Mayer Multimedia

Multimedia Learning Richard E. Mayer Department of Psychology University of California Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9660 [email_address] Collaborators Richard B. Anderson James Lester Robert Atkinson Steven Lonn Julie Campbell Patricia Mautone Paul Chandler Sarah Mayer Dorothy Chun Roxana Moreno Gayle Dow Harold O’Neil, Jr. Joan Gallini Jan Plass Shannon Harp Hiller Spires Julie Heiser Valerie Sims

Multimedia Learning The Promise of Multimedia Learning Multimedia Instructional Messages A Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning Principles of Multimedia Learning Summary

Take-Home Message People learn better when multimedia messages are designed in ways that are consistent with how the human mind works and with research-based principles.

Three Views of Multimedia View Definition Example Delivery media Two or more Computer screen and delivery devices amplified speakers Presentation modes Verbal and pictorial On-screen text and representations animation Sensory modalities Auditory and visual Narration and animation senses

Two Approaches to Multimedia Design Approach Starting point Goal Issues Technology- Capabilities of Provide How can we use centered multimedia access to cutting edge technology information technology in designing multimedia presentations? Learner- How the human Aid to How can we adapt centered mind works human multimedia technology cognition to aid human cognition?

Two Metaphors of Multimedia Learning Metaphor Definition Learner Teacher Goal of Media Information Adding Passive Information Deliver acquisition information information provider information; to memory receiver act as delivery vehicle Knowledge Building a Active Cognitive Provide construction coherent sense guide cognitive mental maker guidance; act structure as helpful communicator

Two Goals of Multimedia Learning Goal Definition Test Example test item Remembering Ability to reproduce Retention Write down all you or recognize can remember from presented material the passage you just read. Understanding Ability to use Transfer List some ways to presented material improve the in novel situations reliability of the device you just read about.

Three Kinds of Multimedia Learning Outcomes Learning Cognitive Retention Transfer outcome description test score test score No learning No knowledge Poor Poor Rote learning Fragmented Good Poor knowledge Meaningful Integrated Good Good learning knowledge

Two Kinds of Active Learning Does not foster meaningful learning outcome Low Level of Cognitive Activity Fosters meaningful learning outcome High Fosters meaningful learning outcome Does not foster meaningful learning outcome Level of Behavioral Activity Low High

Freezing level Ice crystals Water droplets Updrafts Warm moist air 1. Warm moist air rises, water vapor condenses and forms a cloud. 3. Negatively charged particles fall to the bottom of the cloud. Negatively charged particles Positively charged particles Branches 4. Two leaders meet, negatively charged particles rush from the cloud to the ground. Stepped leader Upward-moving leader 5. Positively charged particles from the ground rush upward along the same path. Return stroke Downdrafts Hailstones Raindrops Updrafts 2. Raindrops and ice crystals drag air downward. Wind gusts

“ Cool moist air moves over a warmer surface and becomes heated.” “ Warmed moist air near the earth’s surface rises rapidly.” “ As the air in this updraft cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets and forms a cloud.” “ The cloud’s top extends above the freezing level, so the upper portion of the cloud is composed of tiny ice crystals.” “ Eventually, the water droplets and ice crystals become too large to be suspended by the updrafts.” “ As raindrops and ice crystals fall through the cloud, they drag some of the air in the cloud downward, producing downdrafts.” “ When downdrafts strike the ground, they spread out in all directions, producing the gusts of cool wind people feel just before the start of the rain.” “ Within the cloud, the rising and falling air currents cause electrical charges to build.”

“ The charge results from the collision of the cloud’s rising water droplets against heavier, falling pieces of ice.” “ The negatively charged particles fall to the bottom of the cloud, and most of the positively charged particles rise to the top.” “ A positively charged leader travels up from such objects as trees and buildings.” “ The two leaders generally meet about 165-feet above the ground.” “ Negatively charged particles then rush from the cloud to the ground along the path created by the leaders. It is not very bright.” “ As the leader stroke nears the ground, it induces an opposite charge, so positively charged particles from the ground rush upward along the same path.” “ This upward motion of the current is the return stroke. It produces the bright light that people notice as a flash of lightning.” “ A stepped leader of negative charges moves downward in a series of steps. It nears the ground.”

