Making better use of international comparisons in education

‘WE SHOULD COPY HIGH PERFORMING
INTERNATIONAL JURISDICTIONS’ ... SHOULD WE?
Making better use of international comparisons in education

Robin Alexander
University of Cambridge

Introduction1

I’d like to talk about a belief that surfaces with increasing regularity in the educational policy
discourse of Britain and indeed many other countries. It is the belief that we will solve the
nation’s educational problems not by investigating their distinctive pathology and revealing
their cultural, historical and political determinants, thus arriving at explanations and
solutions that have a chance of being valid, honest and appropriate, but by copying or
adapting the policies of those countries whose students outperform our own on a few
narrow and contested measures of educational achievement. In this process of policy
grafting or transplant it appears not to matter whether the countries in question are
comparable to our own or utterly unlike it, or whether they are passable democracies in
which educational debate is encouraged, or autocratic regimes where debate and dissent are
suppressed.

Or rather, the currently fashionable unit of comparison is not ‘countries’, still less ‘cultures’,
but ‘jurisdictions’; for ‘jurisdictions’ allows governments and their advisers to smuggle
barely sustainable comparisons between a country like Britain with a population of 60
million and 25,000 schools, a city state like Singapore with just 5 million inhabitants and 350
schools and a Californian charter school system with just 40 schools. Thus, in the letter of 11th
June with which England’s Secretary of State for Education launched his proposals for a new
national curriculum, the phrase ‘high performing jurisdictions’ or something like it is used
three times in the first four paragraphs and many more times in the rest of the letter by way
of justification for his claims. Many questions are begged by that phrase ‘high performing
jurisdictions’, by the evidence that supposedly informs it, and by the policies that it is used
to justify. In this keynote I shall invite you to think about some of them.

Why do we compare?

In many countries, especially those that are members of OECD, the business of comparing
educational systems and outcomes has become a political and media obsession, generating
celebration in some quarters and panic and blame in others. In between the extremes of
panic and celebration are those countries – and sadly there aren’t many of them - that ponder
international evidence quietly, carefully and critically before deciding what action, if any, to
take.

This preoccupation with the educational performance of other countries might seem novel
but it isn’t, for international educational comparison and the globalisation of educational
ideas are as old as education itself. Thus you will find ...

1
This paper was first given, under the title International evidence, national policy and classroom practice:
questions of judgement, vision and trust, as the closing keynote presentation at the Third Van Leer
International Conference on Education in Jerusalem in May 2012. In modified form and with the present
title it became a keynote at the July 2012 international teacher education conference at Canterbury Christ
Church University.

2

... Pestalozzi mingling with Tagore, Krishnamurti and the Elmhirsts in both English
and Indian progressive education, and John Dewey’s ideas turning up briefly in
China, the Soviet Union and Turkey as well more lastingly in England and the United
States. Meanwhile, both the German Gymnasium and the American high school help
shape the development of Russian schooling. British officials take the Ecole Normale
from France to England and India. Jan Komensky (Comenius) journeys tirelessly
from Moravia to Prague, Heidelberg, Berlin, Paris, Stockholm, London, Amsterdam
and points between and beyond, and corresponds with the founding fathers of
Massachusetts, and his principles of common vernacular schooling and carefully
graduated whole class teaching, not to mention his textbooks, embed themselves
deeply and lastingly in the pedagogy of many countries of central, eastern and
northern Europe. And during the nineteenth century the monitorial systems of Bell
and Lancaster seed themselves just about everywhere from their probable roots in
what was then Madras. (Alexander 2001, 171-2).

If international comparison and what some call ‘policy borrowing’ have been around a long
time, so too have warnings about their misuse. Here is British educationalist, administrator
and university vice-chancellor Michael Sadler, writing over a century ago:

In studying foreign systems of education we should not forget that the things outside
the schools matter even more than the things inside the schools, and govern and
interpret the things inside ... No other nation, by imitating a little bit of German
organisation, can thus hope to achieve a true reproduction of the spirit of German
institutions ... All good and true education is an expression of national life and
character ... The practical value of studying in a right spirit and with scholarly
accuracy the working of foreign systems of education is that it will result in our being
better fitted to study and understand our own. (Sadler 1900, 50)

So what would Sadler make of the definition of an ‘ideal school’ by OECD’s Andreas
Schleicher (2009)? Such a school, said Schleicher, would include ‘little bits’ of Finland, Japan,
England, Israel, Norway, Canada, Belgium and Germany in the way it develops students’
individual strengths, gets teachers to co-operate, sets clear performance targets, celebrates
discourse and helps students to learn from their mistakes, unites kindergarten and primary
education, focuses local support where it is needed, values the arts, and devolves
responsibilities to students. (Here’s a test for you: which ‘little bit’ of Schleicher’s ideal school
comes from England?)

Sadler’s objection to international ‘cherry-picking’ is principled but it fails to take account of
the reality of the global educational traffic that I referred to a moment ago. Yet his basic
contention is surely right. National education systems are embedded in national culture, and
indeed education is one of the main ways that a culture is mediated, transmitted and
sustained; so ‘no educational policy or classroom practice can be properly understood except
by reference to the web of inherited ideas and values, habits and customs, institutions and
world views, that make one country distinct from another.’ (Alexander 2001, 5).

This nexus of education, culture and history means that while, as Sadler says, ‘All good and
true education is an expression of national life and character’, there’s also a downside, for as
American educationist and administrator Ernest Boyer noted, ‘A report card on public
education is a report card on the nation. Schools can rise no higher than the communities
that support them.’ (Boyer 1983, 6) Or, as Basil Bernstein more succinctly put it 40 years ago:
‘Education cannot compensate for society.’ (Bernstein 1970, 344).

3

So if a national education system is not – as Sadler puts it - ‘good and true’, then we must
look to society as well as our schools, not merely copy the schooling of others. Thus it is that
the gap in student achievement between high and low-attainers is wider in Britain and the
United States than many other OECD countries in part because it coincides with disparities
in income, health and wellbeing which are also wider in those two countries than elsewhere.
As Wilkinson and Pickett (2010) demonstrate in their groundbreaking international
epidemiological study The Spirit Level, unequal societies have unequal education systems
and unequal educational outcomes. That’s a finding – or a maxim - worth pondering.

