McKenna - Dissertation.May 2011

I
EXAMINING THE ADVANCEMENT VIA INDIVIDUAL DETERMINATION
(AVID) PROGRAM USING THE FRAMEWORK OF SOCIAL CAPITAL
THEORY: A CASE STUDY OF THE AVID PROGRAM IN
A HIGH-ACHIEVING, SUBURBAN HIGH SCHOOL
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Temple University
Graduate Board
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
by
Michael R. McKenna
May 2011
Examining Committee Members:
Corrinne Caldwell, Advisory Chair, Educational Administration
James Earl Davis, Interim Dean, Educational Administration
Joseph DuCette, Educational Psychology
Steven Jay Gross, Educational Administration
Erin McNamara Horvat, Urban Education

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©
Copyright
2011
By: Michael R. McKenna
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III
ABSTRACT
Examining the Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID) program using the
framework of social capital theory
A case study of the AVID program in a high-achieving, suburban high school
Michael R. McKenna
Doctor of Education
Temple University 2011
Doctoral Advisory Chair: Corrinne Caldwell, Ph. D.
This qualitative case study examined the Advancement via Individual
Determination (AVID) program in a high-achieving, suburban high school using the
foundation of social capital theory. The researcher investigated how students’
participation in AVID, specifically their relationships with their AVID teacher and other
AVID students, affected their behaviors and achievement in high school along with their
plans for attending a post-secondary institution.
Five years ago, Bill Gates called America’s high schools “obsolete,” and, more
recently, he testified before the Congress that “every student in America should graduate
from high school ready for college, career, and life. “Every child,” Gates stated, “no
exceptions” (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2007). This notion of preparing every
child in America and overcoming their demographics, family backgrounds, and economic
hardships is continuing to burden America’s public high schools. In this era of
accountability, high schools are faced with the monumental undertaking of graduating all
of its students and preparing them for post-secondary success while at the same time
meeting the requirements set forth by the federal mandate No Child Left Behind (NCLB).

IV
To achieve both of these lofty goals, high schools must provide all of its students,
especially those who are labeled at-risk, with an appropriate and rigorous instructional
program coupled with effective safety nets and interventions designed to provide students
with the support they need to be successful academically. Many schools, even those that
are high-achieving and positioned in affluent, suburban communities, have pockets of
students who are in need of additional support from the school setting in order to succeed.
Nationwide, high schools are implementing various programs and intervention
systems to enhance student achievement, improve graduation rates, and increase college
enrollment. One program that has received recent attention and documented success in
numerous high schools is the Advancement via Individual Determination program or
AVID. AVID was created especially for students who have historically failed in the
educational system by providing them with a core of academically challenging courses
and a comprehensive support system at school.
The primary data source for this qualitative study was semi-structured interviews
with 12th
grade AVID students. Additionally, the researcher observed the students on
multiple occasions in their AVID class. These interviews and observations provided an
in-depth look of the AVID program and how it has influenced the students’ educational
experiences during high school.
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to gather the perspective of the
AVID program through the lens of the students who were part of the program. The goal
was to investigate the AVID program with a focus on the students’ acquisition of social
capital in the school setting from adults and their peers. Recently, social capital is
receiving educational policy attention relating to how it can be a collective resource that

V
can facilitate the academic success of students in schools. This study analyzed the AVID
program and the possibility of utilizing the ideas associated with social capital to improve
educational outcomes in a high school setting.
The qualitative nature of the study contributed to the body of literature about the
AVID program by providing data directly from the students’ perspectives and
experiences. This case study was intended to provide insight to other school districts that
are similar in makeup to the one that was studied. The outcome of this study, regarding
the implementation of the AVID program in a high, achieving, suburban high school, can
provide similar schools with information about a possible intervention program to
improve the educational success of at-risk students who have historically failed in the
school setting.

VI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I first would like to thank the AVID students for their participation in this study
and for providing me with their honest feedback regarding the AVID program. It was an
enjoyable experience getting to know each of them personally and to follow them
throughout their senior year as they were applying and getting accepted to various
colleges. Additionally, I would like to thank the AVID teacher, Miss H., for her
cooperation with allowing me meet with her students and observe her AVID classroom.
Through the course of the study, it was clear that she was instrumental in the students’
success and their acceptance to college.
I would also like to thank the faculty in the College of Education for providing me
with a depth of knowledge relating to the field of education. Your wisdom and insight
will continue to influence my decision making in my continued path as an educational
leader. I would especially like to thank Dr. Corrinne Caldwell for her continued support
and valuable feedback throughout this entire process.
Last, I would like to thank my wife for her patience and dedication with all my
educational endeavors. This has been a lengthy process and she has been there to support
me through the years. Also, to my Mom and Dad for instilling in me an “academic
identity” with an appreciation for education and love for learning.

VII
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 3.1 – Student Demographic Information 77
Table 3.2 – College Acceptance and Financial Aid Information 78

VIII
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS VII
LIST OF TABLES VIII
CHAPTER 1…………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Introduction 1
Problem Statement 5
Purpose of the Study 9
Research Questions 10
Definitions 11
Delimitations and Limitations 13
Significance of the Study 15
Theoretical Bases 18
CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW ………...………………………….………..21
Introduction 21
Federal Policies and Increased Accountability in Education 22
Recent Involvement of the Federal Government 25
No Child Left Behind and Meeting AYP for various subgroups 28
Economically disadvantaged students and their achievement in school 29
At-risk students and the achievement gap 35
Impact of Inequality 38
Dropout crisis and Early Intervention Programs 42
Advancement via Individual Determination 51
Social Capital and School Outcomes 56
CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY …………………………………………………....72
Assumptions and Rationale 72
The Role of the Researcher 73
Population and Sample 75
Data Collection 78
Data Analysis 80
Methods of Verification 82
Ethical Issues 83
Outcome of the Study and its Relation to theory and literature 84
CHAPTER 4 – FINDINGS …………………………………………………………....86
Introduction 86

IX
Thematic Summary of Key Findings in the Analysis 100
Theme Number One: Students acquisition of cultural capital as
a result of their participation in the AVID program at WHS 100
Theme Number Two: Students acquisition of social from their
AVID teacher, other AVID students, and the change in their
peers outside of AVID 128
Theme Number Three: Students acquisition of an academic
identity 148
CHAPTER 5 …..............................................................................................................163
Introduction 163
Findings and Interpretations 165
Recommendations 173
Suggestions for Future Research 179
Summary and Conclusions 184
REFERENCES 189
APPENDICES 207
A. Permission to audiotape 207
B. Consent form for parents of students under age 18 210
C. Consent form for students over age 18 213
D. Assent form for students under age 18 216
E. Student Interview Protocol 219
F. AVID Student Selection Rubric 224

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CHAPTER 1
Introduction
This qualitative case study examined the Advancement via Individual
Determination (AVID) program in a high-achieving, suburban high school using the
foundation of social capital theory. The researcher investigated how students’
participation in AVID, specifically their relationships with their AVID teacher and other
AVID students, affected their behaviors and achievement in high school along with their
plans for attending a post-secondary institution.
Five years ago, Bill Gates called America’s high schools “obsolete,” and, more
recently, he testified before the Congress that “every student in America should graduate
from high school ready for college, career, and life. “Every child,” Gates stated, “no
exceptions” (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2007). This notion of preparing every
child in America and overcoming their demographics, family backgrounds, and economic
hardships is continuing to burden America’s public high schools. In this era of
accountability, high schools are faced with the monumental undertaking of graduating all
of its students and preparing them for post-secondary success while at the same time
meeting the requirements set forth by the federal mandate No Child Left Behind (NCLB).
To achieve both of these lofty goals, high schools must provide all of its students,
especially those who are labeled at-risk with an appropriate and rigorous instructional
program coupled with effective safety nets and interventions designed to provide students
with the support they need to be academically successful. Many schools, even those that

2
are high-achieving and positioned in affluent, suburban communities, have pockets of
students who are in need of additional support from their school in order to succeed.
Nationwide, high schools are implementing various programs and intervention
systems to increase student achievement and improve graduation rates. One program that
has received recent attention and documented success in numerous high schools is the
Advancement via Individual Determination program or AVID. AVID was created
especially for students who have historically failed in the educational system by
providing them with a core of academically challenging courses and a comprehensive
support system both at home and at school.
The academic success of individual students is influenced by their personal
characteristics and dispositions. Equally true, however, is that as members of schools,
families, and communities, all students have access to various forms of social support
that can facilitate their success in school. Researchers have increasingly recognized the
importance of social supports for students’ academic success (Goddard, 2003). These
social supports juxtaposed with rigorous academic preparation provide the foundation for
the AVID program.
Furthermore, these social connections are especially critical in communities and
schools where there is a vast disparity in income between families and individuals, such
as the subject high school in this study. This variation in wealth, according to Wilkinson
(2005), can impact social cohesion as “inequality promotes strategies that are more self-
interested, less affiliative, often highly antisocial, more stressful, and likely to give rise to
higher levels of violence, poorer community relations, and worse health” (p. 23).

3
In many instances, the discrepancies in academic achievement between
disadvantaged or at-risk students and their middle-class counterparts is due to the fact
that middle class or privileged students are embedded in the social networks of their
parents, school, and community. In other words, their access to social capital, as a result
of their middle-class family membership, is part of their everyday life and experiences.
Thus, a school intervention system that can improve an at-risk student’s access to social
capital from their peers, school, and families may prove to be extremely powerful.
According to the AVID website (www.AVID.org), AVID is a college-readiness
system designed to increase the proportion of students who enroll in four-year colleges.
Although the AVID program can serve all students, it is designed to focus on the least
served students in the “academic middle” who have historically failed in the educational
setting.
The AVID program began in 1980 at Clairemont High School, a middle-class
suburban high school in San Diego County, California. AVID was developed as a result
of the high school becoming desegregated due to a court-ordered mandate imposed on the
San Diego Unified School District. This desegregation effort resulted in the enrollment
of 500 students from outside of the Clairemont High School District who were primarily
of African American, Latino or Hispanic descent and from low-income households
(Swanson, 1989).
Mary Catherine Swanson, chair of the school’s English department, placed thirty
of the new students in advanced courses to provide them with the same rigorous
curriculum that was available to all students. Although these students lacked the

4
prerequisite coursework for the classes, Swanson provided an AVID elective course in
which students received tutoring to improve writing skills and were taught note-taking
and study skills. The AVID program was so successful in increasing standardized test
scores and securing underrepresented student enrollment in four-year colleges that by
1997 more than 500 high schools and middle schools in eight states and 13 countries had
introduced the program. Currently, the program is implemented in nearly 2,300 schools
across 37 states and 15 countries (AVID Online, 2009).
The study site is Westside High School (WHS), a high-achieving high school in
an affluent, suburban community. WHS started the AVID elective class for selected
students during the 2007-2008 school year. Due to the success of the AVID program in
its first year, the Westside School District moved quickly to expand the program for
2008-2009, thus becoming the only district in its state to adopt the program. The next
year, Westside Middle School and WHS more than doubled the number of students
enrolled in the AVID elective class to include more than 80 students in grades eight
through eleven. The students included in this study were seniors at WHS when this
dissertation was written and had been participating in the AVID program since their
freshman or sophomore year.
Due to AVID’s recent popularity nationwide and its implementation at WHS, the
researcher determined that qualitatively researching the AVID program would provide an
interesting contextual study. The researcher’s objective was to uncover the AVID
program at WHS through the lens of the AVID students to determine if the AVID

5
program supports the students in acquiring social capital in the school setting to improve
their educational success.
Statement of the Problem
When thinking about the school setting as an organization, many will consider the
overall goal of the organization. Many will identify this goal to be “making sure students
are ready to take on today’s modern society” or “preparing students to be successful in a
future occupation.” Or more simply it could be stated as “getting students into a good
college.” With any of these goals, the students are the output or the product ---
apparently coming to the school setting as a “blank slate” and in twelve years are
expected to reach this goal. In many affluent, suburban schools, the students are
somewhat “mass-produced” by an assembly line of teachers starting at kindergarten and
ending in twelfth grade. For many students this assembly-line production, with its
systemic simplicity and lacking of individual differentiation and adaptability, works to
get students through the system and reach the overall goal of the organization. Due to the
educational levels of these students’ parents, combined with the positive influences of
cultural and social capital, students go from grade to grade, from teacher to teacher, and
from high school to college with little distraction and minimal impediments.
However, this is not the case for all students. Some students, with their
disadvantaged backgrounds, do not thrive within this educational system and, in the end,
do not meet the overall goal of the organization. At times, the established school system
fails to address particular student’s individual needs, whether these needs are academic,

6
social, or emotional. The AVID program strives to meet the needs of these students who
historically have failed in the educational setting by providing them with the necessary
support systems at school.
Since the inception of NCLB, there has been an increased focus on educating all
students while at the same time disaggregating data for specific subgroups. Before this
legislation, students in these disaggregated subgroups were identified, but their
achievement data were not tracked nor were they scrutinized. Schools received their
annual testing data, but all of their scores were analyzed together and there was no clear
delineation of achievement between various student subgroups. With the passing of
NCLB, every school’s standardized assessment data are disaggregated, thus every
school’s data showcase how these subgroups achieve in various academic areas. One of
the key components of NCLB is that all subgroups must meet Annual Yearly Progress
(AYP); otherwise schools will face harsh sanctions.
With a spotlight now on the achievement of students in certain subgroups, all
students’ achievement data are now intensely evaluated. As a result, an achievement gap
has become more apparent between students in particular subgroups, mainly between
economically disadvantaged and minority students and their peers. Thus, schools across
the nation are searching for solutions to improve the educational success of their
disaggregated groups. Much of the previous research that has been compiled about these
marginalized groups has studied schools where a majority of the students live in poverty
or schools where most of the students are minority group members. Nonetheless, the
mandates associated with NCLB involve all schools that have a certain amount of

7
students in specific subgroups. Therefore, a significant number of schools nationwide
face meeting AYP requirements for their subgroup population, not just poverty-stricken
schools or schools largely composed of minority students.
As the annual achievement scores for reading and math continue to progress to
the 2014 level of 100%, schools are forced to face the pressures associated with NCLB.
Therefore, schools must determine how to effectively educate ALL of their students so
that every student can achieve a proficient level in these subject areas.
While there are many provisions spanning NCLB’s 670 pages, the act is, at its core,
intended to address and resolve the nation’s chief educational problem . . .closing the
achievement gap within specific marginalized populations. However, these subgroups
are still not meeting the Act’s high achievement standards.
A quarter century ago, the National Commission on Excellence (1983) in
Education gave an ominous warning: The United States of America is at-risk. This report
alluded to the fact that the nation would be overtaken by competitors around the world if
the mediocrity of the American education system was not improved. Nevertheless, the
commissioners noted one bright spot. During the previous thirty years, schools had
become major vehicles for expanded social opportunity and the high school graduation
rate had risen to 75%. Yet, since the publication of this report in 1983, the unimaginable
occurred. Despite growth in knowledge and resources to assist schools, the United States
made virtually no progress in graduating more students from high school, ready for
college, the workforce, and a productive future.