Retention and Transfer Questions for the Lightning Lesson Retention Test Please write down all you can remember about how lightning works. Transfer Test What could you do to reduce the intensity of lightning? Suppose you see clouds in the sky but no lightning. Why not? What does air temperature have to do with lightning? What causes lightning?

Retention and Transfer Questions for the Brakes Lesson Retention Test Please write down all you can remember about how a car’s braking system works. Transfer Test Why do brakes get hot? What could be done to make brakes more reliable--that is, to make sure they would not fail? What could be done to make brakes more effective--that is, to reduce the distance needed bring a car to a stop? Suppose you press on the brake pedal in your car but the brakes don’t work. What could have gone wrong? What happens when you pump the brakes (i.e., press the pedal and release the pedal repeatedly and rapidly)?

HANDLE As the rod is pulled out, air passes through the piston PISTON INLET VALVE OUTLET VALVE HOSE and fills the area between the piston and the outlet valve. the inlet valve closes As the rod is pushed in, and the piston forces air through the outlet valve.

“ When the handle is pulled up, the piston moves up, the inlet valve opens, the outlet valve closes, and air enters the lower part of the cylinder.” “ When the handle is pushed down, the piston moves down, the inlet valve closes, the outlet valve opens, and air moves out through the hose.”

Retention and Transfer Questions for the Pump Lesson Retention Test Please write down all you can remember about how a bicycle tire pump works. Transfer Test What could be done to make a pump more reliable--that is, to make sure it would not fail? What could be done to make a pump more effect--that is, to make it move more air more rapidly? Suppose you push down and pull up the handle of a pump several times but no air comes out. What could have gone wrong? Why does air enter a pump? Why does air exit from a pump?

Three Assumptions of a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning Assumption Description Dual Humans possess separate channels for processing channels visual and auditory information. Limited Humans are limited in the amount of information capacity that they can process in each channel at one time. Active Humans engage in active learning by attending to processing relevant incoming information, organizing selected information into coherent mental representations, and integrating mental representations with other knowledge.

A Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

WORKING MEMORY Pictorial Model Pictures integrating LONG-TERM MEMORY selecting images selecting words organizing images organizing words SENSORY MEMORY Eyes Prior Knowledge Prior Knowledge MULTIMEDIA PRESENTATION Images Words Ears Sounds Verbal Model Auditory/Verbal Channel Highlighted

Visual/Pictorial Channel Highlighted WORKING MEMORY Pictorial Model Pictures integrating LONG-TERM MEMORY selecting images selecting words organizing images organizing words SENSORY MEMORY Eyes Prior Knowledge Prior Knowledge MULTIMEDIA Images Words Ears Sounds Verbal Model

Bicycle tire pumps vary in the number and location of the valves they have and in the way air enters the cylinder. Some simple tire pumps have the inlet valve on the piston and the outlet valve at the closed end of the cylinder. A bicycle tire pump has a piston that moves up and down. Air enters the pump near the point where the connecting rod passes through the cylinder. As the rod is pulled out, air passes through the piston and fills the area between the piston and the outlet valve. As the rod is pushed in, the inlet valve closes and the piston forces air through the outlet valve. [italics added]

When the handle is pulled up, the piston moves up, the inlet valve opens, the outlet valve closes and air enters the lower part of the cylinder. When the handle is pushed down, the piston moves down, the inlet valve closes, the outlet valve opens, and air moves out through the hose.

Multimedia effect: People learn better from words and pictures (dark bars) than from words alone (white bars). 20 40 60 80 100 0 Percent correct 20 40 60 80 100 0 Percent correct Narration and animation Narration only Text and illustrations Text only