Obvious all this may be, yet it’s not obvious enough to those who find it more expedient to
copy the policies of other countries, systems or ‘jurisdictions’ than to examine their own
countries’ condition and needs. The word ‘jurisdictions’ tacitly sanctions this neglect, for it
strips a country of the complexities of culture, values, social structure, politics and
demography and reduces it to tidy legalities. But these are the very complexities with which
we must engage if we are to understand education elsewhere, let alone explain why one
country outperforms others.

You may be surprised that I’ve got this far without mentioning PISA or TIMSS, for to many
people these days PISA and TIMMS are the only international evidence that matters, and
international comparison means enviously comparing ourselves with PISA top performers
Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, Korea or Shanghai-China, or following the PISA tourist trail
to Finland. Whether the test performance of 15-year olds in literacy, mathematics and science
is a sufficiently robust indicator of what Sadler called ‘good and true’ education is rarely
considered in this age of PISA panic and PISA tourism, but it’s a question that needs
considering, not least when we read ludicrous newspaper headlines like this:

TRAVESTY OF OUR ‘STAGNATING’ SCHOOLS: OECD CONDEMNS BRITISH
EDUCATION WHICH IS NOW INFERIOR TO ESTONIA’S ... (Loveys 2010)

or this:

DISASTROUS RESULTS FOR WALES IN PISA TEST: ‘It is simply not acceptable for
Estonia to be outperforming Wales ...’ said Liberal Democrat spokeswoman ... (News
Wales 2010)

Note the imperialist and possibly racist assumption that Estonia’s proper place in the world
order is well below that of England and Wales. And if you think such hysterical headlines
are unique to the UK, consider these:

PISA TEST RESULTS SHOW COLOSSAL FAILURE OF ISRAEL SCHOOLS
(Hartman 2010).

PISA DESASTER: WAS MACHT DIE SACHSEN BESSER? (Klosermann and Wolff
2010)

LA FRANCE PARALYSÉE DEVANT SES MAUVAIS RÉSULTATS SCOLAIRES
(Rollot and de Vergès 2007)

There in a nutshell we have it: the performance of a group of 15 year olds, at just one brief
moment during their long educational journey, in selected aspects of just three school
subjects, albeit extremely important subjects, demonstrates the failure of an entire national

4

education system. What a counsel of despair. What a ludicrous level of inference far, far
beyond what the data allow. What a denial of the true potential of international comparison.
And what a heavy burden of responsibility to place on those 15 year olds and their teachers –
especially when they see the other headline:

SHANGHAI KIDS THE WORLD’S SMARTEST (Bloom 2010).

International comparisons: questions of evidence

The way the discourse of international comparison is dominated by the international
achievement surveys and the accompanying media and political hysteria requires us to think
more deeply about evidence. In comparing ourselves with others have we got the balance of
evidence right? Are we taking too much notice of some kinds of evidence and too little of
others?

Among the many typologies of comparative international research one of the more useful in
this context has come from the National Research Council (NRC) of the US National
Academies, which for many years has advised and commented on US participation in the
international student achievement surveys. In 2003, NRC’s Board on International
Comparative Studies in Education (BICSE) identified three main types of comparative study
(NRC 2003).

Type I includes the large-scale international student achievement studies such as TIMSS and
PISA, not to mention FIMS, SIMS, FISS, SISS, TIMSS-R, PIRLS, ICCS, SITES, TEDS-M and –
oh yes - WOEDAM. That’s OECD’s latest test, to be administered before you leave this room
today: it stands for What On Earth Do these Acronyms Mean? These surveys are typically
quantitative and are referenced by a limited number of indicators and measures of learning
outcome and, latterly, of context and input.

The usual Type II paradigm is the desk-based extrapolation from existing international data
in order to propose policy options in specific areas like school leadership, teacher training,
curriculum or assessment. The best known examples are the three McKinsey reports (Barber
and Mourshed 2007, Mourshed, Chijioke and Barber 2010, Barber, Whelan and Clark 2011).

Type III studies include the majority of work in the published corpus of academic
comparative education. They range from descriptive accounts of individual education
systems to close-grained comparative studies of school and classroom life and the cultural
and historical forces that shape it, uncovering similarities as well as differences. Examples of
Type III comparative research are Joseph Tobin’s ethnographic studies of pre-school
education in China, Japan and the United States (Tobin et al 1989, 2009), Marilyn Osborn’s
and Patricia Broadfoot’s exploration of the experience of being a learner in England, France
and Denmark (Osborn et al 2003) and Jin Li’s re-examination of ‘Chinese’ and ‘western’
models of learning (Li 2012). (Modesty forbids mention of my own work). The scale, range,
methods and quality of Type III studies are variable, but their common feature is this: many
of them have significant policy applications, as the NRC report notes, but the imperatives of
policy are not their starting point. Rather, their goal is the advancement of educational
understanding for its own sake. Following Michael Sadler, they compare to learn, not to
copy.

But here’s the crunch. The 2003 NRC report notes that while the majority of published
comparative education studies are Type III, it is the Type I and II studies that receive most of
the funding, political patronage and publicity, and the funding difference can be truly vast.

5

In stark contrast, Type III studies scrape together what they can from charities and research
councils and are disseminated through the decidedly low-profile educational press. Yet, the
NRC report goes on:

Although they vastly outnumber Type I and Type II studies, Type III studies do not
usually come to the attention of policy makers or the public. This is a loss, since many
are rich in narrative detail and paint a more engaging and provocative portrait of
education in other countries than do the summary bar charts and graphs typical of
the larger studies. Ethnographic and case studies, in particular, can explore cultural
context in depth and ... elucidate the way education is organised and understood in
different cultures. (NRC 2003, 23-4).

It hasn’t always been like this. The linguistic anthropologist Shirley Brice Heath reminds us
that in the United States and Britain, and no doubt in other countries too, there have been
times when ethnographers and anthropologists have been eagerly enlisted and generously
supported to provide evidence to inform the development of policy, for example during
periods of rapid social change, national restructuring or international conflict (Heath and
Street 2008). For the moment, however, governments prefer to look elsewhere.

From international evidence to national policy: examples from England

What the NRC report is saying, if we can express the matter even more bluntly, is that in
pursuit of what they call ‘evidence-based policy’, governments choose to ignore the larger
part of the international evidence that is available to them, including evidence that could
give them the insights, explanations and policy options they need. Let me give you examples
of this evidential selectivity at work from England – not because England is especially at
fault but simply because I know it best. International delegates at this conference can judge
how far the English experience resonates with their own.

