in Data Processing and Bayesian Filtering Applied to Localization and Tracking in Wireless Sensor Networks .............................................................................................................. 406 Junaid Ansari, RWTH Aachen University, Germany Janne Riihijärvi, RWTH Aachen University, Germany Petri Mähönen, RWTH Aachen University, Germany Chapter XVI discusses algorithms and solutions for signal processing and filtering for localization and tracking applications. The authors explain some practical issues for engineers interested in implement- ing tracking solutions and their experiences gained from implementation and deployment of several such systems.
- 17. Chapter XVII A Wireless Mesh Network Platform for Vehicle Positioning and Location Tracking ........................ 430 Mohamed EL-Darieby, University of Regina, Canada Hazem Ahmed, University of Regina, Canada Mahmoud Halfawy, National Research Council NRC-CSIR, Canada Ahmed Amer, Zagazig University, Egypt Baher Abdulhai, Toronto Intelligent Transportation Systems Centre, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Canada Chapter XVII presents an experimental study on the integration of Wi-Fi based wireless mesh networks and Bluetooth technologies for detecting and tracking travelling cars and measuring their speeds for road traffic monitoring in intelligent transportation systems. Chapter XVIII Beyond Localization: Communicating Using Virtual Coordinates .................................................... 446 Thomas Watteyne, Orange Labs & CITI Lab, University of Lyon, France Mischa Dohler, Centre Tecnològic de Telecomunicacions de Catalunya (CTTC), Spain Isabelle Augé-Blum, CITI Lab, University of Lyon, France Dominique Barthel, Orange Labs, France Chapter XVIII discusses an interesting aspect of the geographic routing problem. The authors propose the use of virtual coordinates, instead of physical coordinates, of sensors for improved geographic routing performance. This chapter motivates us to think beyond the horizon of localization and invent smarter ways to label sensors and measurement data from sensors to facilitate applications that do not rely on the knowledge of physical locations of sensors. Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 468 About the Contributors.................................................................................................................... 494 Index................................................................................................................................................... 505
- 18. xii Preface Distributed sensor networks have been discussed for more than 30 years, but the vision of wireless sen- sor networks has been brought into reality only by the recent advances in wireless communications and electronics,whichhaveenabledthedevelopmentoflow-cost,low-powerandmulti-functionalsensorsthat are small in size and communicate over short distances. Today, cheap, smart sensors, networked through wireless links and deployed in large numbers, provide unprecedented opportunities for monitoring and controlling homes, cities, and the environment. In addition, networked sensors have a broad spectrum of applications in the defence area, generating new capabilities for reconnaissance and surveillance as well as other tactical applications. Localization(locationestimation)capabilityisessentialinmostwirelesssensornetworkapplications. Inenvironmentalmonitoringapplicationssuchasanimalhabitatmonitoring,bushfiresurveillance,water quality monitoring and precision agriculture, the measurement data are meaningless without an accu- rate knowledge of the location from where the data are obtained. Moreover, the availability of location information may enable a myriad of applications such as inventory management, intrusion detection, road traffic monitoring, health monitoring, reconnaissance and surveillance. Wireless sensor network localization techniques are used to estimate the locations of the sensors with unknown positions in a network using the available a priori knowledge of positions of, typically, a few specific sensors in the network and inter-sensor measurements such as distance, time difference of arrival, angle of arrival and connectivity. Sensor network localization techniques are not just trivial extensions of the traditional localization techniques like GPS or radar-based geolocation techniques. They involve further challenges in several aspects: (1) a variety of measurements may be used in sensor network localization; (2) the environments in which sensor networks are deployed are often complicated, involving urban environments, indoor environments and non-line-of-sight conditions; (3) wireless sen- sors are often small and low-cost sensors with limited computational capabilities; (4) sensor network localization techniques are often required to be implemented using available measurements and with minimal hardware investment; (5) sensor network localization techniques are often required to be suit- able for deployment in large scale multi-hop networks; and (6) the choice of sensor network localization techniques to be used often involves consideration of the trade-off among cost, size and localization accuracy to suit the requirements of a variety of applications. It is these challenges that make localiza- tion in wireless sensor networks unique and intriguing. This book is intended to cover the major techniques that have been widely used for wireless sensor network localization and capture the most recent developments in the area. It is based on a number of stand-alone chapters that together cover the subject matter in a fully comprehensive manner. However, despite its focus on localization in wireless sensor networks, many localization techniques introduced in the book can be applied in a variety of wireless networks beyond sensor networks.