When the surface of the earth is warm, moist air near the earth’s surface becomes heated and rises rapidly, producing an updraft. As the air in these updrafts cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets and forms a cloud. The cloud’s top extends above the freezing level. At this altitude, the air temperature is well below freezing, so the upper portion of the cloud is composed of tiny ice crystals. Eventually, the water droplets and ice crystals in the cloud become too large to be suspended by updrafts. As raindrops and ice crystals fall through the cloud, they drag some of the air from the cloud downward, producing downdrafts. The rising and falling air currents within the cloud may cause hailstones to form. When downdrafts strike the ground, they spread out in all directions, producing gusts of cool wind people feel just before the start of the rain. Within the cloud, the moving air causes electrical charges to build, although scientists do not fully understand how it occurs. Most believe that the charge results from the collision of the cloud’s light, rising water droplets and tiny pieces of ice against hail and other heavier, falling particles. The negatively charged particles fall to the bottom of the cloud, and most of the positively charged particles rise to the top. The first stroke of a cloud-to-ground lightning flash is started by a stepped leader. Many scientists believe that it is triggered by a spark between the areas of positive and negative charges within the cloud. A stepped leader moves downward in a series of steps, each of which is about 50-yards long, and lasts for about 1 millionth of a second. It pauses between steps for about 50 millionths of a second. As the stepped leader nears the ground, positively charged upward-moving leaders travel up from such objects as trees and buildings, to meet the negative charges. Usually, the upward moving leader from the tallest object is the first to meet the stepped leader and complete a path between the cloud and earth. The two leaders generally meet about 165-feet above the ground. Negatively charged particles then rush from the cloud to the ground along the path created by the leaders. It is not very bright and usually has many branches. As the stepped leader nears the ground, it induces an opposite charge, so positively charged particles from the ground rush upward along the same path. This upward motion of the current is the return stoke and it reaches the cloud in about 70 microseconds. The return stoke produces the bright light that people notice in a flash of lightning, but the current moves so quickly that its upward motion cannot be perceived. The lightning flash usually consists of an electrical potential of hundreds of millions of volts. The air along the lightning channel is heated briefly to a very high temperature. Such intense heating causes the air to expand explosively, producing a sound wave we call thunder.

The first stroke of a cloud-to-ground lightning flash is started by a stepped leader. Many scientists believe that it is triggered by a spark between the areas of positive and negative charges within the cloud. A stepped leader moves downward in a series of steps, each of which is about 50-yards long, and lasts for about 1 millionth of a second. It pauses between steps for about 50 millionths of a second. As the stepped leader nears the ground, positively charged upward-moving leaders travel up from such objects as trees and buildings, to meet the negative charges. Usually, the upward moving leader from the tallest object is the first to meet the stepped leader and complete a path between the cloud and earth. The two leaders generally meet about 165-feet above the ground. Negatively charged particles then rush from the cloud to the ground along the path created by the leaders. It is not very bright and usually has many branches. Two leaders meet, negatively charged particles rush from the cloud to the ground. Branches Stepped leader Upward-moving leader As the stepped leader nears the ground, it induces an opposite charge, so positively charged particles from the ground rush upward along the same path. This upward motion of the current is the return stoke and it reaches the cloud in about 70 microseconds. The return stoke produces the bright light that people notice in a flash of lightning, but the current moves so quickly that its upward motion cannot be perceived. The lightning flash usually consists of an electrical potential of hundreds of millions of volts. The air along the lightning channel is heated briefly to a very high temperature. Such intense heating causes the air to expand explosively, producing a sound wave we call thunder. Positively charged particles from the ground rush upward along the same path. Downdrafts Hailstones Raindrops Updrafts Wind gusts Freezing level Ice crystals Water droplets Updrafts Warm moist air When the surface of the earth is warm, moist air near the earth’s surface becomes heated and rises rapidly, producing an updraft. As the air in these updrafts cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets and forms a cloud. The cloud’s top extends above the freezing level. At this altitude, the air temperature is well below freezing, so the upper portion of the cloud is composed of tiny ice crystals. Warm moist air rises, water vapor condenses and forms a cloud. Eventually, the water droplets and ice crystals in the cloud become too large to be suspended by updrafts. As raindrops and ice crystals fall through the cloud, they drag some of the air from the cloud downward, producing downdrafts. The rising and falling air currents within the cloud may cause hailstones to form. When downdrafts strike the ground, they spread out in all directions, producing gusts of cool wind people feel just before the start of the rain. Raindrops and ice crystals drag air downward. Within the cloud, the moving air causes electrical charges to build, although scientists do not fully understand how it occurs. Most believe that the charge results from the collision of the cloud’s light, rising water droplets and tiny pieces of ice against hail and other heavier, falling particles. The negatively charged particles fall to the bottom of the cloud, and most of the positively charged particles rise to the top. Negatively charged particles fall to the bottom of the cloud. Positively charged particles Negatively charged particles Return stroke

As the air in this updraft cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets and forms a cloud. Separated Presentation As the air in this updraft cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets and forms a cloud. Integrated Presentation