In 1996 Ofsted, England’s national school inspectorate, commissioned and published Worlds
Apart? This report reviewed England’s performance in the international student achievement
surveys up to the mid 1990s (FIMS, SIMS, FISS, SISS and IAEPS 1, 2 and 3), proposed reasons
for England’s generally poor performance, and identified solutions extrapolated from the top
performing systems in central Europe and Asia. It recommended ‘high quantities of whole-
class interactive instruction ... [and] the use of the same textbooks by all children,’ (Reynolds
and Farrell 2006, 55. The report’s thesis, deploying the uncomplicated attributions of cause
and effect that some politicians prefer, was that whole class teaching raises standards in
literacy and numeracy which in turn boosts national economic performance. If only it were
that simple (Robinson 1999, Wolf 2002).

In 2010, the government-endorsed report Could do Better? resumed the narrative, using PISA
2009 as its baseline. This time, the key to raising standards was the prescribed curriculum
because, the report asserted, ‘in all PISA high-performing systems the fundamentals of
subjects are strongly emphasised, have substantial time allocation and are the focus of
considerable attention.’ (Oates 2010). The report then listed 13 ‘control factors’ - national
tests, state-approved textbooks, school inspections, closely-aligned teacher training and so
on – through which the report claimed that governments in PISA high-performing systems
ensure that teachers toe the line – a claim which some of the governments in question might
wish to challenge. Even as I speak, this report is informing the UK government’s decisions
about national curriculum reform in England (DfE 2010, 2011a).

6

Third, there’s the phenomenon of McKinsey. In 2007, this multi-billion dollar international
management consultancy published the first of three reports from a team headed by Michael
Barber, formerly of Prime Minister Blair’s back office, on what those education systems that
topped the PISA 2003 league table could teach the rest of us. Its provocative title was How the
World’s Best-Performing Education Systems Come Out on Top. From its analysis of the world’s
top ten PISA systems McKinsey concluded: ‘Three things matter most: (1) getting the right
people to become teachers, (2) developing them into effective instructors, and (3) ensuring
that the system is able to deliver the best possible instruction for every child.’ (Barber and
Mourshed 2007, 2).

Did we really need McKinsey to tell us that? In the course of its expensive quest for this
statement of the obvious the same report delivered further stunning insights such as: ‘The
quality of an education system cannot exceed the quality of its teachers’, ‘The only way to
improve outcomes is to improve instruction’ and ‘High performance requires every child to
succeed.‘ To such multiple tautologies McKinsey added linguistic gems like: ‘Top-
performing systems leverage a substantial and growing knowledge about what constitutes
effective school leadership to develop their principals into drivers of instruction.’ (Barber
and Mourshed 2007, 4 and 30).

Thus we have three reports, all enjoying classic Type II political patronage (in McKinsey’s
case by many more governments than that of the UK), all starting from similar Type I
datasets yet each extracting different recipes for school improvement: more whole class
teaching based on standardised textbooks (Reynolds); better teaching, teacher training and
school leadership (McKinsey); a drastically pared-down curriculum which concentrates on
what is deemed ‘essential knowledge in the key subject disciplines’, backed by ‘control
factors’ to prevent teachers from making up their own minds about what knowledge is
essential. (Oates as cited in the remit for England’s 2010-12 national curriculum review, DfE
2010).

From international evidence to national policy: questions of judgement and trust

What have England’s policymakers done with these Type II international studies? The 1996
Worlds Apart report’s advocacy of whole class teaching and standardised textbooks helped
shape the national literacy and numeracy strategies introduced by the Labour government in
1998-9 which for a decade were imposed on every primary school, primary teacher and
primary student in England. The 2010 Could do Better report was used to justify the current
government’s decision to slim down England’s national curriculum to ‘essential knowledge’
in English, mathematics and science and perhaps a few other subjects, backed by phonics
checks and government-approved phonics materials to ensure that all primary teachers
follow the official line on literacy teaching. And where would the government seek guidance
on what constitutes ‘essential knowledge’? On this the 11 June statement of Secretary of
State Michael Gove is startlingly unambiguous, asserting (my italics) that we must ‘ensure
that our children master the essential core knowledge which other nations pass on to their
pupils’ (DfE 2012, 2).

The impact of McKinsey in England has been more diffuse. It can be seen in the UK
government’s raising of the academic entry bar for trainee teachers, though nowhere near as
high as Finland, the country which is usually cited as the model for this particular reform.
However, while saying that good teaching is what makes the difference, McKinsey offers
nothing of substance on pedagogy so its reports have no classroom purchase. Instead they pin
their faith in the levers and controls of systemic reform, in more and more legislation and
regulation: not surprisingly, for Michael Barber was not only political adviser to Prime

7

Minister Blair, but was also the architect of those national literacy and numeracy strategies,
the massively expensive intervention through which Blair’s government sought to raise
standards in England’s primary schools, to questionable effect. So Barber had a point to
prove. (The evidence on the impact of this particular exercise in major systemic reform is
examined in the final report of the Cambridge Primary Review (Alexander 2010b, 471-4).

But the more fundamental problem is that when Type II comparative studies are linked to
the imperatives of policy they can be highly selective in their use of evidence. For example,
the prescribed curricula of PISA high performers certainly emphasise essential knowledge as
the 2010 Oates report claims – what prescribed curriculum doesn’t? – but they do not
advocate a narrow focus on only those subjects that PISA tests. On the contrary, the UK
government has itself published evidence to show that the prescribed curricula in high
performing systems require breadth both across the curriculum as a whole and within each
of its main subjects (DfE 2011). And in the UK there’s even a consistent line of school
inspection data, of which the government has been aware for two decades, that the schools
whose students do best in the national tests of literacy and numeracy at age 11 don’t
concentrate on literacy and numeracy to the exclusion of all else but embed them in a
curriculum which is broad, balanced and well-managed. Similarly, from the United States
last year we had a report showing that the arts not only motivate and engage children but
also help raise measured standards in literacy and numeracy (President’s Committee on the
Arts and Humanities 2011). The report’s honorary chair was First Lady Michelle Obama. Did
her husband pause in his ‘race to the top’ to talk to her about it?

