Magma viscosity
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The document describes calculating the viscosity of a hydrous, leucogranitic melt using a regression model. It provides background on estimating magma viscosity and factors that influence it like temperature, water content, and crystal content. It then presents the problem of calculating the viscosity of a rhyolite magma at 900°C with 2% water and 0.03% crystal content. A plan is outlined to implement a VFT model to calculate melt viscosity and incorporate crystal content using an equation to find the final magma viscosity. A spreadsheet is presented carrying out these calculations.
![ERT
E stands for activation energy, literally the energy “hump” or barrier, which must be
overcome for a reaction to proceed. In viscosity, the energy that must be applied to
get it all flowing. The unit of activation energy is the joule mol-1, that is, the energy
required to get one mole of substance to react, or flow.
R stands for the universal gas constant and is equal to Boltzmann’s constant x
Avagadro’s number. R relates energy to temperature, T. The units of Boltzmann’s
constant, found experimentally are joule per K, k = 1.380 x 10−23 J K-1, so the
universal gas constant is R=8.314 J mol-1 K-1.
Prove to yourself that E/RT is dimensionless. What happens to E/RT as
T increases but the activation energy remains constant? What happens
to the value of exp[-E/RT] as T increases?
So in the Arrhenian model, the energy required to make the fluid react (in this
case react by flowing) under standard conditions is constant. The viscosity
decreases with temperature because the ratio –E/RT decreases with
increasing temperature. Remember, this is only a model, because in reality
what is happening is that the number and length of silica polymer chains is
decreasing with increasing temperature. The model is a symbolic, in this
case mathematical, representation of reality.
20
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Magma viscosity
- 1. SSAC-pv2007.QE522.CC2.7 How Do We Estimate Magma Viscosity? How does the viscosity of a silicate magma vary with temperature, water content, and crystal content? Using a “best-fit” Core Quantitative Issue Units regression model to estimate viscosity of Supporting Quantitative Issues Models a hydrous, Graphs leucogranitic melt. SSAC - Physical Volcanology Collection Chuck Connor – University of South Florida, Tampa © Chuck Connor. All rights reserved. 2007 Edited by Judy Harden 10/24/07 1
- 2. Preview This module presents a calculation of the viscosity of a magma with varying temperature, water content, and crystal content. Slides 3-10 give some background on estimates of viscosity in silicate melts and magmas. Slide 11 states the problem. What is the density of a hydrous rhyolite magma? Slides 12-14 analyze the problem and prompt you to design a plan to solve it. The problem breaks down into parts: estimating the viscosity of a rhyolite melt using a statistical model, and estimating the change in viscosity as crystals are added to the magma. Slides 15-16 illustrate a spreadsheet that calculates an answer. Slide 17 discusses the point of the module and provides a broader volcanological context. Slide 18 consists of some questions that constitute your homework assignment. Slides 19-21 are endnotes for elaboration and reference. 2
- 3. Background What is viscosity? Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Think of viscosity as a coefficient that relates the stress applied to a fluid and the fluids response. For example: du1 th dx2 du1 where t is the stress (Pa), dx is the 2 Photo by L. Connor resulting velocity gradient in the fluid, and h is the viscosity (sometimes referred to as This basaltic lava flow emanating from a very small vent on Mt. Etna is shear viscosity in this context). about as viscous as a thick salsa. 3
- 4. Background What are the units of viscosity? Consider a fluid trapped between two plates. When a stress is applied to the upper plate while the lower plate is held still, a vertical velocity gradient is created in the fluid. This velocity gradient is equivalent to a strain rate. Since du1 th Figure from Mader, 2006, Volcanic processes as a source dx2 of statistical data, In: Mader et al., (eds) Statistics in Volcanology, Geological Society of London, 1-14. the units of viscosity are Pascal Please check for yourself that the seconds (Pa s). units of viscosity must be Pa s, given the equation and diagram. 4
- 5. Background Newtonian and non-Newtonian viscosity high slope, high viscosity Any fluid, including silicate melts, is considered Newtonian if there is a linear relationship between stress and strain. That low slope, low viscosity is, if: du1 th dx2 In a non-Newtonian fluid, the above linear relationship does not hold true. For example, in a Bingham fluid: du1 t to h dx2 where to is a yield stress (also called yield strength) required to “get the fluid moving”. Although still linear, a new term is added to the linear equation. 5 Make sure you can sketch the stress-strain relationship for a Bingham fluid on the graph.