8
According to the United States Department of Education (2006), there is ample
evidence that high schools are not adequately preparing students to compete in the
workforce or succeed in the pursuit of higher education. For every 100 seventeen year-
olds, only 72 high school diplomas are awarded each year. For every 100 young adults,
only 27 will have graduated with a four-year college degree. The ratio for minority
students is even lower. For example, for every 100 black seventeen year-olds, only 64
diplomas are awarded and among 100 black young adults, only 15 get a college degree.
Data from the Alliance for Excellent Education (2009) show that only about 55 percent of
Hispanic students and 51 percent of black students will graduate on time with a regular
diploma, compared to 79 percent of Asian students and 76 percent of white students.
Additionally, high school students of low-income families drop out of high school at six
times the rate of their peers from high-income families.
The benefits of a high school diploma are well documented, thus measures must
be taken to combat low high school graduation rates and to help students reach their
highest educational potential. To achieve these goals, programs are being created to
supplement the high school curriculum. AVID is a specific educational program designed
to identify, recruit, and support students so that they thrive in high school, graduate on
time, and are prepared for post-secondary success. Nationwide, the AVID program has
shown to improve high school graduation rates for students in specific subgroups who
have historically failed in American public high schools.
Today, the AVID program serves primarily low income and minority students in
grades five through twelve, functioning as a method for “leveling the playing field for

9
minority, rural, low income and other students without a college going tradition in their
families” (AVID Center Online, 2007). AVID assists average students by helping them
learn to take specialized notes, encouraging them to enroll in advanced classes, guiding
them in the college admissions process, and providing other essential educational skills.
When implemented correctly, the AVID program claims to have demonstrated
remarkable success, with current matriculation to college rate for AVID students at 95%
(AVID Center Online, 2007).
Purpose of Study
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to gather the perspective of the
AVID program through the lens of the students who were part of the program at WHS.
Additionally, the purpose was to examine AVID participation using the framework of
social capital theory. Specifically, this study determined the attitudes and perceptions of
these students as they continued their third or fourth year of participating in the AVID
program while analyzing how the AVID program influenced the students’ social capital
at school. Additionally, the study determined if the AVID program affected the students’
Grade Point Average (GPA), motivation, and desire to pursue post-secondary education,
specifically four-year institutions. Also, the study analyzed the students’ rosters to
determine if they were currently enrolled in rigorous courses, which is a goal of the
AVID program. This study was designed to determine to what extent, if any, the AVID
program influenced these students’ perceptions of themselves and the school setting,

10
improved their academic success and educational motivation, and increased their chances
of enrolling in a four-year institution.
Indeed, many people have suggested that schools cannot overcome the
backgrounds of students. However, many believe that schools can make a difference.
Overcoming the statistical relationship between minority and low socioeconomic
students and low academic achievement is of fundamental importance to the future of all
schools and meeting the guidelines set forth in NCLB.
The outcome of this study on the implementation of the AVID program in a high
achieving, suburban high school can provide similar schools information about a possible
intervention program to improve the educational success of at-risk students who have
historically failed in the school setting.
Research Questions
This study focused on answering three major research questions:
1. How has participation in the AVID program throughout high school impacted
students’ levels of academic motivation and confidence, cultural assimilation, and
school engagement and involvement?
2. How has the AVID program affected the students’ and parents’ connections to the
teachers, the school, and each other?
3. How has the AVID program influenced the students’ groups and networks, trust
and solidarity, collective action and cooperation, information and communication,
social cohesion and inclusion, and empowerment?

11
Definitions
The following terms and definitions were used in the study:
1. Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): Under the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA), reauthorized as No Child Left Behind in 2002, each state
has developed and implemented measurements for determining whether its
schools and local educational agencies (LEAs) are making adequate yearly
progress (AYP). AYP is an individual state's measure of progress toward the goal
of 100 percent of students achieving to state academic standards in at least
reading/language arts and math. It sets the minimum level of proficiency that the
state, its school districts, and schools must achieve each year on annual tests and
related academic indicators (US Department of Education, 2009).
2. Advanced Placement: The Advanced Placement Program® is a cooperative
educational endeavor between secondary schools and colleges and universities.
Since its inception in 1955, the Program has provided motivated high school
students with the opportunity to take college-level courses in a high school
setting. Students who participate in the Program not only gain college-level skills,
but in many cases they also earn college credit while they are still in high school.
AP courses are taught by dedicated and enthusiastic high school teachers who
follow course guidelines developed and published by the College Board
(http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/program/index.html).
3. Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID): According to the AVID
website (www.AVID.org), AVID is a college-readiness system designed to

12
increase the proportion of students who enroll in four-year colleges. Although the
AVID program can serve all students, it is designed to focus on the least served
students in the “academic middle” who have historically failed in the educational
setting.
4. Cornell Notes: Cornell Notes were developed in the 1940s by Walter Pauk,
Professor Emeritus at Cornell University. His note‐taking system is characterized
by a right hand column for notes, a left hand column for generating questions or
key words and phrases and a summary section to synthesize the aforementioned
notes. Cornell Notes were described in Dr. Pauk’s most well‐known book, How to
Study in College, and can most succinctly be described as active note‐taking
(http://archives.avid.org/lesson_plan_cornell_notes.html).
5. Cultural Capital: According to Bourdieu, the concept of cultural capital posits
that individuals of a given social strata transmit cultural values and knowledge in
accordance with their social standing (1977).
6. Economically disadvantaged student: A student who attends a public school who
receives free or reduced lunch as per family income guidelines delineated in the
United States Department of Agriculture Income Eligibility Guidelines
(http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/governance/notices/iegs/iegs.htm.).
7. No Child Left Behind: The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA),
reauthorized as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002, is the main federal law
affecting education from kindergarten through high school. ESEA is built on four
principles: accountability for results, more choices for parents, greater local

13
control and flexibility, and an emphasis on doing what works based on scientific
research (US Department of Education, 2009).
8. Pre-College Outreach Programs: Pre-college outreach programs provide a range
of services including, but not limited to, academic support, mentoring, college
planning, financial aid information, and opportunities for parental involvement.
The federal government and state governments, as well as nonprofit organizations
and individual donors, now finance hundreds of programs across the United
States. These programs are designed to support first generation college students,
minority students, and economically disadvantaged high school students (Jager –
Hyman, 2004).
9. Social Capital: There are many definitions attached to the term “social capital.”
For this study, Putnam’s definition will be used which focused on social
networks. Putnam defined social capital as “…networks, norms, and trust that
enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives.”
The basis of social capital is that relationships matter and that “networks and the
associated norms of reciprocity have value (Putnam, 2001, p. 1).
Delimitations and limitations of this study
This qualitative case study was limited for a variety of reasons. First, it was
conducted in one school district. The representative district, Westside School District, is
classified as a suburban district in the Mid-Atlantic region. The district is located in a
suburban county bordering a major city. It serves one borough and two townships. The

14
district population is approximately 40,000 residents. The school district’s budget was
around $90 million and the approximate expenditure per student was $19,000. There are
approximately 700 employees, including almost 400 professional staff, 50 administrative
staff, and almost 300 support staff. More than 80% of teachers hold advanced degrees.
The total enrollment is over 4,500 students with about 700 of these students possessing
IEPs. The average class size is 20-22 students. The ethnic breakdown in the district is
approximately 80% white, 2% Hispanic, 10% Black, 5% Asian, 3% Multi-racial and 0%
Indian/Alaskan Native. About 14% of the students in the district are classified as
economically disadvantaged.
The responses garnered from the subjects at WHS may or may not be reflective of
other AVID students who live in affluent or suburban communities. The results of this
study were based entirely on the data gathered from these students from WHS.
Therefore, the results might not be generalizable to other high school students across the
country.
Additionally, the interviews were limited to 12th
graders who are part of the
AVID program at WHS in the Westside School District. Therefore, this study was
limited to studying only secondary AVID students and may not be representative to
elementary or middle school students of the same subgroup. The researcher understands
that there may be other variables that cannot be ascertained from the interviews.
One potential limitation to the study is that all of the AVID students at WHS had
been part of the program for a number of years and are now in their final year of the
program. Thus, they have withstood the rigor of the AVID program and have, as

15
indicated by the data, realized the positive effects of the program. It may be argued that
the study only focused on success stories of the AVID students. This limitation is
referred to as “euphoric recall” and is a tendency for interviewees to recall the "good
times" of previous years with nostalgic fondness. “Euphoric recall” can make the
respondents’ accounts of past events to be overly positive (Walker, 1996, p. 223).
Nevertheless, the AVID students’ experiences during the program offer a unique
perspective into how and to what extent the AVID program influenced their high school
years and plans for after high school.
This study provides a reference for other school districts that have a community
and student makeup similar to Westside School District. It will provide information
about these specific students and illuminate how the AVID program can impact at-risk
students.
Significance of the Study
AVID is currently being implemented in 3,500 schools in 48 states and in 15
countries (AVID Center online, 2009). The program is gaining national attention as a
successful high school intervention system as well as a college preparatory program.
Several studies discussing the quantitative measures of the program have been released,
including the Longitudinal Study of AVID by Guthrie and Guthrie (2000), the Best
Practices Model also by Guthrie and Guthrie (2002), Investing Early by Cunningham,
Redmond, and Merisotis (2003), and Implications of One Comprehensive School Reform
Model for Secondary School Students Underrepresented in Higher Education by Watt,

16
Powell, and Mendiola (2002). These studies compared quantitative measurements of
AVID students, such as school attendance rates, SAT scores, and cumulative GPA to
similar measurements of general population students. The studies found that AVID
students outperform their general population peers to a significant degree.
However, still absent from the research on the AVID program is rich, qualitative
data about the program taken from the lens of the students. Additionally, the
characteristics of the study site – a high, achieving school located in an affluent, suburban
community - presented an interesting investigation as many schools that implement
AVID include a large number of students who are considered disadvantaged or at-risk.
This study provided high schools that encompass pockets of disadvantaged or at-risk
students with an intervention program that can be utilized to improve these students’
chances of succeeding in high school and attending college.
Until recently, achievement disparities in suburban school districts were seldom
discussed. School districts took pride, as they still do, in the number of graduates scoring
highly on college entrance exams, those that are selected as Merit Scholars, and the
amount of students being accepted to prestigious universities. Public officials,
administrators, teachers, and parents considered these achievements to be proof that the
quality of education was high in their respective community. Not surprisingly, in many
high-achieving, suburban school districts, there was not a specific focus on raising the
achievement levels of minority and low-income students. However, NCLB has mandated
schools to analyze their subgroup data. Subsequently, it has coerced schools to face their

17
achievement gaps and has forced them into creating action plans to tackle this widespread
educational problem.
Furthermore, all schools are confronted with the challenge of graduating all of its
students. According to the Alliance for Excellent Education (2009), every school day
more than seven thousand students become dropouts. Annually, that adds up to about 1.3
million students who will not graduate from high school. Lacking a high school diploma,
these individuals will be far more likely than graduates to spend their lives periodically
unemployed, on government assistance, or cycling in and out of the prison system
What if the nation’s high schools sufficiently improved to graduate all of its
students, rather than about seventy percent? The payoff would be significant – if the
students who dropped out of the Class of 2009 had graduated, the nation’s economy
would have benefited from nearly $335 billion in additional income over the course of
these students’ lifetimes (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2009).
To increase the number of students who graduate from high school, the nation’s
high schools need to be dramatically improved. The nation can no longer afford to have
a large number of its students leaving high school without a diploma. The high school
experience is in dire need of improvement so that all students receive the appropriate
education that will prepare them for college or a career, and to be productive members of
society. AVID is one program that is designed to support students in while in high
school, help them graduate from high school and attend a four-year institution.