Learning in one area enhances learning in others. It’s an obvious and powerful truth. So why
in political circles doesn’t it cut any ice? Well, in the context of policy such a truth is
inconvenient. The instinctive and preferred policy response to falling standards in literacy
and numeracy is to hammer literacy and numeracy to the exclusion of all else. That,
governments presume, is the kind of tough and uncompromising response that the
electorate wants to hear. Perhaps, in remaining pointedly silent on the research evidence
about the connections between music and literacy, or between classroom argumentation and
scientific reasoning, governments also underestimate the electorate’s intelligence.

As to the Type I datasets which provide Type II studies with their benchmarks, from the
methodologically shaky IEA and IAEP studies of the 1970s to the much more sophisticated
2009 PISA, these have become more reliable and culture-fair, and the most recent PISA
commentaries produced by OECD demonstrate considerable understanding of the
challenges of cross-cultural testing and the inferential and explanatory caveats that need to
be entered and heeded. (OECD 2010a, 2010b, 2010c, 2010d, 2011a, 2011b).

In this sense, the problem isn’t PISA itself but what people do with the data that PISA
provides. Hence my particular concern about the Type II data extrapolations and the
disproportionate influence they exert. For the political attraction of Type II studies is that
they select, mediate, repackage and re-interpret the research of others, presenting it in a form
that they believe policymakers will find palatable. But being gatekeepers rather than creators
of evidence, authors of Type II studies are acutely vulnerable to the charge of methodological
and even political bias. The McKinsey reports, in particular, draw on an astonishingly
narrow and partisan range of sources. A McKinsey bibliography reads like the membership
list of a very exclusive club.

Since, in spite of such failings McKinsey’s three education reports are proving so influential
internationally, we might press the critique further. David Raffe (2011) argues that the
second McKinsey report remains locked within the policy ‘bubble’; that it is a particularly

8

flawed example of policy borrowing; that it ignores educational processes and contexts; and
that it applies exceptionally narrow criteria of systemic educational success. But the most
devastating criticisms come in a recent article by Frank Coffield (2012). His central charge is
that McKinsey’s analysis is culpably mono-factorial, failing to give due weight to the socio-
economic factors that have a significant impact on students’ motivation and attainment,
especially in a country whose economic and social disparities are as great as they are in
Britain. The first McKinsey report, continues Coffield, is methodologically flawed,
‘disablingly selective’ in its data and explanatory frame, superficial in its account of ‘best
practice’ and how this can be disseminated, and seduced by its own rhetoric on leadership.
Coffield likes the second McKinsey report better than the first, though still not a lot, but
castigates it for an impoverished view of teaching and learning, a thin evidence base,
implausible arguments about the mechanisms and processes of school improvement,
technocratic and authoritarian language and a pervasive neglect of culture and political
context. Coffield sees McKinsey as

the work of ‘global’ policy analysts, remote from the complexities of classrooms and
the discomfiting findings of researchers which pose such difficulties for politicians in
search of quick ‘transformations’ of school systems before the next election. They
espouse a ... model of schooling ... characterised by relentless pressure, competition,
line managers, customer services, data for performance management, accountability
and value for money; and professional autonomy for teachers only when granted by
the centre ... Their notion of teaching is narrowly conceived and technocratic ... Their
model remains unsophisticated, impracticable and undemocratic ... Their
recommendations are educationally and socially dysfunctional and should not be
part of school reform in a democracy. (Coffield 2012).

Strong stuff indeed, but in my view not undeserved. Stepping back from reports like those
from McKinsey, Ofsted and Oates, there are wider concerns about the current official
discourse of international comparison.

First, it has become dangerously over-politicised. Between 1997 and 2010 TIMSS and PISA
data were enlisted to prove the success of the UK Labour government’s drive to raise
standards in English schools. Then in 2010 there was a general election which Labour lost.
Their successors immediately used PISA 2009 to show that far from rising, student
performance had ‘plummeted’ (Young, 2010). In Parliament, the Education Secretary
summarised England’s PISA performance in nine words: ‘Literacy, down; numeracy, down;
science, down: fail, fail, fail’. This pessimistic reading of PISA was then used to justify major
policy changes of which cutting back the national curriculum is just one.

However, after re-analysing the TIMSS and PISA data John Jerrim (2011) of London
University’s Institute of Education concluded that they neither justify such alarmist claims
nor provide a safe evidential basis for sweeping policy changes. Earlier studies
commissioned by the Cambridge Primary Review had come to a comparable conclusion
about Labour’s overly optimistic spin on the international and national test data (Tymms et
al 2010, Whetton et al 2010).

It seems only fair to ask how far, and in how many countries, PISA is being exploited or
manipulated for political purposes.

Second, PISA assesses the attainment of 15 year olds in aspects of reading, mathematics and
science. Its spectrum of ‘key competencies’, though undoubtedly essential, is also quite
limited. OECD itself acknowledges this, saying that PISA covers just ‘some of the knowledge

9

and skills that are essential for full participation in society’. (OECD 2012). OECD is right, and
governments should pay attention: PISA tests what it tests. PISA is not a proxy for the whole
of a child’s education. It is not a sufficient basis for describing an education system as a whole
as ‘high performing’ or ‘failing’. But McKinsey and other influential Type II studies are
premissed on precisely this inference, as of course are newspaper headlines of the kind I
quoted earlier.

Third, those who claim a simple cause-effect relationship between, on the one hand, whole
class teaching, standardised textbooks or a curriculum prescribing ‘essential knowledge in
key subjects’ and, on the other hand, the capacity to outperform other countries in TIMSS
and PISA, risk false correlation, or the philosophers’ ‘fallacy of division’. X may well be a
common feature of high-performing education systems a, b, c, d and e, but that doesn’t
demonstrate a cause-effect relationship between feature and performance. And if x is also a
common feature of low-performing systems g, h, i, j and k, then the claimed correlation is
clearly inadmissible. In fact, to stay with these examples, whole class teaching, standardised
textbooks and a prescribed curriculum concentrating on what is deemed ‘essential
knowledge in the key subjects’ are all international defaults, featuring in low-performing
systems as well as high (Benavot et al 1991, Benavot 2008, Alexander 2008, chapter 2).