- 6. Background Photo by B. Hill Why estimate the viscosity of magma? Viscosity controls the rate of magma flow in response to a given pressure change and the rate at which gas bubbles and solids (rock fragments and crystals) move through a magma. Low viscosity magmas, such as some basalts, can form very long lava flows very rapidly. In contrast, rhyolite magmas are viscous enough to limit bubble movement. Rather than escaping by buoyantly rising through the magma, gas bubbles are trapped in rhyolite magmas, expand, and eventually create very explosive The photo shows a mildly explosive eruption of eruptions. basaltic magma at Cerro Negro volcano, Nicaragua, in December, 1995. Increasing viscosity, due to crystal formation and cooling, contributes to explosive activity. 6
- 7. Background What are the viscosities of magmas? Photo C. Connor Magma viscosity varies, with temperature, A platinum sphere (density ~21 g cm-3, water content, and composition, between melting point about 1768 °C) sinking in NaAlSi3O8 melt at high pressure and high about 102 Pa s and about 1011 Pa s. That is temperature (4.2 GPa and 1700°C). From: nine orders of magnitude! Magma viscosities K. Funakoshi, A. Suzuki and H. Terasaki, are often determined experimentally, or Journal of Physics :Condensed Matter 14, measured in the field. 11343-11347 (2002). 7
- 8. Background Temperature and Viscosity Viscosity is highly dependent on temperature. Think of a pool of molten glass. As the temperature drops, it will take more and more applied stress to make the glass flow. An Arrhenian model of viscosity is one in which viscosity is exponentially dependent on temperature: This glass is an alkaline silicate melt with low viscosity at 1000 °C and very E “workable” into shapes at about 800 to h(T ) ho exp RT 900 °C. At about 700 °C, the viscosity is high enough for the shape to not deform under its own weight. where ho is viscosity under standard Learn More about the temperature conditions, E is the Arrhenian model activation energy, R is the universal gas constant, and T is temperature. Learn More about E/RT 8
- 9. Background For most silicate melts, even Arrhenian models do not work! Over the last 25 years, magma Water “de-polymerizes” melts, physicists have discovered silicate changing their viscosities. melts are often non-Arrhenian, largely because of the additional impact of water on viscosity. Water breaks chains of silica polymers in melts, and the shorter polymers result in a lower viscosity. One non-Arrhenian model of viscosity is in the form of the Vogel-Fulcher- Tammann (VFT) equation: b( H2 O) log h(T , H2 O) a( H2 O) T c( H2 O) where a, b, and c are constants that must be determined for specific melt compositions using lab experiments. Images created by Bill Rose 9
- 10. Background For silicate magmas, even non-Arrhenian models do not work! Even when coefficients a, b, and c are estimated for the VFT equation for a specific melt composition, other factors can strongly influence viscosity. Picture the sudden onset of crystallization, a virtual snowstorm of microlites (small feldspar crystals) in an ascending magma. These crystals increase the bulk viscosity of the melt-crystal mixture. Viscosity of the melt-crystal magma mixture can be estimated with: 52 hmagma 1 hmelt o where is the volume fraction of crystals and o is known as the maximum packing fraction of a solid. Microlites in a now frozen magma 10
- 11. Problem Calculate the viscosity of a rhyolite melt with 2 weight percent water at 900 °C and with 0.03 volume fraction crystals. Use a form of the VFT model to solve the problem. More generally, it is useful to use the VFT model to explore the nature of rhyolite magma viscosity. Namely, how does viscosity vary as a function of: • Weight percent water? The volcanic Isla San Luis off the coast of Baja, California, • Temperature? has a Holocene rhyolite dome at its center. The dome is the • Volume fraction of crystals in mass of dark rocks forming a steep mound, indicative of the high viscosity of this magma when it erupted. (Photo from the magma? the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Network webpage). 11