18
Recently, social capital is receiving educational policy attention relating to how it
can be a collective resource that can facilitate the academic success of students in
schools. Horvat, Weininger, and Lareau (2003), state:
The majority of studies examining social capital in school settings have
used quantitative methodologies to address outcomes such as test scores
and grades, study habits, and high school dropout patterns and attendance
(p. 322).
This study used qualitative methodologies to analyze how specific components of the
AVID program provided students with social capital and how the AVID students
activated this capital to improve their educational outcomes.
The qualitative nature of the study contributed to the body of literature about the
AVID program by it provided data directly from the students’ perspectives and
experiences. This case study was intended to provide insight to other school districts that
are similar in makeup to the one that was studied. With the mission to graduate all
students and prepare them for post-secondary education coupled with the excessive
monitoring of specific subgroups as per NCLB, all districts are faced with the reality of
meeting the needs of all students. Research conducted that describes poverty-stricken
schools and students is vast; however, there exists a death of qualitative data that have
focused on at-risk students who attend an affluent, high-achieving high school.
Theoretical Bases
This study was conducted within the theoretical frameworks of social capital
theory. The idea of the social capital was identified by Pierre Bourdieu (1979, 1986) and
given a clear theoretical framework by James Coleman (1988, 1990). However, it is now

19
most commonly associated with Robert Putnam (1993, 1995, 2000) who successfully
exported the concept out of academia and into a wider media. There are many definitions
attached to the term social capital. For this study, Putnam’s definition will be used which
primarily focuses on social networks. In the academic setting, these social networks will
include students’ connections to their peers, teachers, their school, and their parents.
Furthermore, Putnam (1995) defined social capital as “…networks, norms, and
trust that enable participants to act together more effectively to pursue shared objectives”
(p. 56). This definition was focused on during the study to determine if participation in
the AVID program created a culture of collaboration and trust amongst the participants
and their AVID teacher along with uncovering if the students possessed a shared sense of
purpose and common goals.
associated norms of reciprocity have value (Putnam, 2000, p. 1). The central idea is that
social networks can be a valuable asset for people and society as a whole. Interaction
enables people to build communities, to commit themselves to each other, and to knit
social fabric. A sense of belonging and the concrete experience of social networks can
bring great benefits to people (Putnam, 2000).
Putnam (2000) argues that social capital has “forceful, even quantifiable effects
on many different aspects of our lives” (p. 23). These quantifiable effects include lower
crime rate, better health, improved longevity, greater levels of income equality, improved
child welfare and lower rates of child abuse, less corrupt and more effective government,
enhanced economic achievement, and better educational achievement. The cumulative

20
effect of research indicates that the well connected individual is more likely to be
“housed, healthy, hired, and happy” (Woolcock, 2001, p. 12).
Social capital in the educational setting can have positive effects on academic
outcomes. Stronger school environments and greater parental involvement in school
activities can promote enhanced learning. Coleman (1990) believes that a combination
of school and family institutions working together can promote academic achievement.
This effect is called “resource boosters” as students who experience favorable conditions
at both home and school may achieve more.
Although the notion of social capital was the theoretical focus of this study, the
concept of cultural capital strongly emerged during the data analysis. Like social capital,
cultural capital was discussed by Pierre Bourdieu in the 1970s and 1980s. According to
Bourdieu, the concept of cultural capital posits that individuals of a given social strata
transmit cultural values and knowledge in accordance with their social standing (1977).
Bourdieu believed that a person’s economic standing was not enough to address the
disparities in educational achievement of different social classes. Thus, the notion of
cultural capital was a partial explanation for the class-based socialization of culturally
relevant skills, abilities, tastes, preferences, or norms that act as a form of currency in the
social realm. Furthermore, Bourdieu, according to his theory of cultural reproduction,
asserted that children from middle-class families are advantaged in gaining educational
credentials due to their possession of cultural capital. He argued that the possession of
cultural capital varies among different social classes, yet the system of education assumes
the possession of cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1979).

21
CHAPTER 2
Introduction
This literature review focused on a variety of topics pertaining to this qualitative,
case study on the AVID program at WHS. First, it concentrated on the federal
government’s involvement in public education, especially the measures taken to improve
the educational success of disadvantaged and minority students. Beginning with the
passage of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1964 (ESEA) and progressing
to President Obama’s Race to the Top program in 2009, the federal government has
increasingly become more and more involved in public education. Furthermore, NCLB
and the current accountability movement were explored with a focus on the
disaggregation of data and the achievement of particular subgroups.
The literature review also discussed the notion of inequality and the impact
inequality can have on individuals and communities. This topic is critical to understand
as the high school being studied has a large disparity in income levels between the
families of the students. Furthermore, the review of literature included research relating
to economically disadvantaged and at-risk students and also discussed the current
achievement gap facing American schools.
In addition, the review of literature included information relating to the dropout
crisis in American public high schools and the concept of early intervention programs
that have been implemented to overcome this crisis. Next, information relating to the
AVID program was examined, including background information and the components of
the AVID program. Additionally, available research on AVID was highlighted.

22
Lastly, the concept of social capital was explained as it is the theoretical
foundation for the study. The following review of the literature about social capital
described what it is, how it can influence educational outcomes, and its correlation to the
AVID program.
Federal Policies and Increased Accountability in Education
Understanding the history of American education is essential in studying at-risk
students. Starting with the passage of ESEA and continuing with its reauthorization in
2002, specific federal government policies have been directed in improving the quality of
education for all students. These policies have steadily increased the accountability in
American education and have forced schools to analyze the achievement of all students,
especially disaggregated subgroups.
The passing of ESEA directly impacted disadvantaged and minority students.
One year prior to the passage of ESEA, Walter Heller, chairman of the Council of
Economic Advisers, advised Lyndon Johnson of the root cause of schools during that era.
Heller cited surveys supporting the idea that there was a correlation between low
educational attainment and poverty (Kantor, 1991). Johnson realized the need for
increased academic support for those students who are most commonly poverty-stricken,
lower class, and minority students. With ESEA, federal involvement in public education
sought to provide compensatory educational services for economically disadvantaged
school districts (Sunderman, Kim, & Orfield, 2005).

23
Almost twenty years later, A Nation at-risk was published by the Secretary of
Education Terrel H. Bell and the National Commission on Excellence in Education. The
report galvanized the public to demand action to restore education in the United States.
The report claimed that “the educational foundations of our society are presently being
eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very future as a Nation and a
people” (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983). The United States low
academic ranking, when compared on the international level was, according to the report,
in need of crucial reform to reverse the downward spiral of an inadequate educational
system.
A Nation at-risk called for a series of reformative measures, including increased
parental and communal involvement in local schools, better trained and motivated
teachers, and increased commitments from the federal, state, and local governments. A
Nation at-risk established the criterion that “all, regardless of race or class or economic
status, are entitled to a fair chance and to the tools for developing their individual powers
of mind and spirit to the utmost” (National Commission on Excellence in Education,
1983). This report became the impetus for increased accountability and standards based
reform in American education.
According to Stecher and Kirby (2004), accountability in education refers to the
practice of holding educational systems responsible for the quality of their products—
students’ knowledge, skills, and behaviors. The National Conference of State
Legislatures (2008) posits that making states, districts, and schools accountable for the
performance of their students is a popular topic among policymakers and the education

24
community. After decades of focusing on inputs, such as funding levels, curriculum
offerings and resources, policymakers are now emphasizing student learning and
achievement outcomes as the means of gauging an education system. This trend is
referred to as a standards-based accountability system.
At the present time, the accountability movement centers on the federal mandate
NCLB. This act, passed in 2001, provided sweeping changes for all school districts in
the United States to abide by. According to the United States Department of Education
(2001), the purpose of NCLB is to “ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and
significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality education and reach, at a minimum,
proficiency on challenging State academic achievement standards and state academic
assessments.” Specific components of this act revolve around increasing accountability
for all schools and the belief that high expectations and setting specific educational goals
will result in success for all students. NCLB forces schools to be accountable by it
“requires annual testing, specifies a method for judging school effectiveness, sets a
timeline for progress, and establishes specific consequences in the case of failure”
(Wenning, Herdman, Smith, McMahon, & Washington, 2003).
Borrowing from successful private-sector management practices, accountability
advocates believe that student achievement will improve only when educators are judged
in terms of student performance and experience consequences as a result. It emphasizes
high-quality teachers using scientifically based practices and expanded options for
parents. NCLB also establishes minimum standards for teacher quality, provides specific

25
requirements for instructional aides, and mandates that schools use scientifically-based
practices to promote student achievement.
Another important feature is its emphasis on the right of parents to make
decisions about how and where their children are educated. If schools are not meeting
AYP requirements, parents can request that their child be transferred to another school or
be given supplemental educational services from a private provider. To exercise their
options, parents must be informed annually about the professional qualifications of their
children’s teachers, the success of their school, and the performance of their child
(Stecher & Kirby, 2004).
The cornerstone of NCLB is an emphasis on accountability based on student-test
results. Advocates of this legislation contend that educators have never been held
responsible for student learning; instead teachers and administrators are paid on the basis
of their educational backgrounds and their longevity in the profession. As a result, they
feel no personal or collective responsibility for how much students learn (Stecher &
Kirby, 2004).
Recent Involvement of the Federal Government
On February 17, 2009, President Obama signed into law the American Recovery
and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA). This legislation was designed to stimulate the
economy, support job creation, and invest in critical sectors, including education.
According to the US Department of Education (2009), “The ARRA lays the foundation
for education reform by supporting investments in innovative strategies that are most

26
likely to lead to improved results for students, long-term gains in school and school
system capacity, and increased productivity and effectiveness.”
The ARRA provided $4.35 billion for the Race to the Top Fund, a competitive
grant program designed to encourage and reward States that are “creating the conditions
for education innovation and reform; achieving significant improvement in student
outcomes, including making substantial gains in student achievement, closing
achievement gaps, improving high school graduation rates, and ensuring student
preparation for success in college and careers; and implementing ambitions plans in four
education reform areas.” The four education reform areas include:
• Adopting standards and assessments that prepare students to succeed in college
and the workplace and to compete globally:
• Building data systems that measure student growth and success, and inform
teachers and principals about how they can improve instruction;
• Recruiting, developing, rewarding, and retaining effective teachers and principals,
especially where they are needed most; and
• Turning around our lowest-achieving schools (US Department of Education,
2009).
On February 22, 2010, President Obama announced a proposal that would require
a change to NCLB. The President plans to expand the federal government's role in
education by leveraging federal money. Obama wants to rewrite the federal education
law by sending aid for poor students only to states that adopt new standards to prepare

27
high school graduates for college or a career. If states fail to adopt these standards, they
could lose their share of federal funding.
Many schools count on a key source of federal aid, known as Title I, to help
disadvantaged students - $14.5 billion this budget year. Under Obama's proposal, to
qualify for that money, states would have to adopt and certify that they have "college-
and career-ready standards in reading and mathematics." The Obama administration
wants to see a uniform set of standards in schools nationwide, in hopes that it will make
the United States more competitive internationally (Superville, 2010).
More recently, in March 2010, President Obama called for a broad overhaul of
NCLB. His plan strikes a balance as it retains some key features of NCLB, such as the
annual testing requirement in reading and mathematics. However, the proposal does
suggest far-reaching changes. First, the pass-fail system currently in place would be
replaced by one that would measure individual students’ academic growth and judge
schools not on test scores alone, but also using indicators such as pupil attendance,
graduation rates, and learning climate. Second, the proposal calls for more vigorous
interventions in failing schools and also rewards top performing schools and lessens
federal interference in well-run schools. Third, the proposal would replace NCLB’s
requirement that every child reach proficiency in math and reading with a new national
target that all students should graduate high school prepared for college and a career
(Dillon, 2010).
A new bill is set to be completed and, if it is passed, will increase the relevancy of
the AVID program. With the focus on high school graduation in all school nationwide,

28
the AVID program could be an intervention system implemented in both in failing
schools and successful schools.
No Child Left Behind and meeting AYP for various subgroups
The statement of purpose of NCLB declares its implementation “is to ensure that
all children have a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality
education (NCLB, 2002). This statement of purpose was created out of a concern for
underrepresented subgroup students – groups of students whom, traditionally, have
performed less adequately than predominantly upper and middle-class students – who are
in need of increased academic support (David, 2007; Sunderman et al., 2005). To ensure
that all students receive the quality education to which they are legally entitled, NCLB
strives to “level the playing field” for all students, regardless of their socioeconomic
background, by striving towards a universal incremental progression in reading,
language-arts and mathematics proficiency.
A critical change in measuring performance under NCLB is that schools must
disaggregate the data so that all student groups – including poor and minority students,
students with limited English proficiency, and students with disabilities – are measured.
This disaggregation of test scores ensures that students, including those traditionally left
behind, are no longer hidden in school averages and that every student receives the
quality education he or she deserves (US Department of Education, 2005). In each state,
“all subgroups must reach the state-defined proficiency level,” for their schools to be
identified as having made adequate yearly progress (AYP) for any given year. This

29
separation of scores provides a strategic method to monitor academic progress and allows
schools and districts to determine whether the achievement gap between these identified
subgroups is narrowing (Sunderman, 2005).
Additionally, NCLB forces schools and district to showcase the achievement data
of ALL students, including those identified in specific subgroups. Schools and districts
are required to publicly display the results of their students’ annual scores to demonstrate
to the community whether a school or district is achieving or failing to achieve the
percentages laid out by NCLB. As Sunderman et al (2005) states:
If subgroups have performed less well than their counterparts, what
is the problem with holding all schools, regardless of their demographic,
accountable for their performance if they have not ensured the academic
progression of their traditionally “left behind” students? Disadvantaged
students should be tested, and be held to the same standard as advantaged
students, so that they may progress academically and have the same
academic skill set to help them succeed in a globally competitive world.
(p. 121)
Economically disadvantaged students and their achievement in school
One subgroup the AVID program targets are economically disadvantaged
students as large numbers of these students have failed in the traditional public high
school. Additionally, this subgroup of students is also one that is targeted since the
inception of NCLB. Therefore, schools are searching for programs or intervention
systems to support these students in meeting AYP proficiency requirements while at the
same time ensuring these students graduate with their peers.
Each year, generally in the fall, the United States Census Bureau issues a report
on poverty in the United States. Among the information it provides are statistics on how

30
many people are poor, and how poverty is distributed by race or ethnicity, by region, and
by family type. National poverty data are calculated using the official Census definition
of poverty, which has remained fairly standard since it was introduced in the 1960s.
Under this definition, poverty is determined by comparing pretax cash income with the
poverty threshold, which adjusts for family size and composition. The poverty thresholds
are updated each year by the Census Bureau. Poverty thresholds also differ by age as
individuals over the age of 65 have a lower threshold. The poverty guidelines are the
other version of the federal poverty measure. They are issued each year by the Federal
Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). These guidelines are a simplification
of the poverty thresholds for use for administrative purposes. For instance, the guidelines
are used for determining financial eligibility for certain federal programs (United States
Census Bureau, 2010).
One of the federal programs that is implemented by the Department of
Agriculture is the National School Lunch and School Breakfast programs. These
guidelines are adjusted for families of different sizes. Both the thresholds and guidelines
are the same for all mainland states, regardless of the difference in the cost of living.
Both are updated annually for price changes using the Consumer Price Index.
An "economically disadvantaged" student is a student who is a member of a
household that meets the income eligibility guidelines for free or reduced-price meals
(less than or equal to 185% of Federal Poverty Guidelines) under the National School
Lunch Program (NSLP) (United States Department of Agriculture, 2010).