Fourth, although much is made of Finland, politically inconvenient truths about Finland’s
success may be ignored. Scandinavia’s own experts tell us that Finland’s TIMMS and PISA
performance reflects a culture that has an exceptionally high regard for literacy, a highly
trained, well trusted and autonomous teaching profession, an unshakeable commitment to
social and educational equity, a successful comprehensive school system, and close
alignment not of so-called ‘control factors’ like testing, textbooks and inspection but of public
policy in education, the economy, employment and social welfare. (Lyytinen 2002,
Fredriksson 2006, Sahlberg 2011). And there’s something else: Pasi Sahlberg’s argues that the
political and professional climate must above all be characterised by trust, something which
is in very short supply indeed in British political life. Further, trust must be omni-directional:
governments must trust teachers, and we must all be able to trust our governments and the
evidence they cite in support of their policies. ‘Trust can only flourish in an environment
that is built upon honesty, confidence, professionalism and good governance ... Trusting
schools and teachers is a consequence of a well-functioning civil society.’ (Sahlberg 2011, 130-
1, my italics). In this matter, Britan’s complacent and imperfect democracy has a very long
way to go.

Fifth, and perversely, having praised the Scandinavian model some governments then go on
to copy the Anglo-Saxon one, hence high stakes testing, punitive inspection and the
marketisation of schooling – strategies which Finland has explicitly rejected and which, as
has been shown by Diane Ravitch, Sharon Nichols, David Berliner and others in the United
States (Ravitch 2010, Nichols and Berliner 2007, Ravitch 2012) and by the Cambridge Primary
Review in England (Alexander 2010b, Alexander et al 2010), generate considerable collateral
damage while not necessarily delivering on standards. Why? Is it that political imperatives
outweigh all others and policymakers believe they must not only act but be seen to act, and
while the evidence suggests the need for more grass-roots support and professional trust,
what plays better with voters is the promise of tough action in the form of top-down
regulation? Or is it simply that in a contest between evidence and political ideology,
ideology always wins? So much for evidence-based policy.

Finally, once we move beyond the restricted range of system and school variables deployed
in Type II studies, we encounter wider social, cultural, demographic and economic
conditions which directly and massively influence the educational performance of a

10

country’s students. While McKinsey rightly concludes that teachers and teaching make a
considerable difference, extra-educational factors like country size, per capita GDP,
demographic homogeneity and relative equality correlate no less convincingly with PISA
performance. A glance at the top end of the PISA league tables shows that the systems in
question are mostly small, rich or preferably both. To these factors, according to Wilkinson
and Pickett, we must add equality and equity:

Greater equality, as well as improving the wellbeing of the whole population, is also
the key to national standards of achievement and how countries perform in many
different fields ... If ... a country wants higher average levels of educational
achievement among its school children, it must address the underlying inequality
which creates a steeper social gradient in educational achievement. (Wilkinson and
Pickett 2010, 29-30)

Interestingly, after PISA 2009 OECD confirmed the significance of equity as a factor in
national performance, (OECD 2010c, OECD 2010d, 9-11) though on this vital matter the
Type 2 studies I have exemplified are all strangely silent. Perhaps this is because for
politicians in Britain and the United States, which are among the most unequal of all the
OECD nations and where the gap between rich and poor continues to widen, this is the most
inconvenient truth of all. (Alexander 2010a).

Making better use of international comparison

Once one entertains a wider range of explanatory factors in international student
achievement the possibilities for genuinely useful international comparison increase
dramatically.

For example, in 2007 UNICEF published a study placing the UK at the bottom of a league
table of children’s wellbeing in 21 rich nations, using indicators for income, health and
safety, family and peers, behaviour and risk, and of course education, plus one for the
subjective judgement of children themselves. (UNICEF 2007). A follow-up study explored
the reasons for Britain’s poor showing in the 2007 study by comparing the UK, Spain and
Sweden. (UNICEF 2011). It concluded that a materialistic and commercial culture is much
more deeply embedded in the UK and in its parenting practices than in Spain or Sweden,
and that this culture reinforces inequality, adversely affects family time and relationships,
and overall has a negative impact on children’s wellbeing. Since we know that the maps of
student attainment and social equity broadly coincide, we have in such studies clues to how
schooling, through the values and relationships it fosters as well as through its quality of
teaching, might raise the standards of both attainment and wellbeing.

Staying with wellbeing, here’s another example. My Cambridge colleague John Gray has
recently completed a meta-analysis of international data on adolescent wellbeing. This shows
that while Netherlands and Finland both rank high on PISA, Dutch students are happier at
school than their Finnish contemporaries (both countries are represented here tonight so I
hope this doesn’t cause a diplomatic incident). Gray also argues that McKinsey-style
comparisons between the UK and Hong Kong or Singapore are pointless because the
cultures are so different and the educational systems are not remotely comparable in scale
(England has 23,000 schools while Singapore has just 350). He therefore suggests that if
England really wishes to use international comparison for policy transfer it should look not
at Hong Kong, Singapore or even Finland, but at the Netherlands, because this country is
successful in the interlocking areas of attainment and wellbeing and it is not too different
demographically and culturally from the UK. (Gray et al 2011).

11

Another Cambridge colleague takes a different but no less intriguing view. Like myself and
John Gray, David Hargreaves sees culture as central to the understanding of differences in
educational structure, content, process and outcome, but doesn’t follow Gray’s line on how
we should act on that understanding. For Hargreaves, the world’s educational and economic
centre of gravity in the 21st century will be China, and since Shanghai-China outperforms
other countries in PISA it is essential that we investigate what it is about Chinese culture that
accounts for this. This inevitably leads him to the resilience and pervasiveness of
Confucianism, whose values he suggests might profitably inform our own schools’ collective
identity and their approach to self-improvement. (Hargreaves 2011).

Then there’s the important line of research currently being pursued by Yariv Feniger and
Adam Lefstein (2012) in Israel. Feniger and Lefstein are deeply critical of what they call the
‘education systems hypothesis’ that informs McKinsey and some other influential studies I
have referred to – and indeed the commentaries of PISA boss Andreas Schleicher himself
(Feniger and Lefstein 2012, 1, Schleicher and Stewart 2008) - on the grounds that it attributes
too much to policy ‘levers’ like high stakes testing and too little to history and culture. They
argue that if randomised control experiments were possible in this area then they would
support the alternative ‘cultural-historical’ hypothesis about what has the greatest impact on
student attainment. They test the hypothesis by taking immigrant children - those who were
either born in the host country or immigrated there before starting school - and comparing
their test scores with those of their indigenous peers from both their host and their source
countries. Looking at children of Turkish and Chinese origin, that is children whose source
countries perform very differently in PISA, Feniger and Lefstein show that ‘the mean
achievement of immigrants is closer to students in their country of origin than to students in
their host country.’ The decisive factor, then, is culture, especially as it bears on parental
attitudes, values and expectations, but culture also perhaps as magnified by the pedagogy of
the host countries, whose teachers have heard a great deal about high-achieving East Asian
students and raise their expectations accordingly.