- 12. Designing a Plan, Part 1 Given the water content, Give answer in Pascal temperature, and volume seconds (Pa s). fraction of crystals in the magma, calculate the viscosity. Notes: (1) Coefficients used in the VFT model remain to be determined at this stage. You will need to: (2) Different models for calculating magma viscosity from melt viscosity exist; a • implement the VFT comparatively simple model based on model to solve for melt spherical “crystals” will be implemented viscosity. here. (3) This VFT model is actually compositionally • calculate the magma specific, it is only valid for leucogranitic viscosity from melt melts. A leucogranitic melt is a rhyolitic viscosity, given the magma enriched in aluminum, often volume fraction of characterized by biotite phenocrysts and a crystals suspended in pale colored groundmass. the magma. 12
- 13. Designing a Plan, Part 2 Calculate the melt viscosity. We need to put the VFT model into practice. A form of the VFT model proposed by Hess and Dingwell (1996, Viscosities of hydrous leucogranitic melts: A non-Arrhenian model, American Mineralogist, volume 81, 1297-1300) is used to solve the problem. Hess and Digwell (1996) found a best-fit regression model for non-Arrhenian viscosity: The values of these b1 b2 ln( w) coefficients are: logh a1 a2 ln( w) a1 = -3.54 T c1 c2 ln( w) a2 = 0.83 b1 = 9601 b2 = -2366 where h is viscosity, w is weight percent water, T is temperature (K), c1 = 196 and a1, a2, b1, b2, c1,and c2 are coefficients of their regression c2 = 32 model. Hess and Dingwell estimated the values of the coefficients in the model by regression. That is, they found the best-fit values of these six coefficients using data from 111 viscosity Learn more experiments conducted at various temperatures on rhyolites about regression with various water contents between 0.2 and 12.3 wt % and temperatures between about 750 K and 1473 K. Their model is not valid for other conditions! 13
- 14. Designing a Plan, Part 3 Estimate how the viscosity changes with Recall that melt is by the addition of crystals to the magma. definition a liquid, whereas magma contains The change in viscosity of a melt, with the addition of solid melt + solids and gas. particles like crystals or xenoliths, is a complex problem. A simplified answer is provided by the following equation. 5 1 hmagma hmelt 2 o Here the crystals are taken to be spheres (not a particularly good assumption about the shape of many crystals, but a good leading Approaching the maximum order approximation nevertheless). The viscosity then changes packing fraction in a melt according to a power law. As the crystal spheres become more populated with “ideally abundant, they pack closer together until they occupy much of spherical” crystals. Although the total volume, with melt only left in the open spaces between the “crystals” are densely spheres. This is the maximum packing fraction of the solid, o. packed, there is still room for Assume o = 0.6 melt in the gaps. 14
- 15. Carrying Out the Plan: Spreadsheet to Calculate the Viscosity B C D E F 2 Calculate the Viscosity of a Rhyolite Magma using the VFT Model 3 4 Coefficients of the VFT Model A cell containing a 5 a1 -3.54 number that is given 6 a2 0.83 information 7 b1 9601 8 b2 -2366 9 c1 196 A cell containing a number 10 c2 32 that is a constant for this 11 problem 12 Max. packing 13 fraction (Ø o ) 0.6 14 15 Given Conditions A cell containing a 16 Temperature (K) 1173 17 Water Content (wt %) 2 formula 18 Vol. fraction of crystals 0.03 19 20 Calculated results 21 log (melt viscosity)(Pa s) 5.37303 22 melt viscosity (Pa s) 236064.1 23 magma viscosity (Pa s) 268361.9 At this point, be sure to implement this spreadsheet and check that your formulas duplicate the values shown. You will need this spreadsheet to complete the end-of-module assignment. 15