31
Past research has indicated that economically disadvantaged children face particularly
difficult challenges in succeeding academically. According to authors Mark Berends,
R.J. Briggs, Samuel Lucas, and Thomas Sullivan, (2005):
Socioeconomic factors such as family income, neighborhood poverty,
parental education levels, and parental occupation are more significant in
explaining differences in educational achievement than traditional factors
such as race, ethnicity, and immigrant status. One of the greatest
challenges to schools with a high proportion of economically
disadvantaged students is how to assist their students in overcoming these
disadvantages (p. 50).
Berliner (2005) asserts that the United States has the highest rate of children
living in poverty among twenty-six developed countries, with only Mexico having a
higher rate. Citing a series of studies, he presents the case that poor environmental
conditions suppress the normal development of academic intelligence. Poverty, and all it
entails, has direct health and indirect physiological and psychological consequences that
inhibit the capacity to learn. Berliner points out that a rise in family income positively
affects achievement.
It has been found that students who come from less affluent and economically
stable families have greater difficulties succeeding in school (McKenna, Hollingsworth &
Barns, 2005). Traditionally, economically disadvantaged students are less likely to be
placed in a gifted-student program, or advanced placement program (Hunsaker, 2005).
These students are also affected by negative teacher impressions. They are seen to be less
academically motivated and posses fewer academic skills (Hunsaker, 2005).
Evans (2004) suggested that socioeconomic differences affect children in a
variety of ways. Evans pointed to the physical environment challenges, including greater

32
exposure to health risks; poor quality housing and environment; more deterioration in the
neighborhood; greater crowding and noise; greater mobility and lack of stability in
housing; poorer air and water quality; fewer material resources in the home; and more
dangerous neighborhoods. Furthermore, he noted low socioeconomic status poses
challenges to students’ social environment, including fewer books and educational
materials in the home; fewer household routines; greater incidence of family disruption,
violence, and separation from family; child rearing patterns that are associated with
stricter and harsher discipline, fewer opportunities to read with parents, less emphasis on
self-directedness, greater exposure to aggressive peers and deviance; less interpersonal
trust and less likelihood to subscribe to norms of reciprocity; less exposure to multiple
forms of cognitive stimulation and enrichment; more exposure to television; less verbal
responsiveness; less parent involvement in education, both at the school and in the home;
and less of a sense of belonging to school.
Research has demonstrated, children who are economically disadvantaged fall
behind during the summer months and experience declines in reading achievement.
Researchers explain the preliminary achievement differences through family and
neighborhood characteristics. Before children who are from economically disadvantaged
families enter school, they are read to less than children from middle or high income
backgrounds. They also tend to live in households with a shortage of books and other
print materials. Therefore, by the time they graduate from elementary school, they score
two standard deviations below the national average (Alexander, Entwisle, & Olsen,
2001).

33
In Dahl and Lochner’s paper The Impact of Family Income on Child Achievement
(2005), they estimated the causal effect of income on children’s math and reading
achievement. In their study, Dahl and Lochner’s results indicated that current income has
significant effects on a child’s math and reading test scores. The researchers’ estimates
implied that a $1,000 increase in income raises math test scores by 2.1 % and reading test
scores by 3.6 % of a standard deviation. Furthermore, the study found that for children
growing up in poor families, extra income does appear to have a positive causal effect on
student’s achievement
Studies indicate that socio-economic advantage translates into academic
advantage because higher socio-economic families produce more of the kinds of skills,
cognitive and non-cognitive, that schools reward (Davies & Guppy, 2006). Parents with
higher levels of educational and occupational attainment tend to pass proportional levels
of aspiration and achievement motivation to their children as well as important skills sets
required for academic success. More educated parents are likely to instill within their
children an appreciation of the importance of education and the attitudes and behaviors
that are conducive to success within the school environment. Furthermore, educated
parents provide an enriched home learning environment and are more likely to be
actively involved in their children’s education. Additionally, middle- class parents are
more likely to have greater financial resources to spend on educational materials, tutors,
and structured extra-curricular activities, as well as more flexible schedules that are
favorable to volunteering at the school. These parents possessing higher socio-economic

34
status are more likely to have connections to higher-status parents and to education-
related institutions (Edgerton, Peter, & Roberts, 2008).
Edgerton et al. (2008) posit that children from lower socio-economic backgrounds
tend to be educationally disadvantaged due to disparities in economic, social, and cultural
family resources. Middle-class parents are more likely than their working-class
counterparts to pass on that set of skills and dispositions more conducive to success in the
formal education system. Additionally, there are social class differences not only in how
cognitively enriching children’s home environments are, but also in how parents interface
with schools. More educated, higher-status parents are more likely to be more actively
engaged in their children’s education and to impart higher academic expectations.
Edgerton et al (2008) stress the need to better engage students from lower socio-
economic backgrounds in the educational process, to expand their educational horizons,
and to support them in their day-to-day learning. Although schools cannot reasonably
hope to completely overcome the persistent gaps in family resources that place lower
socio-economic students at a disadvantage from the very start of their educational
careers, they can strive to mitigate these deficits by finding ways to involve
disadvantaged parents in the schooling process. In addition, schools can try to help
disadvantaged students and their parents by urging them to expect more from themselves
and the education experience.
The AVID program strives to help low-income students rise above their
disadvantaged status by increasing both the parents and students’ educational
expectations and by fostering their connection and communication to the school setting.

35
Additionally, the program offers educational opportunities that are often times for
advantaged students as they learn organizational and study skills, how to develop critical
thinking skills and ask probing questions, receive academic help from peers and college
tutors, and participate in enrichment and motivational activities that make college seem
attainable. In addition, AVID hopes to improve the students' self-image as they become
academically successful leaders and role models for other students.
At-Risk Students and the Achievement Gap
Race, culture, ethnicity, language and economic status continue to be powerful
predictors of school failure. Those students who differ most from the mainstream White
middle/upper class, English speaking America are also most vulnerable to being mis-
served by our nation’s schools (Howard, 2002). Decades of data on national trends in
standardized tests in reading, mathematics, and science confirm the existence of
achievement gaps for minority student populations and students living in poverty.
During this era of accountability, public education has received increased scrutiny on the
issue of the achievement gap.
With states and federal legislators mandating more accountability measures of
student achievement, more sophisticated means of data collection for individual student
achievement has emerged. This data collection clearly showcases where achievement
gaps exist between all students from various subgroups.
When researchers, policy makers and educators examine how students perform in
our nation’s public schools, they consistently find two factors that significantly impact

36
academic achievement: economic circumstances and racial backgrounds (Education
Equity Project, 2010). According to the National Governor’s Association (2010), the
achievement gap “is a matter of race and class” as across the United States a “gap in
academic achievement persists between minority and disadvantaged students and their
white counterparts.”
The Education Equity Project (2010) reports that by 4th
grade, African-American
and Latino students are, on average, nearly three academic years behind their white peers.
Furthermore, the average student eligible for free/reduced lunch is approximately two
years of learning behind the average ineligible students. Also, only ten percent of
students at Tier 1 colleges (146 most selective) come from the bottom half of the income
distribution.
Looking at National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), data, the
Education Trust concluded that by grade 12 minority students are about four years behind
other students. Additionally, seventeen year old African-American and Latino students
have skills in English, math, and science similar to those of thirteen year-old white
students. Furthermore, Hispanic and African American students are more likely to drop
out of high school in every state. Of these high school graduates, college matriculation
rates for African-American and Hispanic students remain below those of white students
and those minority students who do enroll in college are only half as likely to earn a
college degree as white students (National Governor’s Association, 2010).
According to Catterall (1998), the term risk is important to understand because
large numbers of American youth leave formal education with depressed achievement

37
levels and life chances. Catterall posits that the term “risk” has a tendency to be used in
general ways as it can be multipurpose in rhetoric and scholarly analyses. Furthermore,
he states that there are two streams of criticism regarding how individuals think about
risk and thus how society responds to the problems associated with risk.
The first stream of criticism points out that educators and researchers have done
a great deal more to describe and classify conditions of risk, such as being economically
disadvantaged, than to design and implement successful remedies. The second stream of
criticism raises questions concerning what is meant by risk and challenges dominant
characterizations of how risk works. One notion related to this stream is the tendency in
academic and professional discourse to equate risk with membership in any of a number
of disadvantaged societal groups, or what could be called a form of “risk by association.”
When average achievement and attainment measures are displayed by income level, race,
ethnicity, or language skills, the effect can be to label whole groups of students at-risk
rather than identifying those who are experiencing actual difficulties in performance or
social integration (Hattersall, 1998). The students in AVID are considered at-risk for a
variety of reasons, including being socio-disadvantaged, lacking the focus or motivation
in the educational setting, and/or having one or both parents who are not college
educated.
One potential consequence of group labeling is that individual students may be
considered at-risk who are, in fact, not at-risk after all. Individuals react differently to
their surroundings and some individuals will rise to the challenge and their identified
“risk” could actually provide a positive spark in the right direction. Another potential

38
consequence of group labeling is that through stereotyping, expectations for entire groups
may be suppressed with unfortunate educational consequences (Hattersall, 1998). As
Hattersall asserts, not all at-risk students are truly at-risk of failing in the educational
setting.
Connecting to Hattersall’s idea that some at-risk students rise to the challenge and
succeed academically, Wang and Walberg (1994) would suggest that there are protective
factors or contributors to resilience in at-risk students. These factors include personality
characteristics, personal attributes, environmental characteristics, caring parenting
behaviors and family cohesiveness, school/home relations, caring mentoring by teachers,
provision of opportunities to learn in school, involvement in community activities and
sports, and community support networks. The AVID program includes some of these
components that can contribute to the students’ level of resilience and improve their
chances of achieving academic success.
In sum, the achievement gap is not some irrelevant statistic that is annually
reported and highlighted; it is proof that the American educational system is consistently
failing many students of color and poverty. This achievement gap is drastically reducing
the chances of certain students to graduate high school, attend college, and succeed as
adults.
Impact of Inequality
Understanding the impact of inequality is critical in analyzing this particular
study. At this suburban high school, most of the students come from mainly middle to

39
upper class families. Thus, this creates a school environment in which there are
significant disparities in income among the students. In the Westside School District
there are over 4,700 students, with a little over 1,500 attending WHS. In the district, 14%
of the students are classified as low income. This means that 14% of the students in the
district live in households where the annual income is up to or below 1.85 times the
poverty guidelines set forth by the United States Department of Agriculture. Clearly, the
economically disadvantaged students are in the minority in this school district, but the
significance of their low income is exacerbated by the high level of income of the other
students in the district.
The Westside School District consists of two townships (Township A and
Township B) and one borough (Borough A). Within Township A, there are two main
towns where the median household income in 2007 was approximately $100,000 and
$80,000. Township B includes one city where the median household income was
approximately $70,000. In Borough A, the median household income in 2007 was
approximately $50,000. All of these income levels are above the state average
(approximately $48,000) and well above the income eligibility levels depicted by the
federal government in relation to qualifying for the free or reduced lunch program. Also,
in Suburban County, where Westside School District is located, only about 5% of the
population is classified as living in poverty, which is well below the state average
(approximately 11%) and the second lowest percentage in the state of where Westside
School District is located.