20 40 60 80 100 0 Percent correct Spatial contiguity effect: People learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented near (dark bars) rather than far (white bars) from each other on the page or screen. Integrated text and animation Separated text and animation Integrated text and illustrations Separated text and illustrations

“ Cool moist air moves over a warmer surface and becomes heated. Warmed moist air near the earth’s surface rises rapidly. As the air in this updraft cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets and forms a cloud. “The cloud’s top extends above the freezing level, so the upper portion of the cloud is composed of tiny ice crystals. Eventually, the water droplets and ice crystals become too large to be suspended by the updrafts. As raindrops and ice crystals fall through the cloud, they drag some of the air in the cloud downward, producing downdrafts. When downdrafts strike the ground, they spread out in all directions, producing the gusts of cool wind people feel just before the start of the rain. Within the cloud, the rising and falling air currents cause electrical charges to build….”

100 20 40 60 80 0 Percent correct Temporal contiguity effect: People learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented simultaneously (dark bars) rather than successively (white bars). Simultaneous animation and narration Successive animation and narration

Actual picture of airplane being struck by lightning Metal airplanes conduct lightning, but sustain little damage. Actual picture of lightning fusing sand into the shape of the electricity’s path Lightning fuses sand into the shape of the electricity’s path. Actual picture of a rocket flying into clouds Scientists create lightning by launching tiny rockets. Downdrafts Hailstones Raindrops Updrafts Wind gusts Freezing level Ice crystals Water droplets Updrafts Warm moist air When the surface of the earth is warm, moist air near the earth’s surface becomes heated and rises rapidly, producing an updraft. As the air in these updrafts cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets and forms a cloud. When flying through updrafts, an airplane ride can become bumpy. Metal airplanes conduct lightning very well, but they sustain little damage because the bolt, meeting no resistance, passes right through. The cloud’s top extends above the freezing level. At this altitude, the air temperature is well below freezing, so the upper portion of the cloud is composed of tiny ice crystals. Warm moist air rises, water vapor condenses and forms a cloud. Eventually, the water droplets and ice crystals in the cloud become too large to be suspended by updrafts. As raindrops and ice crystals fall through the cloud, they drag some of the air from the cloud downward, producing downdrafts. When lightning strikes the ground, fulgurites may form, as the heat from the lightning fuses sand into the shape of the electricity’s path. The rising and falling air currents within the cloud may cause hailstones to form. When downdrafts strike the ground, they spread out in all directions, producing gusts of cool wind people feel just before the start of the rain. Raindrops and ice crystals drag air downward. Within the cloud, the moving air causes electrical charges to build, although scientists do not fully understand how it occurs. Most believe that the charge results from the collision of the cloud’s light, rising water droplets and tiny pieces of ice against hail and other heavier, falling particles. In trying to understand these processes, scientists sometimes create lightning by launching tiny rockets into overhead clouds. The negatively charged particles fall to the bottom of the cloud, and most of the positively charged particles rise to the top. Negatively charged particles fall to the bottom of the cloud. Positively charged particles Negatively charged particles

The first stroke of a cloud-to-ground lightning flash is started by a stepped leader. Many scientists believe that it is triggered by a spark between the areas of positive and negative charges within the cloud. A stepped leader moves downward in a series of steps, each of which is about 50-yards long, and lasts for about 1 millionth of a second. It pauses between steps for about 50 millionths of a second. As the stepped leader nears the ground, positively charged upward-moving leaders travel up from such objects as trees and buildings, to meet the negative charges. Golfers are prime targets of lightning strikes because they tend to stand in open grassy fields, or to huddle under trees. Usually, the upward moving leader from the tallest object is the first to meet the stepped leader and complete a path between the cloud and earth. The two leaders generally meet about 165-feet above the ground. Negatively charged particles then rush from the cloud to the ground along the path created by the leaders. It is not very bright and usually has many branches. Actual picture of a golfer Golfers are prime targets of lightning strikes. Two leaders meet, negatively charged particles rush from the cloud to the ground. Branches Stepped leader Upward-moving leader As the stepped leader nears the ground, it induces an opposite charge, so positively charged particles from the ground rush upward along the same path. This upward motion of the current is the return stoke and it reaches the cloud in about 70 microseconds. Approximately 10,000 Americans are injured by lightning every year. Eyewitnesses in Burtonville, Maryland, watched as a bolt of lightning tore a hole in the helmet of a high school football player during practice. The bolt burned his jersey, and blew his shoes off. More than a year later, the young man still won’t talk about his near death experience. The return stoke produces the bright light that people notice in a flash of lightning, but the current moves so quickly that its upward motion cannot be perceived. The lightning flash usually consists of an electrical potential of hundreds of millions of volts. The air along the lightning channel is heated briefly to a very high temperature. Such intense heating causes the air to expand explosively, producing a sound wave we call thunder. Actual picture the football player’s uniform struck by lightning A lightning bolt tore a hole in the helmet of a football player, burned his jersey, and blew his shoes off. Positively charged particles from the ground rush upward along the same path. Return stroke