And so to pedagogy, the missing ingredient in the McKinsey reports and the point at which
culture and policy together exert their greatest leverage on student learning processes and
outcomes. Over the past decade I have been trying to apply the findings about pedagogy
that came from my own international comparative studies in England, France, India, Russia
and the United States. These studies culminated in a comparative analysis of classroom talk:
a double culmination, because it is through language, and especially spoken language, that
both culture and pedagogy are mediated. Out of this work, and linking to the now extensive
international body of research on effective classroom talk, I have developed a particular
approach to dialogic teaching (Alexander 2008a, 2008b) on which I have worked extensively
with teachers in the UK and other countries. Time doesn’t permit me to go into detail, but in
the context of seeking alternative ways of using international evidence to improve the
quality of education the simple maxim I would propose to you is this: look for the principles
that underpin effective educational practices observed elsewhere, don’t merely copy the practice. For
once they have been made explicit these principles can then be discussed, debated,
domesticated and re-applied – or not. In education, policies and practices are local and
context-bound, but their underlying principles – whether of effective teaching, school
leadership or good governance – have a chance of being universal.

Which is what some of us explored in Pittsburgh last September, at an international
conference sponsored by the American Educational Research Association (AERA), and
organised by Lauren Resnick of Pittsburgh University and Christa Asterhan of the Hebrew
University in Jerusalem. This event brought together international researchers on linguistic

12

and cognitive development, pedagogy and classroom talk. The conference judged that we
now have a critical mass of evidence demonstrating that classroom talk that is well-
structured, reciprocal and cognitively challenging, and which immerses the student in a
subject’s distinctive conceptual and linguistic architecture and modes of enquiry, reasoning
and argument, has a clear and positive impact on student attainment in language,
mathematics and science as assessed by conventional tests. (Resnick, Asterhan, Clarke and
Hofkens 2012). Further, and critical in relation to my concerns, although the circumstances
and practices of schools and classrooms may vary considerably both within and across
cultures, the principles of educationally productive talk appear to travel without too much
difficulty from one classroom and culture to another.

And in England where has this led? Well, I can tell you that the international evidence on
spoken language has been formally summarised for the UK government. I even persuaded
DfE to hold a high-level seminar on the matter, five months ago, attended by the Minister
with videolinks to top researchers in the United States. The case was powerfully made – and
ignored. In the national curriculum proposals published on 11 June the profile of spoken
English is even lower than in the current national curriculum. Why? The Minister said he
didn’t want to do anything to encourage ‘idle chatter’ in class.

Conclusion: where there is no vision ...

These are just a few examples of alternative kinds of learning from international educational
comparison. There are many others (Alexander et al 1999, 2000). It seems to me that PISA
panic, PISA-driven regulation, and the narrowing of the evidential and explanatory
frameworks for international comparison all demonstrate not only a catastrophic loss of
judgement and trust but also a serious decline in national self-belief. They also reduce our
options for learning from international comparison. The trend, therefore, impoverishes our
educational vision. And ‘Where there is no vision ... ‘ (you know how that proverb ends).2

This is the year of PISA 2012. Here in conclusion are a few questions about vision that we
might ask ourselves, and our governments, when once again PISA panic threatens to
overwhelm us.

Certain countries consistently do well in the international tests of student attainment. But
what else do their students learn? Do these countries provide their children with an
education which is about significantly more than passing tests in two or three subjects? And
if the wider curriculum in top-performing TIMSS or PISA systems were to be measured as
assiduously as reading, mathematics and science are measured, would the same countries
still head the league table?

Is it not at least possible that this whole current PISA-led obsession does a grave injustice to
those countries, schools and teachers that care no less passionately about educational
standards but for whom standards mean more than test performance? Ultimately, therefore,
are we doing an injustice, in the otherwise commendable cause of raising standards, to the
cause of education itself?

‘World class’ education is the claim of governments, businesses, schools and universities
everywhere, even though by now they must surely know that the phrase has become almost

2 Proverbs, 29,18. The translators of the King James Bible published in England in 1611 gave us ‘Where
there is no vision, the people perish.’ This was what I refer to and it is apt enough for my purpose.
However, I have been reliably informed that the original Hebrew is more correctly translated as ‘Where
there is no vision, the people become unruly’. High-handed education ministers should take note.

13

meaningless (Alexander 2010a). Almost meaningless but not quite, for while ‘world class’
has little substance it signals a clear enough goal: outperforming other schools and countries.
The goal is uncomplicatedly supremacist: how, in McKinsey’s words, to ‘come out on top.’
But in a world facing the crises of climate change, resource depletion, over-population,
environmental degradation and economic and geopolitical instability, is this really how
‘world class’ education should be defined? Should we not consider the merits of ‘world class’
as sustaining the world rather than beating it? As fostering international interdependence
and co-operation rather than national supremacy? Whatever happened to education’s moral
purposes?

A world class educational vision needs to be matched by a world class approach to defining
and assessing educational performance, whether of students, schools or nations. Is our
account of educational performance consistent with what education should be about? I don’t
think so. It is no longer acceptable to attend only to what can be measured, or to presume
that what is measured can validly serve as proxies for education as a whole, or to claim that
our children deserve a broad and rich education but then give the lie to this claim by
assessing only what is testable in literacy, mathematics and science and ignoring the rest.

In this context note the assertion in the first McKinsey report: ‘Top-performing systems
recognise that they cannot improve what they do not measure’ (Barber and Mourshed 2007,
36). Really? We cannot improve what we do not measure? Try telling that not just to any
teacher or parent but also to any artist, writer, philosopher, religious leader or ordinary
citizen who strives to improve their thinking, their understanding, their conduct, their lives,
and the lives of others – or for that matter anyone who lives outside the bubbles of policy
and performativity. Did we learn nothing from the fierce debates about instructional and
expressive educational objectives during the 1960s and 1970s? (Popham et al 1969, Eisner
1997). Why, when we come to define and assess educational performance, are so many of us
still stuck in the nineteenth century?