40
In sum, the economically disadvantaged students are part of a minority group in
the Westside School District and consistently interact with other students who come from
mainly middle class and affluent families. Additionally, they live in the second
wealthiest area of the entire state where poverty is almost nonexistent. The school and
community environment for these economically disadvantaged students and families is
actually a microcosm of suburban United States and can have multifaceted negative
consequences for those individuals living in poverty.
In Richard Wilkinson’s (2005) book The Impact of Inequality, he states that the
“U.S. income differences are the widest of any of the rich developed market
democracies” (p. 40). This vast income gap is one reason that Wilkinson believes that
the United States lags behind most developed countries in life expectancy, despite its
wealth and high expenditure on health care. He posits that “low social cohesion and
income inequality are at the top of the list of explanations for the decline of life
expectancy” (p. 118). Thus, the smaller the income gap, the greater the social capital or
cohesion. Wilkinson states that there can be “no doubt of the causality, that as economic
disruption and dislocation widens, the income differences lead to the deterioration of the
social fabric and the rise of violence” (p. 207).
Wilkinson found that some of the deepest reasons of ill health among the poor in
developed countries are not the obvious ones, but are socio-psychological. As Wilkinson
(2005) describes:
Because psychological factors influence health through stress, the main
psychosocial factors identified by research are also likely to be the most
important sources and symptoms of chronic stress in modern societies.
They include depression, anxiety, helplessness, hostility, insecurity, and

41
lack of sense of control – not to mention the pressures that lead people to
dependency on prescribed or recreational drugs. (p. 13)
On the positive side, feeling happy and in control of life, having friends, and
enjoying good relationships all seem highly beneficial (p. 12-13).Wilkinson believes that
the social meaning of people’s circumstances have profound consequences. “Inequality
promotes strategies that are more self-interested, less affiliative, often highly antisocial,
more stressful, and likely to give rise to higher levels of violence, poorer community
relations, and worse health (Wilkinson, 2005, p. 23). If Wilkinson’s ideas are accurate,
then the social cohesion amongst the unequal students in WHS should be weak.
Additionally, the high level of inequality should promote a culture of separation between
the disparate groups of students.
Wilkinson (2005) asserts that the main problem in most developed countries is not
low-level living conditions, but rather low social status, which has corrosive social
consequences such as “feeling locked down on, having an inferior position in the social
hierarchy and subordination (and therefore also a reduced ability to control one’s
circumstances and work)” (p. 25). Thus the quality of social relations is better in more
equal societies where “people are much more likely to trust each other, [and] measures of
social capital and social cohesion show that community life is stronger, and homicide
rates and levels of violence are consistently low” (p. 33). According to Wilkinson
(2005), this lack of social cohesion in the more unequal societies can have negative
consequences, notably the tendency in “to show more discrimination against vulnerable
groups, whether women, religious or ethnic minorities (p. 28) which “is part of a wider
process of downward discrimination in which people who feel humiliated try to repair

42
their sense of selfhood by demonstrating their superiority over more vulnerable groups”
(p. 219).
Fullan (2006) points out that “size of the gap in education performance parallels
the income gap country by country” (p.10). He affirms that countries with large education
gaps are also those with higher income differentials. Fullan points to the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)’s ongoing project the Programme
for International Student Assessment (PISA). In 2001, the PISA tested more than
250,000 fifteen year-olds in literacy in the thirty-two countries which make up the
OECD. Finland performed best, Canada was near the top, the United States was right in
the middle, and Mexico and Brazil were at the bottom. PISA also examined the reading
scores of the 25 percent of the students with the lowest-ranked parental occupations as
compared to the 25 percent with the highest ranked occupations. When the analysis was
done, the United States, which had ranked fifteenth in the mean score comparison,
dropped to twenty-third. In other words, Fullan (2007) stresses “the greater the economic
differential, the greater the gap in reading scores” (p. 10).
Dropout Crisis and Early Intervention Programs
The students in this study will currently be secondary students in a public high
school. America’s high schools play an integral role in preparing students for college and
work in the 21st
century. According to the National Governor’s Association (2005),
American high schools have changed very little over the past century. It has been called
a “sorting place” for our system of education and a place that is “failing to prepare many

43
of our students.” The Association’s report entitled Redesigning the American High
School, states that only seventy percent of high school students earn their diploma. This
percentage ranks the United States 17th
among developed nations in the percentage of
youth graduating from high school.
Bridgeland, Diluliio and Morison (2006) posit that there is a high school dropout
epidemic in the United States. They conclude that each year almost one third of all
public school students – and nearly one half of all blacks, Hispanic, and Native
Americans – fail to graduate from public high school. This tragic cycle of dropping out
of high school, according to the researchers, has not substantially improved during the
past few decades even when education reform has been a priority on the public agenda.
Students who drop out of high school are much more likely than their peers to be
unemployed, living in poverty, receiving public assistance, in prison, on death row,
unhealthy, divorced, and single parents with children who drop out of high school
themselves. Our communities and nation suffer from this dropout epidemic due to the
loss of productive workers and the higher costs associated with increased incarceration,
health care and social services (Bridgeland, Diluliio, & Morison, 2006).
In an effort to better understand the lives and circumstances of students who drop
out of high school, Bridgeland et al. (2006) decided to approach the dropout problem
from a perspective that has not been much considered in past studies – that of the students
themselves. The central message of the report was that while some students drop out
because of the significant academic challenges, most dropouts are students who could
have, and believe that they could have, succeeded in school.

44
There is no single reason why students drop out of high school in such alarming
numbers and dropping out of high school is not a sudden act, but a gradual process of
disengagement from the school setting. Bridgeland et al. (2006) report that reasons for
dropping out of high school include, a lack of connection to the school environment, a
perception that school is boring, feeling unmotivated, academic challenges, and the
weight of real world events. According to the researchers, high school dropouts said a
major reason for dropping out was that classes were not interesting and many dropouts
said that they were not motivated or inspired to work hard. Many of the drop outs
reported that they would have worked harder if more was demanded of them, including
higher academic standards and more studying and homework. The AVID program
strives to challenge students by requiring them to take honors and Advanced Placement
classes to effectively prepare them for college.
Bridgeland et al. (2006) posit that there are clearly “supports” that can be
provided within the academic environment and at home that can improve students’
chances of staying in school. These supports included building a school climate that
fosters academics, ensuring the students have a strong relationship with at least one adult
in the school, improving the communication between parents and schools, and improving
instruction and access to supports for at-risk students. Many of the supports that these
researchers suggest in supporting students in graduating from high school correlate with
specific elements of the AVID program.
High school dropouts, on average, earn $9,200 less per year than high school
graduates and about $1 million less over a lifetime than college graduates. Furthermore,

45
high school dropouts were over three times more likely than college graduates to be
unemployed in 2004 and twice as likely to slip into poverty from one year to the next.
Dropping out of high school not only imperils individuals’ futures, but also profoundly
impacts communities and the entire nation. Four out of ten high school dropouts received
some type of government assistance in 2001 and a dropout is more than eight times as
likely to be in jail or prison as a person with at least a high school diploma. Studies
indicate that the lifetime cost to the nation for each youth who drops out of high school
and later moves into a life of crime and drugs ranges from $1.7 to $2.3 million
(Bridgeland, Diluliio, & Morison, 2006).
Along with the need for more high school students to graduate, more high school
students need to pursue post-secondary education. Despite many years of investment in
equalizing post-secondary education opportunity in the United States, gaps in enrollment
rates persist between low-income and higher-income students and between white students
and racial/ethnic minorities. Disadvantaged students in the United States, especially
students of color and low-socioeconomic status, still lag behind their counterparts in
terms of their access to and success in post-secondary education.
One method to equalize post-secondary opportunity is though early intervention
programs. According to Cunningham, Redmond, and Merisotis (2003), early
intervention programs refer to programs designed to keep at-risk students in school and to
increase the college enrollment rates of educationally and economically disadvantaged
students by providing a variety of services. These services include counseling and
awareness, academic enrichment and support, parent involvement, personal enrichment

46
and social integration, mentoring, and scholarships. The most common intervention
service offered by all programs is college awareness, with high percentages offering
related activities (campus visits, etc.) as well. Other common services included academic
enrichment and support and about two-thirds of all programs include a parental
component.
Furthermore, the overwhelming majority of early intervention programs (about 91
percent) are targeted toward low-income, minority and first-generation students in middle
school and beyond. Also, early intervention programs may be sponsored by different
types of entities, including the federal government, state governments, non-profit
organizations, and individual colleges and universities (Cunningham, Redmond, &
Merisotis, 2003).The AVID program would be considered an early intervention program
as it includes many of these services designed to support at-risk students.
Much of the research on early intervention programs has focused on the federal
TRIO programs, which were established by the U.S. federal government beginning in
1965 to ensure equal educational opportunity, focusing on first generation and low-
income students. Two of the TRIO programs, Talent Search and Upward Bound, were
early intervention programs that targeted students in grades 6 through 12. The Talent and
Search program focuses on having the students receive information about college
admissions, scholarships, and financial aid programs. The Upward Bound program was
designed to help students prepare for college by providing academic instruction on
college campuses, as well as counseling, mentoring and other support services
(Cunningham, Redmond, & Merisotis, 2003).

47
Educators and policymakers are not placing their hopes on the potential of early
intervention programs to diminish the achievement gap and increase college graduation
and enrollment in college. In the past decade, early intervention programs have exploded
in many U.S. states as a result of federal government initiatives, such as GEAR UP and in
the near future, Race to the Top. However, with an abundance of programs nationwide,
there is extreme difficulty in deciding which programs are the most successful. Not all of
the programs have been evaluated in a rigorous manner, especially not from the
perspectives of the students and parents involved in the program.
According to Dynarksi, Clarke, Cobb, Finn, Rumberger and Smink (2008), “each
year more than half a million young people drop out of high school, and the rate at which
they have dropped out has remained the same for the last 30 years, even as spending on
education has increased significantly” (p. 4). With these alarming numbers, these authors
constructed a guide that presents a series of recommendations for reducing dropout rates.
These recommendations are divided into three categories:
• Diagnostic processes for identifying student-level and school wide dropout
problems,
• Targeted interventions for a subset of middle and high school students who are
identified as at-risk of dropping out,
• School wide reforms designed to enhance engagement for all students and prevent
dropout more generally (Dynarksi, Clarke, Cobb, Finn, Rumberger & Smink,
2008).

48
The panel of researchers further elaborates on their recommendations and many
correlate with the AVID program. First, the panel advises schools to identify those
students who at high risk of dropping out. The AVID program targets those students in
the academic middle who have historically failed in the educational system, specifically,
low-income and minority students. Furthermore, the panel viewed increasing student
engagement as critical in preventing dropping out. According to the researchers,
engagement involves students being active participants in the learning process and
schoolwork as well as in the social life of the school. Moreover, engagement includes
attendance, class participation, effort in doing schoolwork and homework while also
including interest and enthusiasm, a sense of belonging and identification with the school
(Dynarksi, Clarke, Cobb, Finn, Rumberger & Smink, 2008). The AVID program
attempts to enhance students’ engagement in the school setting by making them active
participants in their learning and the school while also developing their sense of
identification with the school by being part of the AVID program. Additionally, the
panel suggests students who are at-risk of dropping out may need intensive individual
support or other supports to re-engage them in the purpose of education along with
intervention in their academic, social, and personal lives. This intensive intervention
into multiple components of the students’ lives is what the AVID program strives to
accomplish.
More specifically, Dynarksi et al. (2008) recommend assigning adult advocates to
students at-risk of dropping out. They state that personal and academic needs can be
addressed through a meaningful and sustained relationship with a trained adult. This

49
adult, according to the researchers, should be responsible for addressing academic and
social needs, communicating with the families, and advocating for the student. Along
with this adult advocate, the researchers suggest establishing a regular time in the school
day for students to meet with the adult. Furthermore, they suggest choosing adults who
are committed to investing in the student’s personal and academic success and providing
these advocates with guidance and training about how to work with students, parents, and
school staff to address the problems the students might encounter. This notion of an adult
advocate ties directly with the AVID program as one AVID-trained teacher serves as the
facilitator for these students as they travel through their high school years. Students
attend an AVID class every day with their AVID teacher and this teacher is the direct link
between the students and their parents as well.
Dynarksi et al. (2008) recommend providing support and enrichment to improve
academic performance and re-engage students in school. They suggest providing
individual or small group support in test-taking skills, study skills, or targeted subject
areas such as reading, writing, or math. Additionally, the researchers suggest utilizing
tutoring or enrichment programs and homework assistance. The AVID program devotes
a considerable amount of time to academic survival and college entry skills, which
concentrate on note-taking methods, time management, research skills and test-taking
strategies, including ACT and SAT preparation. In addition, AVID students receive
tutoring to help them with review for tests and work on homework problems. A huge
emphasis is placed on writing and critical thinking skills (Guthrie & Guthrie, 2002).

50
Dynarksi et al. (2008) posit that a personalized learning environment creates a sense of
belonging and promotes a sense of community. The panel of researchers state that
students at-risk of dropping out need academic, social, and behavioral encouragement
from teachers and from the school community. This personalized learning environment
fosters a school climate where students and teachers get to know one another. In large
high schools, such as WHS, students can become alienated and disinterested where they
feel little attachment to school and end up dropping out. Reforms focused on creating
smaller learning environment, such as AVID, have been found to be associated with more
positive student achievement, school climate, school attendance, and graduation rates.
More specially, the National Research Council’s (2004) research on effective
schools and programs concluded that the student engagement and learning are fostered by
a school climate characterized by an ethic of caring and supportive relationships, respect,
fairness, and trusts; and teachers’ sense of shared responsibility and efficacy related to
student learning. The research also found that student outcomes were most improved
when a caring and supportive environment was combined with a focus on learning and
high expectations for student achievement. The AVID approach is a collaborative one in
which teachers, students and parent work together. The goal is a shared sense of
responsibility in ensuring the students are successful in high school, graduate, and attend
college. Additionally, AVID program emphasizes high expectations as it places students
into college preparatory classes, including Advanced Placement and Honors level classes.