- 19. xiii The targeted audience for the book includes professionals who are designers and/or planners for wireless localization systems, researchers (academics and graduate students), and those who would like to learn about the field. Although the book is not exactly a textbook, the format and flow of information have been organized such that it can be used as a textbook for graduate courses and research-oriented courses that deal with wireless sensor networks and wireless localization techniques. ORGANIZATION This book consists of 18 chapters. It begins with an introductory chapter that covers the basic principles oftechniquesinvolvedinthedesignandimplementationofwirelesssensornetworklocalizationsystems. A focus of the chapter is on explaining how the other chapters are related to each other and how topics covered in each chapter fit into the architecture of this book and the big picture of wireless sensor network localization. The other chapters are organized into three parts: measurement techniques, localization theory, and algorithms, experimental study and applications. Measurement techniques are of fundamental importance in sensor network localization. It is the type of measurements employed and the corresponding precision that fundamentally determine the estima- tion accuracy of a localization system and the localization algorithm being implemented by this system. Measurements also determine the type of algorithm that can be used by a particular localization system. The part on Measurement Techniques includes Chapters II-V, which discuss various aspects of measure- ment techniques used in sensor network localization. Chapter II introduces a common framework for analysing the information content of various measurements, which can be used to derive localization bounds for integration of any combination of measurements in the network. Chapter III discusses chal- lenges in time-of-arrival measurement techniques and methods to overcome these challenges. A focus of the chapter is on the identification of non-line-of-sight conditions in time-of-arrival measurements and the corresponding mitigation techniques. Chapter IV gives a detailed discussion on the impact of various factors, that is, noise, clock synchronization, signal bandwidth and multipath, on the accuracy of signal propagation time measurements. Chapter V features a thorough discussion on a number of practical issues involved in the use of received signal strength (RSS) measurements. In particular, it focuses on the device calibration problem and its impact on localization. Chapters VI-XV give an in-depth discussion of the fundamental theory underpinning sensor network localization and various localization approaches. Chapter VI gives a detailed overview of various tools in graph theory and combinatorial rigidity, many of which are just recently developed, to characterize uniquely localizable networks.Anetwork is said to be uniquely localizable if there is a unique set of loca- tions consistent with the given data, that is, location information of a few specific sensors and inter-sensor measurements. Chapter VII presents a class of computationally efficient sequential algorithms based on graphtheoryforestimatingsensorlocationsusinginaccuratedistancemeasurements.ChapterVIIIpresents several centralized and distributed localization algorithms based on multidimensional scaling techniques for implementation in regular and irregular networks. Chapters IX-XI feature a thorough discussion on theoretical and practical issues involved in the design and implementation of RSS-based localization algorithms. Chapter IX focuses on localization in indoor wireless local area network (WLAN) environ- ments and presents a RSS-based localization system for indoor WLAN environments. The localization problem is formulated as a multi-hypothesis testing problem and an algorithm is developed using this algorithm to identify in which region the sensor resides. A solid theoretical discussion of the problem
- 20. xiv is provided, backed by experimental validations. Chapter X first presents an analytical framework for ascertaining the attainable accuracy of RSS-based localization techniques. It then summarizes the issues that may affect the design and deployment of RSS-based localization systems, including deployment ease, management simplicity, adaptability and cost of ownership and maintenance. With this insight, the authors present the “LEASE” architecture for localization that allows easy adaptability of localization models. Chapter XI surveys and compares several RSS-based localization techniques from two broad categories: point-based and area-based. It is demonstrated that there are fundamental limitations for indoor localization performance that cannot be transcended without using qualitatively more complex models of the indoor environment, for example, modelling every wall, desk or shelf, or without adding extra hardware in the sensor node other than those required for communication, e.g., very high frequency clocks to measure the time of arrival. Chapter XII presents a machine learning approach to localization. The applicability of two learning methods, the classification method and the regression model, to RSS- based localization is discussed. Chapter XIII presents another paradigm for robust localization based on the use of identifying codes, a concept borrowed from the information theory literature with links to covering and superimposed codes. The approach is reported to be robust and suitable for implementa- tion in harsh environments. Chapters XIV and XV consider the evaluation of localization algorithms. Chapter XIV introduces a methodological approach to the evaluation of localization algorithms. The authors argue that algorithms should be simulated, emulated (on test beds or with empirical data sets) and subsequently implemented in hardware, in a realistic WSN deployment environment, as a complete test of their performance. Chapter XV looks at evaluation of localization algorithms