20 40 60 80 100 0 Percent correct 20 40 60 80 100 0 Percent correct Coherence effect (type 1): People learn better when interesting but irrelevant details are excluded (dark bars) rather than included (white bars). Narrated animation Narrated animation with added details Annotated illustrations Annotated illustrations with added details

Coherence effect (type 2): People learn better when interesting but irrelevant sounds and music are excluded (dark bars) rather than included (white bars). 20 40 60 80 100 0 Percent correct Narrated animation with sounds and music Narrated animation

Coherence effect (type 3): People learn better or just as well when nonessential words are excluded (dark bars) rather than included (white bars). Annotated illustrations Annotated illustrations with added text 20 40 60 80 100 0 Percent correct

“ As the air in this updraft cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets and forms a cloud.” Words as Narration As the air in this updraft cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets and forms a cloud. Words as On-Screen Text

Modality effect: People learn better when words are presented as narration (dark bars) rather than as on-screen text (white bars). Animation with narration Animation with text 20 40 60 80 100 0 Percent correct

“ As the air in this updraft cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets and forms a cloud.” Animation with Narration As the air in this updraft cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets and forms a cloud. Animation with Narration and On-Screen Text “ As the air in this updraft cools, water vapor condenses into water droplets and forms a cloud.”

Redundancy effect: People learn better when words are presented as narration (dark bars) rather than as narration and on-screen text (white bars). Animation with narration Animation with narration and text 20 40 60 80 100 0 Percent correct

Examples as Personalized and Non-Personalized Speech Personalized Speech “ As you watch you tilt your head skyward. Your cloud’s top extends above the freezing level, so the upper portion of your cloud is composed of tiny ice crystals.” Non-Personalized Speech “ The cloud’s top extends above the freezing level, so the upper portion of the cloud is composed of tiny ice crystals.”

There are three phases in respiration: inhaling, exchanging, and exhaling. During inhaling the [your] diaphragm moves down creating more space for the [your] lungs, air enters through the [your] nose or mouth, moves down through the [your] throat and bronchial tubes to tiny air sacs in the [your] lungs. During exchange, oxygen moves from the [your] air sacs to the bloodstream running nearby, and carbon dioxide moves from the bloodstream to the [your] air sacs. During exhaling, the [your] diaphragm moves up creating less room for the [your] lungs, air travels through the [your] bronchial tubes and throat to the [your] nose and mouth where it leaves the [your] body. Script for the Lungs Lesson [with Personalized Version in Brackets and Non-Personalized in Italics ]

Personalization effect: People learn better when words are in conversational style rather than formal style. Percent correct 0 100 50 Personalized Non-personalized

Herman personal “Cool moist air moves over a warmer surface and becomes heated.” Continue

Interactivity effect: People learn better when they have control over the pace of presentation (dark bars) than when they do not (white bars). Percent correct 0 100 50 Interactive Non-interactive

Examples of Signaled and Non-Signaled Speech Signaled Speech Contains heading : “ Wing shape: Curved upper surface is longer.” Emphasizes key information, adds connectives : “The upper surface of the wing is curved more than the bottom surface. Because it’s curved, the surface on the top of the wing is longer than on the bottom .” Non-Signaled Speech Does not contain heading . Does not emphasize key information or add connectives : “The upper surface of the wing is curved more than the bottom surface. The surface on the top of the wing is longer than on the bottom.”