51
Advancement via Individual Determination
According to the Westside School District, AVID is an elective course designed
to meet the needs of college bound students traditionally in the academic middle by
providing academic instruction and other support preparing them for eligibility to four-
year colleges and universities, giving students college-level entry skills, motivating
students to seek college educations, and increasing the students level of career awareness.
Students learn Cornell note-taking, organizational skills, the inquiry process, and
communication skills. The curriculum adheres to the WICR methodology (Writing,
Inquiry, Collaboration, and Reading) and requires that students sign a contract that
commits them to the philosophy of the program. Admission to the program is by
recommendation, application, and interview only. Students participate in this elective
throughout their four years, and they are expected to enroll in a rigorous schedule and
maintain a minimum GPA requirement.
The AVID website (www. AVID.com) states: AVID is a college-readiness
system designed to increase the number of students who enroll in four-year colleges.
Although the AVID program can serve all students, it is designed to focus on the least
served students in the academic middle who have historically failed in the educational
setting.
The AVID program began in 1980 at Clairemont High School, a middle-class
suburban high school in San Diego County, California. AVID was developed as a result
of the high school becoming desegregated due to a court-ordered mandate imposed on the
San Diego Unified School District. This desegregation effort resulted in the enrollment

52
of 500 students from outside of the Clairemont High School District who were primarily
of African American, Latino or Hispanic descent and low-income households (Swanson,
1989).
Mary Catherine Swanson, chair of the school’s English department, placed 30 of
the new students in advanced courses to provide them with the same rigorous curriculum
that was available to all students. Although these students lacked the prerequisite
coursework for the classes, Swanson provided an AVID elective course in which students
received tutoring to improve writing skills and were taught note-taking and study skills.
The AVID program was so successful in increasing standardized test scores and securing
underrepresented student enrollment in 4-year colleges that by 1997 more than 500 high
schools and middle schools in 8 states and 13 countries had introduced the program
(AVID, 2006). Currently, the program is implemented in nearly 2,300 schools across 37
states and 15 countries (AVID online, 2010).
Eleven essential guidelines inform the operation of the AVID program. These
guidelines specify details of the AVID program elements such as criteria for student
selection, curricular focus, staff and parent involvement, course enrollment, nature of
instruction, and rigor of curriculum. The program is designed for students in the
academic middle, with a GPA of 2.0 to 3.5 (Swanson, Mehan, & Hubbard, 1995).
The AVID program selects for participation those students who are of ethnic,
linguistic, or economic backgrounds that are historically underrepresented in 4-year
colleges, who face obstacles to college enrollment or who would be the first in their
families to attend college (Swanson, Mehan, & Hubbard, 1995). Other selection criteria

53
include student willingness and determination to put forth the effort to succeed in
advanced classes and parent commitment to support the student.
Students in the program participate in an AVID elective class daily as an
alternative to other electives. The elective class offers tutorials that promote student
collaboration and inquiry, motivational days involving field trips to colleges and
presentations by guest speakers, and academic skill classes that focus on instruction in
Cornell-style note taking, test-taking and study skills, assignment tracking, and writing to
learn. The AVID curriculum strongly emphasizes WICR. The teacher serves primarily
as student advocate by providing support to students as needed when dealing with other
teachers, administrators, and college admission personnel.
At the high school level, AVID students are enrolled in a school’s toughest
classes, such as Advanced Placement and receive support in an academic elective class
called AVID that is taught within the school day by a trained AVID teacher. In the
AVID elective, students receive support through a rigorous curriculum and ongoing,
structured tutorials. AVID teachers support AVID students by providing academic
training, managing their tutorials, working with faculty and parents, and by helping
students develop long-range academic and personal plans. Parents encourage their
students to achieve academically, participate on an advisory board and in AVID parent
and site team meetings, and maintain regular contact with the AVID coordinator. Many
parents and students participate in AVID family workshops.
Components of the AVID model include providing a rigorous and relevant
curriculum, academic and social support from an elective class, and college tutors. The

54
AVID student profile includes criteria such as low socioeconomic status, C-level work,
average to high achievement test scores, desire to go to college, ethnic and linguistic
diversity and untapped academic potential (Watt, Powell, & Mendiola, 2004).
According to AVID’s annual data collection, 75 percent of AVID students were
accepted to four-year colleges in 2005 (AVID, 2007). The same report indicated that
over 99 percent of AVID students graduated from high school, compared to 82 percent
national average (AVID, 2007).
One study conducted centered upon the consequences of un-tracking previously
underachieving students on the basis of their perceived innate academic capability. The
study’s findings assert that through the implementation of the AVID program students
successfully transitioned from low track classrooms into rigorous college preparatory
courses (Mehan, Hubbard, Lintz, Villanueva, & 1994).
Mehan, Villanueva, Hubbard, and Lintz (1996) conducted a mixed methods study
using data and materials from various sources, including official school records, surveys
of students, teachers, and parents, and school officials, and classroom observations. The
study indicated that students from underrepresented ethnic and linguistic backgrounds
who participated in AVID enrolled in college in numbers exceeding the local and
national averages. Additionally, AVID students were staying in college once enrolling
with 89% enrolled after two years. These researchers determined that the AVID support
structure effectively wiped out the correlation between family income and college
admission.

55
Watt, Yanez, and Cossio (2002) combined both qualitative and quantitative
methods of data collection and analysis, including students’ grade point averages,
attendance, enrollment and various achievement data. These data were collected on
approximately 1,000 students in 26 secondary schools in Texas. The results of the study
indicated that AVID students demonstrated success in rigorous courses and outperformed
their peers on state-mandated exams, grade point averages, and most notably, AVID
student attendance rates surpassed the general population. Furthermore, AVID students
were easily identifiable by their eagerness to ask questions, their consistent use of tutors,
and this use of AVID strategies.
Another study completed by Karen Watt titled AVID: A Comprehensive School
Reform Model for Texas followed a group of AVID students for two years to track
academic progress. One research question surrounded the achievement of AVID students
as they transitioned into a college readiness curriculum. The study found, “The AVID
students of study have outperformed their classmates on state-mandated exams. In
addition the grade point averages of AVID students remained at high levels despite added
rigor” (Watt, 2003, p.56)
Martinez and Klopott’s (2006) study identified four practices for promoting
success of low-income and minority high school students in terms of student achievement
and increased enrollment in postsecondary education. These four practices included
access to rigorous academic core curriculum for all kids, prevalence in structure and
climate of personalized learning environments, balance of academic and social support
for student development of social networks and relationships, and alignment of

56
curriculum between various levels of education. Of all the programs that were reviewed
by these researchers, the authors stated that “because AVID proactively seeks to raise
achievement and increase college preparedness for students at-risk, it deliberately
addresses the predictors of college-going behavior and uses college entrance and
completion as measures of its success, making it unique among the reform models
examined in this study” (p. 18).
Finally, a study of Longitudinal Research on AVID between the years of 1999-
2001 facilitated by Larrie Guthrie found that 95% of AVID graduates attended a four
year college/university. Approximately half of those students reported have a 3.0 or
better, proving that AVID not only prepares students to enter post-secondary institutions,
but aids in their retention (AVID, 2008). This finding is reiterated by recent AVID
graduate research when they reported 89% of AVID students who enrolled in college
were still there two years later (Impact, 2010).
Social Capital and School Outcomes
The academic success of individual students is influenced by their personal
characteristics and dispositions. Equally true, however, is that as members of schools,
families, and communities, students have access to various forms of social support that
can facilitate their success in school. Researchers have increasingly recognized the
importance of social support for students’ academic success (Goddard, 2003).
The idea of the social capital was identified by Pierre Bourdieu (1977, 1979, 1984) and
given a clear theoretical framework by Coleman (1988, 1990). However, it is now most

57
commonly associated with Putnam (1993, 1996, 2000) who successfully exported the
concept out of academia and into a wider media.
According to Pierre Bourdieu (1986), an individual’s social capital might consist
of his/her institutionalized networks such as their family, but also of networks held
together only by the material or cultural exchanges between members. The individual’s
amount of social capital depends on how large the network of relations he or she can
effectively mobilize and on the amount of capital each member of the network possesses.
Essential to understanding Bourdieu’s theory is the role social capital plays in the process
of and preserving and reproducing class structures within society. Thus, Bourdieu, unlike
other social capital researchers, uses it to explain the realities of social inequality.
James Coleman (1988) believed social capital can facilitate productive activity as
it is one of the potential resources which an actor can use. Therefore, social capital is not
owned by the individual, but instead it arises as a resource that is available. Coleman
posits that a group within there is extensive trust is able to accomplish much more than a
group where trust does not exist. Coleman identifies three forms of social capital:
obligations and expectations, information channels, and norms. Furthermore, according
to Coleman, social capital does not exist within the actors themselves, but in the
structures of the relations between actors.
Bourdieu (1986) and Coleman (1988) do not include any collective aspect of
social capital, linking it only to individual assets. Putnam (2000), on the other hand,
applies the concept on a societal level and sees social capital as a collective asset.
Bourdieu (1986) stresses the role that social capital plays in the distribution of power in a

58
society. As individuals possess varying degrees of access to social networks they will
have unequal levels of social capital and an unequal distribution of power. Although all
three researchers have different standpoints regarding the notion of social capital, they all
stress the importance of social networks of different types and how the “capital” gained
from these relationships can facilitate positive outcomes.
There are many definitions attached to the term “social capital.” For this study,
Putnam’s definition will be used which focused on social networks. Putnam defined
social capital as “…networks, norms, and trust that enable participants to act together
more effectively to pursue shared objectives” (Putnam. 1996, p. 56).
associated norms of reciprocity have value (Putnam, 2000, p. 1). The central idea is that
social networks are a valuable asset. Interaction enables people to build communities, to
commit themselves to each other and to knit social fabric. A sense of belonging and the
concrete experience of social networks can bring great benefits to people.
Putnam (2000) argues that social capital has “forceful, even quantifiable effects
on many different aspects of our lives” (p. 23). These quantifiable effects include lower
crime rate, better health, improved longevity, greater levels of income equality, improved
child welfare and lower rates of child abuse, less corrupt and more effective government,
enhanced economic achievement, and better educational achievement. The cumulative
effect of research indicates that the well connected individual is more likely to be
“housed, healthy, hired, and happy” (Woolcock, 2001, p. 12).

59
Putnam (2000) stresses that we must accept that there is no single form of social
capital and that we need to think about the multiple dimensions of social capital. He
asserts that there are some forms of social capital that are highly formal, like membership
in an organization of any sort that is formally organized with a chairman and president,
membership dues and so on. On the other hand, there are forms of social capital that are
informal, like the group of people that hang out a bar on Thursday nights. Additionally,
there are densely laced forms of social capital, like a group of steelworkers who work
together every day, go to church every Sunday, and are part of a bowling team. There are
also very thin, almost invisible forms of social capital like the nodding acquaintance you
have with the person you occasionally see at the supermarket. All of these forms of
social capital, according to Putnam (2000), “constitute networks in which there can easily
develop reciprocity, and in which there can be gains” (p. 2). In sum, an indicator of a
person’s social capital consists of a combination of their formal membership and
participation in many different forms of informal networks.
Another component of social capital is the notion of social trust. Putnam (2000)
believes that social trust is “not part of the definition of social capital, but is certainly a
close consequence” (p. 7). Trust looms large in the debate about social capital. Some
consider trust as an outcome of social capital (Woolcock, 2001); others view it as a
component of shared values which constitute social capital, whereas some consider it to
be both (Cote & Heaty, 2001).
Another element of social capital is the concept of altruism. Putnam (2000)
believes that in the United States and probably elsewhere a strong predictor of altruism is

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social connectedness. “That is, the people who give blood, give money, and have
volunteered their time are people who are more connected” (Putnam, 2000, p. 7).
The most common distinction established when discussing social capital is
between bridging, bonding, and linking. Putnam (2000) suggests that bonding social
capital is good for “getting by” and bridging is crucial for “getting ahead.” Bonding
(exclusive) social capital refers to relations amongst relatively homogenous groups such
as family members and close friends similar to the notion of strong ties. One strong
adverse effect of strong bonding social capital is that it may serve to exclude individuals
from joining a particular group or dissuade people from extending beyond their
comfortable group. Bridging (inclusive) social capital refers to relations with distant
friends, associated, and colleagues. Linking social capital refers to relations between
individuals and groups in different social strata in a hierarchy where power, social status,
and wealth are accessed by different groups (Cote & Healy, 2001). Linking is especially
important in studying AVID students from this high school as they likely will be part of
different social strata than the other students who are enrolled in their honors or advanced
placement classes.
Both Putnam (2000) and Halpern (1999) identified education as a key to the
creation of social capital and greater educational achievement as an important outcome.
Putnam believes that the relationship between educational performance and social capital
is much stronger, two orders of magnitude stronger than spending on schools or
teacher/pupil ratios, or any of the obvious things that are usually thought to increase
educational performance.

61
In the context of education, social capital, in the forms of parental expectations,
obligations, and social networks exist within family, school, and community are
important for student success. The concept of social capital is a useful tool for
understanding differences among student learning outcomes. Broadly meaning the
personal relationships that aid in achieving goals, social capital is not a single explanation
or variable, but rather points toward a variety of explanations of how informal human and
social relationships are important for human behavior (Quillian & Redd, 2005).
Coleman et al. concluded that concluded that differences in the family
backgrounds of students, as opposed to school characteristics, accounted for the greatest
amount of variance in their academic achievement. In related works, Wolf (1995) posited
that the presence of family environmental supports for academic development may
explain this association between family status and student achievement.
Putnam (2000) states that child development is powerfully shaped by social
capital. Trust, networks, and norms of reciprocity within a child’s family, school, peer
group, and larger community have far reaching effects on their opportunities and choices,
educational achievement, and hence on their behavior and development. A growing body
of research suggests that where trust and social networks flourish, individuals, firms,
neighborhoods, and even nations prosper economically. Social capital can help mitigate
the insidious effects of socioeconomic disadvantage.
Putnam provides educators with ideas regarding informal education. For
example, the act of joining and being regularly involved in organized groups has a very
significant impact on individual health and well-being. Educational achievement is likely

62
to rise significantly, and the quality of day-to-day interaction is likely to be enhanced
through a much greater emphasis on the cultivation of extra-curricular activities
involving groups and teams. This notion of possessing an associational life can be an
important component in the building of social capital in an educational setting.
One component of a student’s social capital is the element of their relationship
with their family, especially their parents. The importance of a student’s relationship
with his/her family is “often overlooked in our local, state, and national discussions about
raising student achievement and closing achievement gaps” (Barton, 2007, p. 2).
The American society relies on parents to nurture and socialize children. The idea
of having two parents is an obvious advantage for any student. Barton (2007) suggests
that this allows parents more time to talk with their children, read to them, help them with
their homework, get them up and off to school, and check their progress with their
teachers. Additionally, two-parent families are more likely than single-parent families to
be participating in the workforce and to have middle-class incomes.
Furstenberg and Hughes (1995) showed that social capital, measured as parents’
social investment in their children and the community, increased children’s odds of
graduating high school and attending college. This study investigated not only the social
structure connecting parents, their children, and the community, but also focused on
quality interactions among these actors.
One important concept presented by Coleman (1990) is the importance of social
patterns of acceptable behavior that support desirable outcomes. In terms of schooling,
when students respect norms, such as completing homework and being serious in school,