- 16. Carrying Out the Plan: Spreadsheet to Calculate the Viscosity B C D E F 2 Calculate the Viscosity of a Rhyolite Magma using the VFT Model While the calculation of a single viscosity value 3 4 Coefficients of the VFT Model is useful, it does not allow you to see trends. 5 a1 -3.54 The spreadsheet is easily modified to show 6 a2 0.83 7 b1 9601 results of numerous calculations graphically. 8 b2 -2366 9 c1 196 10 c2 32 Add cells to your spreadsheet so you 11 12 Max. packing can graph results and observe trends. 13 fraction (Ø o ) 0.6 14 15 Given Conditions A cell containing a 16 Temperature (K) 1173 number that is 17 Water Content (wt %) 2 18 Vol. fraction of crystals 0.03 given information 19 20 Calculated results 21 log (melt viscosity)(Pa s) 5.37303 A cell containing a 22 melt viscosity (Pa s) 236064.1 formula 23 magma viscosity (Pa s) 268361.9 24 25 Log (Melt Viscosity) (Pa s) 26 Temperature (K) 10 27 water content (wt %) 1000 1200 1400 Log (viscosity) (Pa s) 28 0.5 9.490653 6.838885 5.052167 9 29 1 8.401542 6.022749 4.434252 8 30 1.5 7.721182 5.516466 4.052193 7 31 2 7.217990 5.143743 3.771548 6 1000 K 32 2.5 6.815539 4.846682 3.548257 5 1200 K 33 3 6.478611 4.598688 3.362109 4 34 3.5 6.187923 4.385241 3.202084 1400 K 3 35 4 5.931723 4.197508 3.061484 36 4.5 5.702294 4.029700 2.935923 2 37 5 5.494286 3.877809 2.822367 1 38 5.5 5.303829 3.738944 2.718627 0 39 6 5.128033 3.610943 2.623071 0 2 4 6 8 10 40 6.5 4.964677 3.492150 2.534447 41 7 4.812019 3.381267 2.451773 Water Content (wt %) 16 42 7.5 4.668662 3.277256 2.374266 43 8 4.533474 3.179272 2.301290
- 17. What you have done You have calculated the viscosity of a hydrous rhyolite magma using the non-Arrhenian VFT model and a simplified model to account for volume fraction of crystals. The viscosity of silicate melts is fundamental to the nature of magma transport. Viscosity controls the form of lava flows and strongly contributes to the nature of volcanic eruptions. In fact, viscosity is a powerful constraint on the nature of many geological phenomena, such as convective flow in the mantle, the deformation of the ductile lower crust, and particle transport in the atmosphere and in rivers. You have discovered that it is possible to estimate the viscosity of magmas using highly nonlinear models that account for the affects of temperature, water content, and volume fraction of crystals. Although based in physical principles, these models are statistical in nature. That is, the coefficients of the VFT model were estimated from experimental data using a sophisticated regression technique. It is likely, therefore, that these models will improve with additional experiments. In addition, it is clear that it is inappropriate to use such models outside of the range of experimental data from which they are derived. Useful papers that discuss magma viscosity in detail: Shaw, H.R., 1972, Viscosities of magmatic silicate liquids: An empirical method of prediction. American Journal of Science, 272, 870-889. (Shaw was one of the first people to discuss the relationships between thermodynamic properties of silicates and physical properties of magmas). Hess, K-U., and D.B. Dingwell, 1996, Viscosities of hydrous leucogranitic melts: A non-Arrhenian model, American Mineralogist, 81, 1297-1300. (the VFT method used in this module) Spera, F., 2000, Physical properties of magma, In: Sigurdsson et al., eds., Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, Academic Press, 171-190. (an accessible discussion) 17
- 18. End of Module Assignments 1. Make sure you turn in a spreadsheet showing the worked examples. 2. Plot a graph that shows the dependence of rhyolite magma viscosity on crystal content for hydrous melts H20 = 2 (wt %), 6 (wt %), and 12 (wt %) at 900 °C. Now consider a magma rising through a volcano conduit. How does water content, crystal content, and temperature affect the rate of ascent, all other things being equal? Which factor would you say is most important and why? 3. Each of the six coefficients (a1-c2) used in the VFT model is estimated. Suppose the error in these estimates is about 20%. That is, the coefficients could be 20% lower or 20% higher than the values reported here. Given this uncertainty, what is the range of viscosities that you estimate for a rhyolite melt that is 4 weight percent water at 900 °C. 4. The viscosity of some brands of peanut butter is about 8000 Pa s. Use your spreadsheet to investigate the range of conditions (water content, temperature, crystal content) under which rhyolite magmas would have approximately this viscosity. 