Signaling effect: People learn better when the words include cues about the organization of the presentation (dark bars) rather than no cues (white bars). Percent correct 0 100 50 Signaled Non-signaled

20 40 60 80 100 0 Percent correct High spatial Low spatial Low spatial High spatial Individual differences effect: Strong effects for high spatial ability learners but not for low spatial ability learners. Simultaneous animation and narration Successive animation and narration

Meteorology Questionnaire Please place a check mark next to the items that apply to you: _____ I regularly read the weather maps in a newspaper. _____ I know what a cold from is. _____ I can distinguish between cumulous and nimbus clouds. _____ I know what low pressure is. _____ I can explain what makes wind blow. _____ I know what this symbol means: _____ I know what this symbol means: Please place a check mark indicating your knowledge of meteorology (weather): _____ very much _____ _____ average _____ _____ very little

Car Mechanics Questionnaire Please place a check mark next to the things you have done: _____ I have a driver’s license. _____ I have put air into a car’s tire. _____ I have changed a tire on a car. _____ I have changed the oil in a car. _____ I have installed spark plugs in a car. _____ I have replaced the brake shoes in a car. Please place a check mark indicating your knowledge of car mechanics and repair: _____ very much _____ _____ average _____ _____ very little

Household Repair Questionnaire Please place a check mark next to the things you have done: _____ I own a screw driver. _____ I own a power saw. _____ I have replaced the heads on a lawn sprinkler system. _____ I have replaced the washer in a sink faucet. _____ I have replaced the flush mechanism in a toilet. _____ I have replaced installed plumbing pipes or fixtures. Please place a check mark indicating your knowledge of how to fix household appliances and machines: _____ very much _____ _____ average _____ _____ very little

Individual differences effect: Strong effects for low knowledge learners but not for high knowledge learners. 20 40 60 80 100 0 Percent correct High knowledge Low knowledge High knowledge Low knowledge High knowledge Low knowledge High knowledge Low knowledge Text and illustrations Text only Text and illustrations Text only Text and illustrations Text only Integrated text and illustrations Separated text and illustrations

Research-Based Principles for the Design of Multimedia Messages Multimedia principle: People learn better from words and pictures than from words alone. (9 of 9; ES = 1.50)

Segmenting principle: People learn better when a multimedia lesson is presented in learner-paced segments rather than as a continuous unit. (3 of 3; ES = 1.13) Pre-training principle : People learn better from a multimedia lesson when they know the names and characteristics of the main concepts. (5 of 5; ES = 0.85) Modality principle: People learn better from animation and narration than from animation and on-screen text. (15 of 15; ES = 1.02) Research-Based Principles for the Design of Multimedia Messages: Principles for Managing Essential Processing

Research-Based Principles for the Design of Multimedia Messages: Principles for Reducing Extraneous Processing Coherence principle: People learn better when extraneous words, pictures, and sounds are excluded rather than included. (11 of 11; ES = 1.32) Redundancy principle: People learn better from animation and narration than from animation, narration, and on on-screen text. (5 of 5; ES = 0.72) Signaling principle: People learn better when the words include cues about the organization of the presentation. (3 of 3; ES = 0.60) Spatial contiguity principle: People learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented near rather than far from each other on the page or screen. (5 of 5; ES = 1.12) Temporal contiguity principle: People learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively. (8 of 8; ES = 1.31)

Research-Based Principles for the Design of Multimedia Messages: Principles Based on Social Cues Personalization principle: People learn better when the words are in conversational style rather than formal style (10 of 10; ES = 1.30) Voice principle : People learn better when words are spoken in a standard-accented human voice than in a machine voice or foreign-accented human voice (4 of 4; ES = 0.79) Image principle : People do not necessarily learn better from a multimedia lesson when the speaker’s image is added to the screen (8 of 8; ES = 0.22)

One Last Principle Individual differences principle: Design effects are stronger for low-knowledge learners than for high-knowledge learners. (4 of 4, ES = 0.80) Design effects are stronger for high-spatial learners than for low-spatial learners. (2 of 2; ES = 1.13)

Conclusions About the Design of Multimedia Learning 1. Theory-based. The design of multimedia messages should be based on a theory of how the human mind works. 2. Research-based. The design of multimedia messages should be based on research findings. Bottom line: People learn better when multimedia messages are designed in ways that are consistent with how the human mind works and with research-based principles.

Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press. Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2003). E-learning and the science of instruction. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mayer, R. E. (2003). Learning and instruction. Upper Saddle River. NJ: Prentice Hall. Mayer, R. E. (Ed.). (in press). Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.

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