63
their chances of academic success are enhanced. Norms effectively influence
individuals’ behavior because the actions of group members are judged by group
members relative to group norms. Coleman states that norms develop to permit group
members some control over the actions of others when those actions have consequences
for the group. When a child’s actions are incongruent with the shared beliefs of the
group, group members will most likely sanction those actions. Thus, if most individuals
with whom a child interacts believe that schoolwork and learning are important, the press
to perform will be accompanied by social sanctions for those who do not (Goddard,
2003).
According to the North Central Regional Education Laboratory’s report entitled
All Students Reaching the Top – Strategies for Closing Academic Achievement Gaps
(2004), the concept of affirmative development is based on the notion that academic
abilities are nurtured and developed through pedagogical, social, and interpersonal
supports. The report suggests that beyond the opening of doors and beyond the
achievement of numerical diversity, educators—and the institutions that they represent—
must work together towards the achievement of relational diversity. The report’s
summarized research implies that trust and confidence is a critical component of minority
students’ achievement on several levels. When high-achieving minority students succeed,
many times they will be faced with situations and environments where their group
membership becomes particularly salient. Concerns about one’s belonging can directly
impact one’s achievement by leading people to not take advantage of the various
resources that the institution may offer. Although this self-protective strategy minimizes

64
the possibility of rejection and future prejudice, it also reduces the number of resources
and support systems one can count on when faced with the difficulties that all students
face. The report argues that minority students may experience the psychological impact
of being a member of a stigmatized group more acutely as they become more
academically successful.
Evidence on the impact of social capital on education in the United States is
reviewed by Putnam (2000). He finds a strong and significant correlation between
measures of social capital at the aggregate State level and quality of learning outcomes
using Standard Aptitude Test scores (SAT). Putnam (2000) reports a strong effect of
state-level social capital on individual attainment. This result was achieved after
controlling for a wide range of potentially confounding variables, including race, level of
income, and income inequality, levels of educational completion in the adult population,
poverty rates, educational spending, teachers’ salaries, class size, family structure, and
religious affiliation, as well as the size of the private-school sector. However even
allowing for considerable controls for income and other factors, there may be other
unobserved factors correlated with the proxy measures of social capital used and learning
outcomes. These findings suggest that higher levels of social interaction appear to have a
strong positive impact on learning, levels of trust and informal socializing seemed to be
more significant than levels of organizational membership and related measures and
compared to traditional policy levers such as reductions in average class size, the likely
leverage of social capital seems to be greater in raising achievement scores.

65
One component of social capital is an individual’s memberships in both informal
and formal organizations. This study examines the school setting, thus the high school
students at WHS have the possibility of participating in various clubs and teams.
Previous research has found that students who participate in extracurricular activities tend
to have higher levels of achievement (Camp, 1990; Sweet, 1986).
McNeal (1995) operationalized the term “integration” as students’ involvement in
school-based extracurricular activities. The amount of “integration” students have with a
particular school would be one way of measuring their social capital. McNeal asserts that
certain extracurricular activities are more “integrating” because of frequent interaction
and a more time-intensive commitment and that an activity cannot be effectively
“integrating” if it meets irregularly and infrequently.
McNeal (1995) in his article entitled Extracurricular Activities and High School
Dropouts discusses the notion of social control theory which contends that individuals are
naturally inclined to commit deviant acts and that the strength of one’s social bonds to
various traditional institutions mediates this tendency. That is, those students with
stronger ties to the school setting are less likely to commit and sustain deviant behavior.
According to Hirschi (1969), there are four interwoven components of any social
bond: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. Attachment refers to
attachment of significant others, such as parents and peers. Commitment is an
individual’s level of commitment to conventional aspirations and acceptance of
legitimate means of achieving these goals. Involvement is one’s level of involvement in

66
activities and belief is where one believes in the moral validity of the social rules and has
accepted these codes of conduct as just and valid.
Hirschi’s component of involvement correlates with an individual’s social bond to
his/her school. Various studies have determined that a higher level of integration leads to
the decreased likelihood of exiting the school environment (Spady, 1970; Tinto, 1987).
Tinto (1987) posits that the level of integration into an environment determines whether
an individual remains or departs from the group. Thus, if the high school students feel
integrated with their school, they will be much more likely to feel like part of the
institution and increase their overall success within the school setting.
Tinto (1987) also separated the school environment into social and academic
domains. When analyzing the social domain, a student many be integrated into one or
more distinct and separate peer groups, measured by the type of participation. A school’s
internal culture is dependent on the formation of student groups, which are partially
defined on the basis of school sanctioned activities. Membership in these groups also
contributes to personal development and identity formation and students are labeled on
the basis of their memberships (McNeal, 1995).
McNeal (1995) posits that social groups tend to gravitate around specific
activities and that there is a continuum of activities at the high school level, from highly
prized to devalued. Athletics is a high status activity, music is a moderate status activity,
and debate and hobby clubs are lower status activities. This “status ladder” results in
athletes have much more prestige and power than students who are member of vocational
clubs. Cusick (1973) determined that students in the “power cliques (those who are

67
active in athletics, student government, and the drama club) have more authority than do
students who are in other groups or in no groups.
Finn (1989) conducted a study that linked extracurricular participation to
dropping out of high school. He contended that students engage in school activities at
different rates and thus identify with the value of the school and the school culture
differently. The degree of participation and identification then mediates a student’s
likelihood of dropping out. The level of a high school student’s participation and
identification with his/her particular school will be critical in this study.
McNeal (1995) states that stronger social ties to their school may lead to a host of
benefits for students. As a result of increased involvement, involved students may have a
change in attitudes, they may enhance their social ties to their peers, or they may feel an
overall greater sense of attachment to or investment in school. However, he affirms that
a students’ desire or need to be involved may drive the student to get involved in the
school setting and that the need to be part of a group or community may lead students to
participate in activities and persist in school.
Greenberger and Steinberg (1989) stated that the lives of adolescents are defined
predominantly in three dimensions: family, peers, and work. According to social capital
theory, employment can be considered a means of increasing social capital due to the ties
to the specific organization and the individuals that are also employed there. However, a
student’s employment leads to both reduced involvement and a higher likelihood of
dropping out of high school (McNeal, 1995). Consequently, a high school student’s
employment could have a negative effect on their overall participation and integration

68
into their school environment due to the fact that they have less time to spend at the
school setting.
Social capital exists both at home and in schools. Both the home environments
that parents construct for children and the environments within schools that children
experience can by characterized by their safety, their levels of intellectual stimulation,
and the extent to which they promote appropriate social behavior. Family capital refers
to the bonds between parents and children that are useful in promoting child socialization.
Social capital refers to the time and attention parents spend in interaction with children,
monitoring their activities, and in promoting child well-being, including educational
achievement (Coleman, 1990). Social capital in families is greater when the family
system is characterized by time-closure; when the parents’ commitment to each other is
long-term, children benefit from the stability of the union. In addition, children benefit
from the continued exposure to the social connections parents have with others outside
the family group, such as neighbors, school personnel, or work colleagues. Other
variables that can diminish a family’s level of social capital are the absence of a two-
parent household and maternal employment (Parcel & Dufur, 2001). Other factors
influencing family social capital include the cognitive stimulation present in the home,
and the mother’s affect and disciplinary styles.
Parcel and Meneghan (1994) have demonstrated that several forms of family
social capital can influence child outcomes. Children’s home environments reflect
parental investment in child well-being and these environments are a function of material
resources. Parental investments in age-appropriate cognitive stimulation, an affectively

69
warm style of interacting with children, and in general cleanliness and safety of the home
environment combine to promote positive child outcomes. Stronger children’s home
environments are associated with greater verbal facility, both reading and math
achievement, and lower levels of behavior problems. Intact family status can influence
the amount of social capital children can access. McLanahan and Sandefur (1997) have
demonstrated that children from intact families have advantages in both educational
attainment and social well-being.
In Parcel and Dufour’s (2001) study, they found that family social capital was
important as better home environments related to increases in achievement as was living
with a mother who was married. Additionally, higher maternal working hours were
negatively associated with math achievement. As for reading achievement, having a
mother who was married and who more often knew of her child’s location was associated
with gains in reading recognition. Also, higher working hours for the mother’s spouse
related to gains in reading achievement.
Family social capital can be measured by analyzing various aspects of a child’s
home environment. Questions measuring the number of a child’s close friends the
mother knows by sight and name, how often the mother knows the child’s location when
not at home, and the frequency of the child’s church attendance can be used to measure
the presence of family social capital. Additionally, the number of children in the family,
the mother’s marital status, and the amount of maternal and paternal work hours can also
be analyzed when determining an individual’s family social capital.

70
School capital associated with schools most directly refers to bonds between
parents and schools that can facilitate educational outcomes. The bonds reflect
community ties, a concept also intertwined with the role of social capital in promoting
child well-being. These bonds can also reflect the relationships that parents and children
form with school teachers. Just as home environment is a form of social capital that can
enhance children’s learning, school environments reflect social ties and interactive styles
embedded in the schools, which can also enhance learning.
In Parcel and Dufour’s (2001) study, school capital effects, although relatively
less influential than family effects, were still present. Children’s reading achievement
benefitted from schools with greater parental involvement in school activities and better
communication with parents. Additionally, a student’s math learning was negatively
influenced when they attended schools where the social environment was hampered by
numerous social problems.
Coleman (1990) believes that a combination of school and family institutions
working together can promote academic achievement. This effect is called “resource
boosters” as students who experience favorable conditions at both home and school may
achieve more. Greenwald, Hedges and Laine (1996) argue that as family social capital
declines, school resources become more important to promoting student achievement. In
this case, a deficit in resources at home can be at least partially compensated by
supportive resources at school. These are called “compensating effects” because more
favorable conditions in one sphere may compensate for less favorable conditions in the
other.

71
Parcel and DuFour (2001) mention the importance of considering how
combinations of family and social capital jointly enhance or hinder student achievement.
Capital at home and at school can work together for good or ill. These researchers
suggest that individuals cannot provide a strictly competitive test as to whether capital
should be invested at home or at school. Rather, people need to consider how the two
institutions work together to promote student achievement.

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CHAPTER 3
Assumptions and rationale for a qualitative design
This dissertation employed qualitative case study research as defined by Merriam
(1998), “A qualitative case study is an intensive, holistic description and analysis of a
bounded phenomenon” (p. xiii). According to Merriam, (1998) “Qualitative researchers
are interested in understanding the meanings people have constructed, that is, how they
make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world” (p. 6). This
qualitative research study focused on 12th
grade students who are currently in the AVID
program and have been since their freshman or sophomore year of high school. The study
elicited the perspectives of the students along with the AVID teacher regarding the AVID
program at WHS.
The researcher used qualitative research as the process to interpret this
phenomenon because of its ability to provide meaningful insight into these students’ lives
and their daily interaction with adults and peers at WHS. Furthermore, qualitative
research gives a voice to the respondents. In fact, the students’ voices provided the data
on which conclusions were based. The researcher listened to the perspectives of the
AVID students to comprehensively understand the program and its impact in building
social capital and cultural capital at school.
To answer the research question, a non-experimental approach was utilized. The
population of students was studied; however, no educational components were withheld
or applied to them. The researcher’s selected questions were also inductive. The goal of
answering these questions was to illuminate a comprehensive description of the AVID

73
program at a high achieving, suburban high school. Additionally, it developed a full
picture of participation in the AVID program from the students’ point of view along with
the AVID teacher.
A bounded event is a phenomenon that can be separated from others. In this case,
it was studying one student population in one grade level in one particular school over a
specific time frame. As this group was thoroughly studied, information was categorized
and organized in a manner to reveal if the students’ participation in the AVID program
had increased their social capital with their peers and school.
This study had an interesting contextual component. This study, unlike others,
did not focus on a school with an abundance of at-risk students. Thus, this case study
was able to shed light on the AVID program in this particular school and describe the
students’ perspectives of this program. Furthermore, this qualitative study allowed the
voices of the AVID participants to be heard and how this program has influenced the
students’ current educational program, their future aspirations, and their life as a student
at WHS.
Role of the Researcher
The researcher in this study is a doctoral student at a public university as well as
an assistant principal in a suburban school district. Before becoming an administrator,
the researcher was an elementary school teacher and also served as a reading specialist at
both the elementary and secondary level.