I stress one more time that the problem isn’t PISA or TIMSS but what people do with them;
though perhaps, in view of the rapid worldwide increase in what we might call PISA abuse
the tests should carry a similar warning to what appears on cigarette packets in Britain: ‘This
product may damage your nation’s educational health.’ Further, even though government
analysts ought to have the wit to caution against the kind of response that has now become
so familiar, OECD must accept some of the responsibility because it presents so much of the
data in league table form.

The year of PISA 2012, I suggest and hope, is the year when we recover a sense of proportion
and perspective about what these international achievement surveys tell us and what –
perhaps even more important - they do not and cannot tell us. We must also recognise the
evidential bias, methodological weakness and simplistic thinking in those Type II cause-
effect comparative data extrapolations which have had far greater political influence than
they deserve. We must much more fully exploit the riches of those other kinds of
comparative evidence which in recent decades governments have ignored. We must develop
an account of educational progress and performance which doesn’t arbitrarily restrict itself
to what can be measured. And we must replace the rampantly supremacist or narrowly
nationalist view of education by a vision which is more in tune with the true complexities of
globalisation, with the perilous condition of our world and with the needs of the world’s
children.

© 2012 Robin Alexander
Correspondence: rja40@cam.ac.uk
http://www.robinalexander.org.uk

14

For information about the Cambridge Primary Review: http://www.primaryreview.org.uk
REFERENCES

Alexander R.J., Broadfoot P., Phillips D. (ed) (1999) Learning from Comparing: new directions in
comparative educational research, Volume I: Contexts, Classrooms and Outcomes, Oxford: Symposium
Books.

Alexander, R.J., Osborn, M., Phillips, D. (ed) (2000) Learning from Comparing: new directions in
comparative educational research, Volume II: Policy, Professionals and Development, Oxford: Symposium
Books.

Alexander, R.J. (2001) Culture and Pedagogy: international comparisons in primary education, Oxford:
Blackwell.

Alexander, R.J. (2008a) Essays on Pedagogy, Abingdon: Routledge.

Alexander, R.J. (2008b) Towards Dialogic Teaching: rethinking classroom talk, York: Dialogos.

Alexander, R.J. (2008c) Education for All, the Quality Imperative and the Problem of Pedagogy (CREATE
Research Monograph 20), Universities of Sussex and London, with the Department for International
Development: Consortium for Research on Educational Access, Transitions and Equity.
http://www.create-rpc.org/pdf_documents/PTA20.pdf .

Alexander, R.J. (2010a) ‘ “World class schools” – noble aspiration or globalised hokum?’, BAICE
Presidential Address at the 10th UKFIET Conference on Education and Development, Compare 40(6),
801-817.

Alexander, R.J. (ed) (2010) Children, their World, their Education: final report and recommendations of the
Cambridge Primary Review, Abingdon: Routledge.

Alexander, R.J., Doddington, C., Gray, J., Hargreaves, L. and Kershner, R. (ed) (2010) The Cambridge
Primary Review Research Surveys, Abingdon: Routledge.

Barber, M. and Mourshed, M. (2007) How the World’s Best-Performing School Systems Come Out on Top,
Dubai: McKinsey and Company.

Barber, M., Whelan, F., Clark, M. (2011) Capturing the Leadership Premium: how the world’s top school
systems are building leadership capacity for the future, Dubai: McKinsey and Company.

Benavot, A. (2008) ‘The organisation of school knowledge: official curricula in global perspective’, in
Resnick, J. (ed) The Production of Knowledge in the Global Era, Rotterdam and Taipei: Sense Publishers.

Benavot, A., Cha, Y-K., Kames, D., Meyer, J.W., Wong, S-Y (1991), ‘Knowledge for the masses: world
models and national curricula, 1920-1986’, American Sociological Review, 56.

Bernstein, B. (1970) ‘Education cannot compensate for society’, New Society, 26 February, 344-7.

Bloom, K. (2010) ‘Shanghai kids the world’s smartest’, Daily Maverick (South Africa), 9 December.

Boyer, E.L. (1983) High School: a report on secondary education in America, New York: Harper & Row, p.
6, quoted in H.J. Noah ‘The use and abuse of comparative education’, in Altbach, P.G., Kelly, G.P. (ed)
New Approaches to Comparative Education, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Coffield, F. (2012) ‘Why the McKinsey reports will not improve school systems’, Journal of Education
Policy, 27(1), 131-149.

Department for Education (2010) Remit for the Review of the National Curriculum in England, London:
DfE.

15

Department for Education (2011a) The Framework for the National Curriculum: a report by the Expert Panel
for the National Curriculum Review, London: DfE.

Department for Education (2011b) Review of the National Curriculum in England: report on subject breadth
in international jurisdictions, London: DfE.

Department for Education (2012) ‘National Curriculum Review’, letter from the Secretary of State
accompanying the draft programmes of study for English, mathematics and science, 11 June.

Eisner, E.W. (1997) The Enlightened Eye: qualitative inquiry and the enhancement of educational practice, (2nd
edition), New York: Merrill Publishing Company, 199.

Feniger, Y. and Lefstein, A. (2012) ‘Education policy, culture and maths achievement: immigration as a
“natural experiment” ‘, unpublished article.

Fredriksson, P. (2006) ‘What is so special about education in Finland?’ Paper for the EU Presidency
Conference, Helsinki.

Gage, N. (1978) The Scientific Basis of the Art of Teaching, New York: Teacher’s College Press.

Gray, J., Galton, M., McLaughlin, C., Clarke, B. and Symonds, J. (2011) The Supportive School: wellbeing
and the young adolescent, Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Hargreaves, D.H. (2011) A Self-Improving School System in International Context, Nottingham: National
College for School Leadership.

Hartman, B. (2010) ‘PISA test results show colossal failure of Israel schools’, Jerusalem Post, 9
December.

Heath, S.B. and Street, B.V. (2008) Ethnography: approaches to language and literacy research, London and
New York: Routledge and Teachers College Press.

Jerrim, J. (2011) England’s ‘plummeting’ PISA test scores between 2000 and 2009: is the performance of our
secondary school pupils really in decline? DoQSS Working Paper 11-09, Institute of Education, University
of London.