from a different perspective and takes an analytical approach to performance evaluation. In particular, the authors ad- vocate the use of the Weinstein-Weiss and extended Ziv-Zakai lower bounds for evaluating localization error, which overcome the problem in the widely used Cramer-Rao bound that the Cramer-Rao bound relies on some idealizing assumptions not necessarily satisfied in real systems. Chapters XVI, XVII, and XVIII discuss the applications of localization techniques in tracking and sensor network routing. Chapter XVI discusses algorithms and solutions for signal processing and filter- ing for localization and tracking applications. The authors explain some practical issues for engineers interested in implementing tracking solutions and their experiences gained from implementation and deployment of several such systems. Chapter XVII presents an experimental study on the integration of Wi-Fi based wireless mesh networks and Bluetooth technologies for detecting and tracking travelling cars and measuring their speeds for road traffic monitoring in intelligent transportation systems. Chap- ter XVIII discusses an interesting aspect of the geographic routing problem. The authors propose the use of virtual coordinates, instead of physical coordinates, of sensors for improved geographic routing performance. This chapter motivates us to think beyond the horizon of localization and invent smarter ways to label sensors and measurement data from sensors to facilitate applications that do not rely on the knowledge of physical locations of sensors. Guoqiang Mao University of Sydney, Australia Barış Fidan National ICT Australia, Australia & Australian National University, Australia
- 21. xv Acknowledgment This book would not have been possible without the expertise and commitment of our contributing authors. The editors are grateful to all the authors for their contributions to the quality of this book. The editors also greatly appreciate the reviewers of all the chapters for their constructive and comprehensive reviews. The list of reviewers is provided separately in the book. We are immensely indebted to them. We want to thank the publishing team at IGI Global, whose contributions throughout the whole process from inception of the initial idea to final publication have been invaluable, in particular to Rebecca Beistline, Julia Mosemann and Christine Bufton, who continuously provided valuable support via e-mail. Our special thanks go to Brian D.O. Anderson, whose collaborative studies with us in the last four years have helped provide the foundation and motivation for us to edit this book. He is a person of great character, and he has been a selfless mentor, a brilliant research partner and a precious friend during these stimulating collaborative studies. We have enjoyed collaboration with him enormously. Guoqiang Mao University of Sydney, Australia Barış Fidan National ICT Australia, Australia & Australian National University, Australia
- 23. 1 Chapter I Introduction to Wireless Sensor Network Localization Guoqiang Mao University of Sydney, Australia Barış Fidan National ICT Australia, Australia & Australian National University, Australia Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. AbsTRAcT Localization is an important aspect in the field of wireless sensor networks that has attracted significant research interest recently. The interest in wireless sensor network localization is expected to grow fur- ther with the advances in the wireless communication techniques and the sensing techniques, and the consequent proliferation of wireless sensor network applications. This chapter provides an overview of various aspects involved in the design and implementation of wireless sensor network localization systems. These can be broadly classified into three categories: the measurement techniques in sensor network localization, sensor network localization theory and algorithms, and experimental study and applications of sensor network localization techniques. This chapter also gives a brief introduction to the other chapters in the book with a focus on explaining how these chapters are related to each other and how topics covered in each chapter fit into the architecture of this book and the big picture of wire- less sensor network localization. INTRODUcTION Distributed sensor networks have been discussed for more than 30 years, but the vision of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) has been brought into reality only by the recent advances in wireless communica- tions and electronics, which have enabled the development of low-cost, low-power and multi-functional
- 24. 2 Introduction to Wireless Sensor Network Localization sensors that are small in size and communicate over short distances. Today, cheap, smart sensors, net- worked through wireless links and deployed in large numbers, provide unprecedented opportunities for monitoring and controlling homes, cities, and the environment. In addition, networked sensors have a broad spectrum of applications in the defence area, generating new capabilities for reconnaissance and surveillance as well as other tactical applications (Chong & Kumar, 2003). Localization(locationestimation)capabilityisessentialinmostWSNapplications.Inenvironmental monitoring applications such as animal habitat monitoring, bush fire surveillance, water quality moni- toring and precision agriculture, the measurement data are meaningless without an accurate knowledge of the location from where the data are obtained. Moreover, the availability of location information may enable a myriad of applications such as inventory management, intrusion detection, road traffic monitoring, health monitoring, reconnaissance and surveillance. WSN localization techniques are used to estimate the locations of the sensors with initially unknown positions in a network using the available a priori knowledge of positions of a few specific sensors in the network and inter-sensor measurements such as distance, time