5. What happens to the viscosity of peanut butter when you add whole peanuts to the mixture? Why? 6. The ‘obsidian problem’ refers to the fact that some rhyolite magmas reach the surface very quickly, but do not erupt explosively. Rather, they form effusive eruptions that make lava domes of very glassy (crystal poor) lava. Use your spreadsheet to investigate this problem. Under what circumstances might rhyolite magmas form such domes rather than erupt in a spectacular explosion? 18
- 19. More about the Arrhenian Model The Arrhenian model is named for Svante Arrhenius, who developed a method of predicting the increased speed of a chemical reaction with increased temperature. His equation has the form: E k A exp RT More about E,R,T where k is the rate coefficient that describes how much faster the reaction will proceed, A is the Arrhenius coefficient, which varies with the specific chemical reaction, E is the activation energy, R is the gas constant, and T is temperature. Note that this is the exact form of the Arrhenian viscosity model, with A replaced by the viscosity of the fluid at some standard temperature condition. Arrhenian models are also common in statistics and used to predict the higher rate of failure of just about anything at higher temperatures. For more about the statistical application of the model, see: http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/apr/section1/apr151.htm 19 Return to Slide 8
- 20. ERT E stands for activation energy, literally the energy “hump” or barrier, which must be overcome for a reaction to proceed. In viscosity, the energy that must be applied to get it all flowing. The unit of activation energy is the joule mol-1, that is, the energy required to get one mole of substance to react, or flow. R stands for the universal gas constant and is equal to Boltzmann’s constant x Avagadro’s number. R relates energy to temperature, T. The units of Boltzmann’s constant, found experimentally are joule per K, k = 1.380 x 10−23 J K-1, so the universal gas constant is R=8.314 J mol-1 K-1. Prove to yourself that E/RT is dimensionless. What happens to E/RT as T increases but the activation energy remains constant? What happens to the value of exp[-E/RT] as T increases? So in the Arrhenian model, the energy required to make the fluid react (in this case react by flowing) under standard conditions is constant. The viscosity decreases with temperature because the ratio –E/RT decreases with increasing temperature. Remember, this is only a model, because in reality what is happening is that the number and length of silica polymer chains is decreasing with increasing temperature. The model is a symbolic, in this case mathematical, representation of reality. 20 Return to Slide 8
- 21. The Nature of Regression In statistics, regression is used to determine the relationship between two or more variables. This relationship is usually characterized by the magnitude of coefficients. For example, in linear regression, y= mx +b, the relationship between variables y and x is determined by the magnitude of the coefficients m and b. Uncertainty exists in any regression model, because the relationship between variables is not ideal. In the plot shown, the relationship between cumulative volume and time looks linear, but there is “certainly uncertainty” (i.e., measured points plot off the line). The best-fit line is a statistical model, that is, a model that includes some A linear regression showing the relationship between component of random (or unexplained) two variables (time, and cumulative eruption volume) variation. When we use a statistical for eruptions of Cerro Negro volcano, Nicaragua. Actual values are plotted as solid circles, the line is model to estimate viscosity, we accept the best-fit regression. Data from Hill et al., 1998, the fact that some random variation will GSA Bulletin. not be accounted for by the model! 21 Return to Slide 13