Klosermann R and Wolff K (2010) Die Bild, http://www.bild.de/regional/hamburg/pisa/was-
machen-die-sachsen-besser-6509694.bild.html (accessed July 2012)

Li, J. (2012) Cultural Foundations of Learning: east and west, New York: Cambridge University Press.

Loveys, K. (2010) in Mail Online on Sunday, 8 December, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-
1336410/OECD-condemns-British-education-inferior-Estonias.html

Lyytinen, H.K. (2002) ‘Why are Finnish students doing so well in PISA?’ Paris: OECD.

Mourshed, M., Chijioke, C., Barber, M. (2010) How the World’s Most Improved School Systems Keep
Getting Better, Dubai: McKinsey and Company.

National Research Council (2003) Understanding Others, Educating Ourselves: getting more from
international comparative studies in education (C.Chabott and E.J.Eliott, editors), Washington DC: The
National Academies Press, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309088550

News Wales (2010) Anonymous article, 7 December,
http://www.newswales.co.uk/index.cfm?section=Education&F=1&id=20259

16

Oates, T. (2010) Could Do Better? Using international comparisons to refine the national curriculum in
England, Cambridge Assessment.

OECD (2010a) PISA 2009 Results: learning trends, Paris: OECD.

OECD (2010b) PISA 2009 Results: what makes a school successful? Paris: OECD.

OECD (2010c) PISA 2009 Results. Overcoming social background: equity in learning opportunities and
outcomes (Volume II), Paris: OECD

OECD (2010d) PISA 2009 Results: executive summary, Paris: OECD.

OECD (2011a) PISA 2009 Results: quality time for students – learning in and out of school, Paris OECD.

OECD (2011b) PISA 2009 Results: against the odds, Paris: OECD.

OECD (2012) ‘What PISA assesses’,
http://www.pisa.oecd.org/pages/0,3417,en_32252351_32235918_1_1_1_1_1,00.html
(accessed February 2012).

Nichols, S. and Berliner, D.C. (2008) Collateral Damage: how high-stakes testing corrupts America’s schools,
Cambridge MA: Harvard Education Press.

Osborn, M., Broadfoot, P., McNess, E., Planel, C., Ravn B. and Triggs, P. (2003) A World of Difference?
Comparing learners across Europe, Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Popham, W.J., Eisner, E.W., Sullivan, H.J., Tyler, L.L. (1969) Instructional Objectives (AERA Monograph
Series on Curriculum Evaluation 3), Chicago: Rand McNally.

President’s Committee on the Arts and the Humanities (2011) Reinvesting in Arts Education: winning
America’s future through creative schools, Washington, DC: President’s Committee on the Arts and the
Humanities.

Raffe, D. (2011) ‘Policy borrowing or policy learning? How (not) to improve education systems’, CES
Briefing, 57.

Ravitch, D. (2010) The Death and Life of the Great American School System, New York: Basic Books.

Ravitch, D. (2012) Diane Ravitch’s Blog, http://dianeravitch.net/

Resnick, L.B., Asterhan, C., Clarke, C. and Hofkens, T. (eds) (2012, forthcoming)Socializing Intelligence
[papers from the September 2011 AERA conference ‘Socializing intelligence through academic talk
and dialogue’ held at the University of Pittsburgh], Washington DC: AERA.

Reynolds, D. and Farrell, S. (1996) Worlds Apart? A review of international surveys of educational
achievement involving England, London: Ofsted.

Robinson, P. (1999) ‘The tyranny of league tables: international comparisons of educational attainment
and economic performance’. In R.J.Alexander, P.Broadfoot, D.Phillips (ed) (1999) Learning from
Comparing: new directions in comparative educational research. Volume I: Contexts, Classrooms and
Outcomes. Oxford: Symposium Books, 217-235.

Rollot, C. and de Vergès, M. (2007) in Le Monde, 4 December,
http://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2007/12/04/la-france-paralysee-devant-ses-mauvais-
resultats-scolaires_985481_3224.html (accessed July 2012)

17

Sadler, M. [1900] ‘How can we learn anything of practical value from the study of foreign systems of
education?’ In J.H.Higginson (ed) Selections from Michael Sadler: studies in world citizenship. Liverpool:
Dejall and Meyorre.

Sahlberg, P. (2011), Finnish Lessons: what can the world learn from educational change in Finland? Teachers
College Press

Schleicher, A. (2009) ‘Wie einer auszog, das Lernen zu messen: was den PISA-Erfinder Andreas
Schleicher austreibt’, Geowissen 44/2009, http://www.buecherkiste.org/-epaper-geowissen-442009-
die-ideale-schule (accessed May 2012).

Schleicher, A. and Stewart, V. (2008) ‘Learning from world-class schools’, Educational Leadership 66(8).

Tobin, J.J., Hsueh, Y., Karasawa, M. (2009) Preschool in Three Cultures Revisited, Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.

Tobin, J.J., Wu, D.Y.H., Davidson, D.H. (1989) Preschool in Three Cultures: Japan, China and the United
States, New Haven: Yale University Press.

Tymms, P. and Merrell C. (2010) ‘Standards and quality in English primary schools over time: the
national evidence’, in Alexander, R.J., Doddington, C., Gray, J., Hargreaves, L. and Kershner, R. (ed),
The Cambridge Primary Review Research Surveys, Routledge, 435-460.

UNICEF (2007) Child Poverty in Perspective: an overview of child well-being in rich countries, Innocenti
Report Card 7, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre.

UNICEF (2011) Child Well-being in the UK, Spain and Sweden: the role of inequality and materialism,
London: UNICEF UK.

Whetton, C., Ruddock, G. and Twist, L. (2010) ‘Standards in English primary education: the
international evidence’, in Alexander, R.J., Doddington, C., Gray, J., Hargreaves, L. and Kershner, R.
(ed) The Cambridge Primary Review Research Surveys, Routledge, 461-483.

Wilkinson, R. and Pickett, K. (2010). The Spirit Level: why equality is better for everyone, London: Penguin.

Wolf, A. (2002) Does Education Matter? Myths about education and economic growth, London: Penguin
Books.

Young, T. (2010) ‘British schoolchildren now ranked 23rd in the world, down from 2012th in 2000’,
Daily Telegraph, 7 December.

Making better use of international comparisons in education

More Related Content

What's hot (19)

Similar to Making better use of international comparisons in education (20)

More from Francis Gilbert (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

Making better use of international comparisons in education