difference of arrival, angle of arrival and connectivity. Sensors with the a priori known location information are called anchors and their locations can be obtained by using a global positioning system (GPS), or by installing anchors at points with known coordinates, etc. In applications requiring a global coordinate system, these anchors will determine the location of the sensor network in the global coordinate system. In applications where a local coordinate system suffices (e.g., in smart homes, hospitals or for inventory management where knowledge like in which room a sensor is located is sufficient), these anchors define the local coordinate system to which all other sensors are referred. Because of constraints on the cost and size of sensors, energy consumption, implementation environment (e.g., GPS is not accessible in some environments) and the deployment of sensors (e.g., sensors may be randomly scattered in the region), most sensors do not know their own locations. These sensors with unknown location information are called non-anchor nodes and their coordinates need to be estimated using a sensor network localization algorithm. In some other applications, e.g., for geographic routing in WSN, where there are no anchor nodes and also knowledge of the physical location of a sensor is unnecessary, people are more interested in knowing the position of a sensor relative to other sensors. In that case, sensor localization algorithms can be used to estimate the relative positions of sensors using inter-sensor measurements. The obtained estimated locations are usually a reflected, rotated and translated version of their global coordinates. In this chapter, we provide an overview of various aspects of WSN localization with a focus on the techniques covered in the other chapters of this book. These chapters can be broadly classified into three categories:themeasurementtechniquesinsensornetworklocalization,sensornetworklocalizationtheory and algorithms, and experimental study and applications of sensor network localization techniques. The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. In Section MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES, mea- surementtechniquesinWSNlocalizationandthebasicprincipleoflocalizationusingthesemeasurements are discussed. These measurements include angle-of-arrival (AOA) measurements, distance related measurements and received signal strength (RSS) profiling techniques. Distance related measurements are further classified into one-way propagation time and roundtrip propagation time measurements, the lighthouse approach to distance measurements, RSS-based distance measurements, time-difference-of- arrival (TDOA) measurements and connectivity measurements. In Section LOCALIZATION THEORY AND ALGORITHMS, fundamental theory underpinning WSN localization algorithms and some fun- damental problems in WSN localization are discussed with a focus on the use of graph theory in WSN localization. Later in this section, a set of major localization algorithms are discussed. Section EXPERI-
- 25. 3 Introduction to Wireless Sensor Network Localization MENTAL STUDIES AND APPLICATIONS OF WSN LOCALIZATION discusses implementation of WSN localization techniques and their use in a number of areas, e.g., intelligent transportation and WSN routing. The aim of each of these three later sections is to provide an overall review of its topic and to give brief introduction of the relevant chapters of the book. MEAsUREMENT TEcHNIQUEs WSN localization relies on measurements. There are many factors that affect the choice of the algorithm to be used for a specific application and the accuracy of the estimated locations, to name but a few, the network architecture, the average node degree (i.e., the average number of neighbours per sensor), the geometric shape of the network area and the distribution of sensors in that area, sensor time synchroniza- tion and the signalling bandwidth among the sensors. However, it is the type of measurements employed and the corresponding precision that fundamentally determine the estimation accuracy of a localization system and the localization algorithm being implemented by this system. Measurements also determine the type of algorithm that can be used by a particular localization system. In a typical WSN localization system, the available measurements can often be related to the coor- dinates of sensors using the following generic formula: ( ) = + Y h X e where Y is the vector of all measurements, X contains the true coordinate vectors of sensors whose loca- tions are to be estimated and e is the vector of measurement errors. If the distribution of measurement errors fe is known, the estimated locations of sensors can be obtained using the maximum likelihood approach by minimizing an optimization criterion: ( ) ( ) ( ) ˆ ˆ argmin log e f = − X Y h X A particular cost function related to this optimization criterion is the Fisher Information Matrix ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) log log T e e E f f = ∇ − ∇ − X X J X Y h X Y h X where ( ) ( ) log e f ∇ − X Y h X is the partial derivative of ( ) ( ) log e f − Y h X with respect to X evaluated at X. A common technique that has been widely used to evaluate the location accuracy that can be expected from measurements is the Cramer-Rao bound. The Cramer-Rao lower bound is given by ( ) ( )( ) ( ) 1 ˆ ˆ ˆ T Cov E − = − − ≥ X X X X X J X The Cramer-Rao bound is valid for any unbiased estimator of sensor locations and gives the best performance that can be achieved by an unbiased location estimator. Therefore it is a valuable tool for analysing the information content of various measurements. Chapter II - Measurements Used in Wire- less Sensor Networks Localization features a thorough discussion on this topic. It establishes a common framework for analysing the information content of various measurements, which can be used to derive localization bounds for integration of any combination of measurements in the network.
- 26. Other documents randomly have different content
- 27. herd, pays for the whole lot―steers, bullocks, cows, and calves―leaving the spirited purchaser with a tolerably large and increasing herd, all profit. Many of these pleasurable emotions would have found lodging in the breast of Mr. Neuchamp had circumstances, that is, the season, been favourable. But nothing was favourable. The skies were like brass―even as the money market―with no rent or fissure through which mercy or change could by any means be perceived. The scanty pasture provoked the instinct-guided cattle to wander far and fast. In pursuit Ernest was fain to hurry, personally or vicariously, till every horse on the establishment, Osmund included, had as much as he could do to carry his rider for a day’s slow journey. Indeed the said rider was occasionally to be descried carrying his saddle home upon his own proper back, having left his weak and weary steed out on the plain. The original herd, every beast of which had been bred and reared at Rainbar, was not altogether badly off. Acquainted with every nook and corner of the run, they ‘went back’ almost incredible distances for grass, only returning to the bare vicinity of the water when desperate with thirst. It is wonderful what privation in that respect the half-wild herds of cattle and horses will undergo in a dry country in a dry season, without seriously imperilling their health and strength. If they can only procure a debauch upon water from time to time, they stave off famine in a manner quite impossible to the shorthorns and unadventurous beeves of more rainy climes, more succulent pastures. As to the members of the co-operative settlement―the cockatoos, as Jack Windsor incorrectly called them―they were not, in that time of trial, an element of help or consolation. Their cattle had increased even suspiciously fast. The untoward season had brought out the narrow greed and cunning of their natures into unpleasant prominence.
- 28. Under the impression that Ernest would most probably be ruined and be compelled shortly to sell Rainbar, they arrived at the conclusion that there was nothing to be gained by concession, and so gradually threw off any semblance of deference. They rigidly enforced the exclusion of the Rainbar cattle from their very extensive pre-emptive grass rights, and they hunted with their dogs new cattle and old indifferently, not particularly caring, it would seem, whether they were or were not lost. Ernest was first grieved, then indignant, at this gross ingratitude. Under the influence of these feelings he expostulated with them warmly, alleging his right, as having advanced a portion of the purchase-money for their holdings, to some consideration, if the general sympathy and kindness which he had accorded to them was to go for nothing. Abraham Freeman replied that they did not see that they had anything to thank him for, particularly that they had left good homes to come to this confounded dry sand-heap of a country. That they intended to stick up for their pre-emptives, as the cattle were all their dependence now, and that if he wanted to make terms with them, they would be satisfied with that portion of the run―with the river frontage, of course―which lay to the westward of their settlement. If he just gave them the use of that bit of country―it was only five or six miles in length, and didn’t go far back―then they would bind themselves not to take up any more of his run. This last implied threat completed the obliteration of the last shred of Mr. Neuchamp’s patience. These heartless, unprincipled wretches, whom he had raised from a position of indifferently paid toil, akin to daily labour, to that of thriving graziers, basely forgetful of his exceptional benevolence, were actually trading upon their power of annoyance and injurious occupation of his run! Very bitter were Mr. Neuchamp’s reflections when this evil growth of human nature was thus indisputably proved. Had it not been so bad a season he might have overlooked it. But now, when fate and the very skies were at
- 29. war with him, this instance of ingratitude overpowered all philosophic calmness. He immediately convened a meeting of the heads of families of the house of Freeman, and informed them, in sufficiently decided tones, that he found himself to have been mistaken in his estimate of their principles and characters; that he had sought to benefit them chiefly; had already assisted them to a partial independence, and that he had looked for some decent recognition of his efforts for their sole advantage. They had chosen to deceive and to threaten. He was resolved now to confine them strictly to their land, to require repayment of the money which he had lent, and to hold no terms of any kind whatever with them. Messrs. Freeman Brothers were somewhat astonished by Ernest’s capacity for righteous indignation. They had not expected anything of the sort. They had looked for unlimited toleration. They now began to consider that a declaration of war might possibly result injuriously to their own interests, and they possibly had the grace to remember that, up to this stage of the affair, Mr. Neuchamp had been considerate, or, in their phraseology, ‘soft,’ to an extent altogether unprecedented in their experience of the pastoral tenants of the Crown. They would have no more loading, an easy way of providing themselves with the very moderate amount of cash necessary for their ordinary expenditure. Certainly they did not need any large outlay. There are few lands under the sun, the Coral Islands of that charmed main the Great South Sea excepted, where there is such a possibility of tranquil, joyous progress along life’s pathway, without the use of the circulating medium, as in the settlements of the older colonies of Australia. For instance, the Freemans had, as it were for nothing, house- room, fuel, water, and light. Their garden supplied them with an annual crop of pumpkins, melons, and other esculents, which gave them vegetable food for the greater part of the year. Far larger crops
- 30. might have been produced by a comparatively trifling increase of labour or thought. They had milk, butter, and meat from their herd, in ordinary years in profusion. The few necessaries which they were absolutely reduced to import or purchase were clothes, of which, owing to the mildness of the climate, they needed but few; tea and sugar, salt and flour, with a trifling stock of household utensils and furniture. With respect to the tea and sugar, a large reduction might have been made in this section had it been the fashion, as it was the exceptional practice, of isolated settlers to substitute milk for the former, as an ordinary adjunct to the three meals of the day. But tea in Australia, grateful alike in the burning heat of summer and in the bitter frosts and sleet of winter―portable, innocuous, nutritive, and slightly stimulating―is the beer of the common people; and we know from experience that the attempt ‘to rob a poor man of his beer’ has always hitherto proved unpopular and unsuccessful. We must therefore assume that a half-chest of tea and a couple of bags of medium brown sugar must be added to the expenditure of the small farmer, or ‘free selector,’ as he is now universally called. Australia is not a good game country. Still the different varieties of the kangaroo are palatable and nutritious, more resembling the flesh of the hare and rabbit, with a flavour of veal, than beef or mutton. With the aid of a brace of rough greyhounds―the kangaroo-dog of the colonists―these are easily procured in any quantity. The skins are worth a shilling each, and are useful as mats or for coverings. The rivers and creeks, particularly the larger watercourses, are generally filled with fresh-water codfish and several other divisions of the perch family. These are considered to afford valuable supplementary aid to the perhaps scanty supply of butchers’ meat, on many a far-out farm in summer time. With regard to the condition of the rather exclusive settlement formed and owned by the Freeman family, they had each made shift to bring from a couple to half a dozen brood mares, perhaps
- 31. originally purchased for from half-a-crown to half-a-sovereign each, out of the Bowning pound. These hardy, though not perhaps well- bred, animals had increased wonderfully since their arrival, and were now, of themselves, quite a small herd. The younger members of the Freeman families could of course ride like Comanches, and no inconsiderable portion of their time was spent in running in these swift and half-wild mustangs, breaking them, losing them, finding them; and in all these operations and employment galloping around and across the Rainbar run, to the wrath and constant annoyance of Jack Windsor and Charley Banks. Some effort was made, in a half-sullen, half-apologetic way, by Abraham Freeman to remove the ban under which the whole settlement lay. But Ernest was fixed and implacable in righteous disapproval. He gave strict orders that no stock of the offending co- operatives was to be permitted to graze upon the Rainbar run; that the boys were to be told that they would be summoned for trespass if they were found riding over the run or driving stock off without notice. War was declared in form. The strayed cattle belonging to the smaller graziers were placed in the Rainbar yard from time to time, and kept there till taken away by their owners. They were not permitted to purchase any articles from the station store. And, in fine, a blockade cordon was morally drawn round that nucleus of agricultural co-operative progress which had called forth so many sanguine prophecies. Mr. Neuchamp was sternly immutable and indignant of attitude. Slow to arouse and difficult to persuade of intentional wrongdoing, he was very loath to retreat from any gage of battle thus produced. Both Charley Banks and Jack Windsor regarded this latter step with disapprobation. It had been ridiculously credulous and weak, according to their mode of thought, to invite the Freemans to settle on Rainbar. It was lamentably imprudent to quarrel openly with them now they were settled. The second brother assented without much hostile observation, regretting that they had fallen out for nothing, as he expressed it;
- 32. and Mr. Joe Freeman smiled in a scarcely reassuring manner, as Charley Banks thought, and said if it came to a pounding match, the cove would find that they could do him a deuced sight more hurt than he could do them. Mr. Windsor, who had seen more of the ways of small freeholders, and understood their modes of feeling and action better than did Charley Banks, much less Mr. Neuchamp, did not regard this open declaration of hostilities as likely to add to their comfort, profit, or advantage. ‘Mr. Neuchamp did a soft thing in bringing these chaps here, and now he’s acting far from wise in letting ’em know what he thinks of ’em. He ought to have kept in with ’em and watched ’em, and if they went “on the cross” about the stock, he’d have had ’em safe and sound in Drewarrina Gaol some fine day.’ This was Jack’s idea of justifiable free-selectoricide. It might occasionally miss fire, but in the long-run it was very likely to bag the ‘picker-up of unconsidered trifles’ in the shape of unbranded stock. ‘Those chaps can do the boss a deuced sight more damage than he can do them if they’re drove to it,’ continued Mr. Windsor. ‘They watch him when he isn’t thinkin’ of them, and if our cattle ain’t on their land, they can make ’em trespass any night they please. I know the likes of them well, and I’d rather take ’em quiet than hustle ’em any day.’ ‘You’re not far wrong, Jack,’ assented Mr. Banks. ‘We must keep these new cattle close, or they’ll have a lot ready for Drewarrina pound some fine morning, as sure as my name is Charley Banks.’ By careful watching, by riding early and riding late, this highly probable outcome of the feud between Mr. Neuchamp and his late protégés was for a time avoided. But
- 33. There never yet was human power Which could evade, if unforgiven, The patient search and vigil long Of him who treasures up a wrong. It is questionable whether Byron had the operation of the Lands Occupation Act for the colony of New South Wales in view when he penned these lines, but they apply as closely to the general consequences of that great statute as if his lordship had intended to settle the affairs of Australia, after leading to victory the anti-Turkish party of the day. The brothers Freeman, by a peculiar mental process, had managed to ignore the very substantial aid in cash and employment, the former still unrepaid, furnished by Mr. Neuchamp. By fixing all their attention upon his latter line of conduct, they became convinced that in denying their cattle access to every portion of the Rainbar run he had inflicted upon them a great wrong. This they determined to avenge if not to redress; and one fine morning an ill- written note, brought by a brown-faced urchin of ten years old about breakfast time, informed Mr. Neuchamp that William and Joseph Freeman had discovered three hundred and forty-seven of his cattle trespassing upon their land, which cattle were now in their custody, and which they proposed driving to Drewarrina pound (about seventy miles off) if not forthwith released with damages and expenses paid. ‘What in the name of all that’s rascally can we do?’ inquired Ernest of Charley Banks, as he tossed the note over to him across the breakfast table. ‘I feel inclined to go down and take the cattle by force. The dishonest, scheming vagabonds!’ ‘That’s what I should like to do,’ said Banks, ‘and I think Jack and I could hammer that Bill Freeman and his brother, but I’m afraid it won’t do. If we rescue the cattle we can be summoned and fined; besides taking us all the way to that rascally hole of a township.’
- 34. ‘Then let them keep them, and drive them over to the pound. The damage can’t be much.’ ‘And let them hunt them over, and yard them half the time?’ demanded Mr. Banks. ‘No, that wouldn’t do either. The cattle wouldn’t recover it for the whole season. You’ll have to buy him off. So much a head. It’s the shortest way through it.’ Mr. Neuchamp groaned. This way was degrading. A pecuniary loss, for which he did not care so much as he ought to have done, for Ernest was one of those people who rarely regard a cheque or order as the bag of golden sovereigns that anything over a ten-pound note really is. Also, a loss of dignity, which he felt keenly, that he should be placed in the dilemma of having to pay to release his own cattle from his own tenants, so to speak, or to see them injured and lowered in value by those base burghers of the corporation he had himself led into the land of promise! ‘There is nothing else to be done,’ said Charley. ‘They have the best of us now; we must pay.’ ‘I don’t believe the cattle were on their land at all,’ pleaded the founder of the society. ‘That’s nothing,’ opposed Mr. Banks, ‘they’ll swear they found ’em there, and bring three or four witnesses to prove it; you’d better give me a cheque for thirty pounds, and let me square it with them. I think we shall get out for that.’ Mr. Neuchamp much regretted sacrificing any portion of his latest and probably concluding advance from Messrs. Oldstile and Crampton in such an unsatisfactory manner, but was compelled to employ that only universal solvent, a cash payment. Mr. Banks departed with the magic missive. I have no authentic record of what actually passed between him and Bill Freeman, but he returned with the cattle. It was also noticed that no peculiar exacerbation occurred between the litigants after this interview.
- 35. Another month wore away in the performance of the ordinary work, and the endurance of rather more than the ordinary crosses and losses consequent upon the still protracted drought. No rain. And again, no rain. Nothing grew. All nature became daily more wan, pale, leafless. The crop of expenses, inevitable and regular, in contradistinction to the produce of the season, grew and matured, until once more the limit of advance agreed to by Messrs. Oldstile and Crampton was definitely reached. Of this ultimate fact Mr. Neuchamp was unpleasantly reminded by the return, unpaid, of his last half-dozen orders, arriving by the mail preceding that which furnished an exceedingly formal letter, advising the unpleasant step which his agents, to their extreme regret, had been compelled to take. Ernest felt this hitherto unknown annoyance to be the precursor of a financial earthquake, in which possibly his present possessions and future hopes might be engulfed. He tried to consider his position with the calmness proper to so grave a conjuncture. But he had much difficulty in preserving the requisite freedom from disturbance. Ever and anon would come, as with a lightning flash, the vision of all his cherished projects disappearing down the dark chasm of insolvency and ruin. His stud of Australian Arabs, now so promising, would be sold for the price of bush mustangs. His store cattle, nearly broken to the run, would be as valueless as if, in spite of their high breeding, they had been composed in great part of the ‘scrub-danglers,’ one of whom had so unwarrantably assaulted him on his arrival at Rainbar. His pet engineering scheme, unfinished and derided, would be henceforth ticketed among the denizens of the locality as Neuchamp’s Folly. Ernest had not more than the ordinary share of self-love, through which nature makes provision for the preservation of the individual, but he commenced to feel by anticipation the pangs which are inseparable from pronounced failure in any soever enterprise or profession. He heard Mr. Jermyn Croker’s unqualified
- 36. verdict that ‘he had always been a philanthropic lunatic, from whom nothing else could have been expected; the only wonder being that any one had been found fool enough to trust him, and thereby enable him to make so respectable a smash of it.’ Others doubtless would follow in the same suit. Even the good-natured Parklands and the charitable Aymer Brandon, who gave, as they required indeed, much frank social absolution, could scarcely refrain from unreserved condemnation of his ‘improvement’ theory. As to the ‘grateful tenantry’ idea, represented by Freeman Brothers, with their grass- rights, their hostility, and their herds and their flocks―for they had lately purchased a thousand debilitated travelling sheep at about sixpence per head―it would not bear thinking of. He was now in full endurance of the reactionary stage of despondency occasionally bestowed as a counterpoise to the ordinarily high average of tone with which the sanguine man is blessed or cursed, as the case may be. As Mr. Neuchamp reviewed his generous and lofty aims, his far- reaching plans and projects dependent upon so kindly a future for success, he inclined to the latter reading. They appeared to him in this his dark hour as the fantasies of an opium-eater or the dream- palaces of a slumbering child. Mr. Neuchamp, after a day spent in sad consideration, unfortunately permitted himself to pursue the unending evil of regret during the night. His heightened imagination multiplied disaster and enlarged evil to such a degree that he was more than once tempted to spring from his thorny couch and take to the broad starlit plain for the relief of exercise. ‘So sore was the delirious goad, I took my steed and forth I rode,’ says the remorseful Marmion; and but that in the present state of the fodder market no horses had been stabled at Rainbar for many a day, our latter-day Crusader might have followed out the idea literally. As it was he but arose at earliest dawn and mechanically took the garden path, trusting to find some excuse for an hour or
- 37. two of hard manual labour which might guide or exorcise the evil spirits that were rending his very soul. He had been putting out all his strength for an hour or more, and was in much the same bodily state and condition as if he had taken a ten-mile spin with a greatcoat on, after the prescription of Mr. Geoffry Delamayn, when he observed a solitary horseman wending his way along the ‘up-river’ road, which was distinguishable more by dust than by colouring from the grassless waste through which it wound. The stranger, who was habited in a collarless Crimean shirt and rather dilapidated habiliments generally, rode his emaciated steed steadily on at the slow, hopeless, leg-weary jog to which most of the horses of the territory had long been reduced, until he reached the garden gate. Ernest,―taking him for granted as the usual ‘reporter’ of travelling sheep, about to clear off the last fragments of what once had been pasture; an invalid shepherd, making for the Drewarrina Hospital; a mounted tramp or ‘traveller’ looking for work, with no great hope of, or indeed concern about, finding it; or lastly, a supernumerary for some travelling stock caravan, who had been ‘hunted’ for drunkenness or inefficiency,―raised not his head. For any or all of these toilers of the waste there would be the unvarying hospitality of the men’s hut. But the stranger sat calmly upon his despondent horse at the gate surveying Ernest’s exceedingly efficient spade performance with apparent approval, until at length he broke silence. ‘My word, Mr. Noochamp, you’re nigh as good as a Chinaman. You’d make wages at post-hole digging, if the rain forgets to come and we’re all smothered. How’s those AD store cattle getting on?’ Ernest looked up hastily and indignantly at the first tones of the stranger’s accost, but immediately relaxed his visage and flung down his spade as he recognised in the horseman’s countenance the grave, reflective lineaments of Abstinens Levison. END OF VOL. II
- 38. Printed by R. & R. Clark, Edinburgh. Transcriber’s Note Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations in spelling, punctuation and hyphenation remain unchanged. “to one of his own invention, viz. ƎNE (a conjoined hieroglyph)”. The initial character of the hieroglyph is printed half a line lower in the original.
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