74
The researcher believed that schools need to become less bureaucratic and
mechanistic in educating students if they hope to successfully educate all students,
especially at-risk students. By comprehensively understanding these students and how
they fully assimilate to the school setting, schools can intervene and provide these
students with experiences to make them both academically and socially successfully.
The researcher also believed that the students’ relationships with adults and peers can
play an integral role in their academic success.
In producing a qualitative study, the researcher was sensitive to the biases
inherent in this type of research. Because the primary instrument in qualitative research
is human, all observations and analyses were filtered through that human being’s
worldview, values, and perspective. To overcome this bias, the researcher conducted
repeated observations and interviews, as well a sustained presence in the high school that
was being studied. This long-term involvement and intensive interview process enabled
the researcher to collect rich data from the participants regarding their involvement in the
AVID program.
To address the concern of validity in the data collection part of the study, the
researcher maintained himself as an attentive, neutral listener and observer of the
environment. Merriam (1998) states that the investigators “role in qualitative research
can be compared to that of a detective” who has no personal stake in the outcome of the
study (p. 21). The interest that the researcher had for this subject area and the bias of the
researcher may have limited the study. The researcher maintained a neutral view on the
AVID program when interviewing participants in the study as his bias must not be

75
evident or it will create distortion and limit the study. The researcher strove to overcome
this bias by maintaining a neutral perspective while conducting interviews with
participants. The researched shared his analyses with participants for feedback, and
offered the participants opportunities to clarify any of their responses in order to aid the
researcher in controlling bias and accurately interpreting the data.
Population and Sample
At WHS, there are nineteen seniors in the AVID program. The researcher handed
out consent forms to all nineteen students and interviewed the first twelve students that
handed them back to their AVID teacher. All nineteen students did return consent forms;
however, due to the quantity of the qualitative data and the desire to intensely study the
participants, the researcher did not interview all participants. The researcher did not
exclude any students from the study based on their ethnicity, gender, age, or economic
status.
Of these twelve students, five of these students were male and seven were female.
All of the participants were either seventeen or eighteen years old. The ethnicity of the
participants included Caucasians and African-Americans. Four students were African
American and eight students were Caucasian. Four of the students were classified as
economically disadvantaged as defined by the United States Department of Agriculture
and qualify for free or reduced lunch. Eight students were deemed vulnerable due to their
age during their participation in the study. Of the twelve students, four were in the AVID
program for four years, seven for three years, and one for two years. Three of the

76
students interviewed were from single parent households. Of the twelve students
interviewed, one student had parents who both went to college and six students had one
parent that went to college. Five of the students had parents who both did not attend
college. More student demographic information is included in Table 3.1
None of the students had an Individualized Education Program. At the time of
this study, the students’ Grade Point Averages (GPAs) ranged from a 2.5 to a 3.9.
Furthermore, all twelve students interviewed had applied and been accepted to multiple
four-year universities. Overall, the students had been accepted to 40 colleges/universities
and had received almost $700,000 in total financial aid and $7,500 in scholarship money.
Table 3.2 showcases the number of colleges/universities each student had been accepted
to and the amount of financial aid they had received.

77
Table 3.1 – Student Demographic Information
STUDENT
NAME
G
E
N
D
E
R
A
G
E
Ethnicity Number
Years in
AVID
One or
Two
Parent
House-
hold
Information about Mother Information about
Father
Anthony M 17 Caucasian 4 2 Did not attend college;
Works at a salon cutting
hair
Did not attend college;
owns his own
construction business
Casey F 17 Caucasian 4 1 –
mother
Works as a custodian at a
school
Currently unemployed
Christina F 17 Caucasian 3 2 Attended college; Owns
her own house cleaning
business
Works as a police officer
Hiro M 18 African –
American
2 1 –
mother
Attended college; Works
as a massage therapist
Attended college; Works
as a music teacher in a
charter school
Kelsey K. F 17 Caucasian 3 2 Attended college; Works
as a receptionist at a
hospital
Works as a supervisor at a
food distribution center
Kelsey R. F 17 Caucasian 3 1 -
mother
Works in the real estate
industry
Does not know about her
father’s employment
Lindsay F 18 Caucasian 3 2 Did not attend college;
Works as a transportation
planner
Attended college;
Electrical engineer at a
power plant
Marcus M 17 African –
American
3 2 Attended college; Works
in the business
department of a large
corporation
Works as an electrician
Mary F 17 African –
American
4 2 Did not attend college;
Works as a teacher’s
assistant in an elementary
school
Works as a bus driver
Sam M 18 African –
American
3 2 Attended college; Works
as an accountant
Does not know about
father’s employment
Shawn M 17 Caucasian 4 2 Attended college; Works
at a pharmaceutical
company doing clinical
research
Works as a biomedical
engineer
Tessa F 17 Caucasian 3 2 Did not attend college;
Works as a cosmetologist
Owns his own
construction business

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Table 3.2 – College Acceptance and Financial Aid Information
Data Collection
The data collection was achieved through the use of semi-structured interviews
with the students and AVID teacher along with the researchers’ field notes from multiple
student observations. Interviews with the participants were semi-structured. This
STUDENT
NAME
G
E
N
D
E
R
A
G
E
Ethnicity Number
Years in
AVID
Number of College
Acceptances
Amount of Financial Aid/Scholarships
Anthony M 17 Caucasian 4 3 $5,000 for 5 years = $25,000
$10,000 for 4 years = $40,000
$15,000 for 4 years = $60,000
Casey F 17 Caucasian 4 6 $8,525 for 4 years = $34,100
$8,500 for 4 years = $34,000
$6,000 for 4 years = $24,000
$7,000 for 4 years = $28,000
Christina F 17 Caucasian 3 3 $13,000 for 4 years = $52,000
$1,500 in scholarship money
Hiro M 18 African –
American
2 2
Kelsey K. F 17 Caucasian 3 2 $8,500 for 4 years = $34,000
Kelsey R. F 17 Caucasian 3 5 $9,000 for 4 years = $36,000
$9,000 for 4 years = $36,000
Lindsay F 18 Caucasian 3 5 $8,000 for 5 years = $40,000
$6,000 in scholarship money
Marcus M 17 African –
American
3 3 $18,000 for 4 years = $72,000
Mary F 17 African –
American
4 3 $4,000 for 4 years = $16,000
Sam M 18 African –
American
3 4 $10,000 for 4 years = $40,000
$4,000 for 4 years = $16,000
Shawn M 17 Caucasian 4 2 $8,000 for 4 years = $32,000
Tessa F 17 Caucasian 3 2 $6,500 for 4 years = $26,000
$8,000 for 4 years = $32,000

79
provided for consistent investigations of particular topics with the participant and basic
introductory questions, but also afforded flexibility to engage in natural conversation that
provided deeper insight. This made it more likely that the interview was authentic as it
treated the respondent as an equal and allowed him or her to express personal feelings
regarding the AVID program. Each student participant was interviewed for
approximately 30 to 45 minutes during the fall semester of the 2010-2011 school year.
The researcher requested additional interviews with some the participants in order to
obtain clarification or to expand on the participant’s initial responses.
Interviews were audio-taped and completely transcribed by the researcher. The
interviews occurred in a one-to-one setting in a private room at WHS during the school
day. Each interview began with open-ended questions relating to the subjects’ life to
ensure the participant was comfortable. As the interview progressed, the researcher
continued with open-ended questions with a focus on obtaining information about the
participants’ participation in the AVID program at WHS.
Additionally, the students were observed during the school day in their AVID
elective class on multiple occasions as permitted by the school district. The researcher
observed the AVID students in their AVID elective class for approximately fifteen hours
during the fall semester. During the observations, the researcher used field notes to
record data relating to the students’ interactions with each other and the AVID teacher.
Furthermore, the field notes were utilized to record the activities the AVID students were
participating in as part of the AVID curriculum. As the researcher was immersed in the

80
participants’ classroom and school setting, themes emerged regarding student behavior,
engagement, and peer interaction.
All student participants received a General Consent Form that was signed prior to
their participation in the interviews. All students under the age of eighteen had a parent
or guardian sign a consent form for them. Additionally, they also signed an assent form
indicating that they fully understood the study. The researcher ensured confidentiality of
the participants in the study by concealing their identity and pseudonyms were created for
the school and participants.
Along with interviews and student observations, the researcher also analyzed
various student data, including their attendance records, grade point average (GPA), and
class rosters during their four years at WHS. The use of multiple sources as well as
different respondents reporting on the same phenomena was useful in achieving
triangulation.
Data Analysis
Lofland and Lofland (1995) recommend that researchers maintain four different
types of codes: housekeeping (notes on everyday events, people, and organizations in the
setting being analyzed), analytic (emerging themes in the data, including coding single
items in numerous ways), fieldwork (notes on procedures pertaining to data collection
and preliminary analysis), and chronological (notes on the order in which events occurred
and/or data was collected). The researcher utilized these four different types of codes
when analyzing the data from student interviews and observations.

81
This coding system enabled the researcher to manage a complex process of data
analysis that became more refined over time, moving from general to more specific. As
the analysis unfolded, categories within the selected codes were further elaborated and
examined. Other codes were collapsed and yet others were dropped (Lofland & Lofland,
1995). Through the use of this coding process, the researcher was able to divulge three
specific themes relating to the data.
More specifically, the data analysis proceeded in a sequence of steps. The
researcher simultaneously conducted the interviews and observations with the AVID
students. At the conclusion of each interview with the AVID student, it was transcribed
by the researcher. After each transcription, the researcher recorded memos that
highlighted specific ideas relating to each interview. In between the interviews with the
AVID students, the researcher observed the students on multiple occasions in their AVID
elective class. During each observation, the researcher recorded field notes to acquire an
understanding of the AVID students’ interactions with each other and the AVID teacher.
Furthermore, the researcher recorded notes relating to the activities the students were
completing as part of the AVID curriculum. After each observation of the AVID
students, the researcher wrote memos that highlighted the particular ideas that presented
themselves during that visit to the AVID classroom. The memos written after the
interviews and observation were used by the researcher to keep an ongoing catalog of his
thoughts during the data collection process.
After interviewing all participants and conducting multiple observations, the
researcher was able to sort the data into a finite number of categories as they emerged.

82
These categories eventually became the key themes used to explain the similarities within
the data. The researcher collected and analyzed data to provide the reader with a detailed
understanding of the phenomenon. By presenting the reader with rich qualitative data,
the researcher brought the participants’ experiences alive to comprehensively describe
their experience participating in the AVID program at WHS.
Methods of Verification
The subjects attend the high school in the same school district that the researcher
currently works as an assistant principal; therefore, these students were easily accessible
throughout the course of the study. Additionally, this accessibility coupled with the close
proximity of the high school allowed for repeated observations and interviews, as well as
a sustained presence in these students’ educational setting. The time commitment
involved with the study called for a long-term involvement to intensively study these
subjects and their daily interaction in a high school setting.
The data that were collected in this study were detailed and varied enough to
provide a full and revealing picture of the phenomenon that was studied. Verbatim
transcripts from interviews were used, along with descriptive notes from observations.
Throughout the research, feedback was solicited regarding the data and conclusions from
the students that were studied. This ruled out the possibility of misinterpreting the
meaning of what the participants said and did. Also, it was an important way of
identifying the researcher’s biases and misunderstandings of what was heard and

83
observed. This validation came in the form of follow-up meetings with the subjects after
the researcher interpreted the interviews and observations that were made.
The research included triangulation by the study collected information from a number of
sources using a variety of methods. As previously mentioned, the study used student
interviews and observations. Additionally, it analyzed the students’ attendance records,
GPAs, and class rosters.
When researching, there was a need to rigorously examine both the supporting
and the discrepant data to assess whether it is plausible to retain. In addition, the
researcher had to be aware of the pressures to ignore data that does not fit previous
conclusions or hunches. The researcher asked others for feedback regarding the data as
this was a valuable way to check biases and assumptions along with possible flaws in
logic.
A neutral, unbiased perspective about this study was maintained to the best of the
ability of the researcher. The researcher did not want to manipulate the process and the
progress to any degree. The researcher did not want the participants to react to his
expectations or attitudes about the study. The goal of the researcher was that the
participants did not know the personal perceptions and attitudes of the researcher
concerning this study.
Ethical Issues
All participants were able to withdraw from the study at any time. Additionally,
all participants of the study were required to sign a consent form stating their

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understanding of the conditions of the study. In addition, all minors were required to
have signed consents from a parent or guardian before being part of the study.
The issue of confidentiality was observed by securely retaining all qualitative data
including field notes, interview transcripts, names and other types of identifying
information under close supervision. Pseudonyms were created for the various sites and
all participants remained anonymous. The study was also approved by the IRB through a
full committee review.
Outcome of the Study and its Relation to Theory and Literature
This study sought to analyze the impact of the AVID at a high achieving,
suburban high school. It highlighted how the program attempts to increase the students’
social capital inside the school setting through relationship with their peers and AVID
teacher. Additionally, it illuminated the benefits of increasing at-risk students’ social
capital to improve their chances of succeeding academically, graduating high school, and
attending college.
There is a large amount of literature about the phenomenon of at-risk students, in
particular, economically disadvantaged students. However there is a shortage of research
regarding at-risk students living and going to school in an affluent community. This
study aimed to create a new perspective regarding these students and hoped to clarify the
importance of social capital in the school setting. Additionally, it provided a
comprehensive description of what it is like to participate in the AVID program from the
students’ point of view.

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The researcher believed the study will further address the need for suburban
schools to comprehensively understand at-risk students in order to meet AYP
requirements and achieve in having all students graduate high school and attend post-
secondary institutions. Although there exists a plethora of variables that influence
student achievement that a school cannot control, this study illuminated the use of social
capital as a concept that can be utilized to support students in the high school setting.

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CHAPTER 4
Introduction
As previously described, this qualitative study focused on a bounded event,
which was students’ participation in the AVID program at WHS during the fall semester
of the 2010-2011 school year. During the study, I was able to immerse myself with the
AVID students and AVID class to fully understand their participation in the program and
how it impacted their school experience at WHS. By observing the students in their
AVID class and interviewing them individually, I was able to garner an extensive
perspective of the AVID program at this high-achieving high school. My experiences
provided me with the ability to describe the AVID program from the viewpoint of the
students who participated in the program during their high school years at WHS.
The AVID program has been part of WHS since the 2007-2008 school year. The
subjects in this study will be the second graduating class to have participated in the AVID
class while attending WHS. At WHS, a block schedule is utilized where the students
have four classes each school day for about 80 minutes. Students have these four classes
for the first half of the school year and then schedule four different classes the second
half of the year. However, unlike other courses scheduled at WHS, the AVID elective
class meets every other day for the entire school year, not just half of the school year.
Additionally, the AVID class is scheduled every year the students are in high school.
Thus, the students have AVID in consecutive years and are able to participate in the
AVID elective class with the same teacher and the same group of students year after year
as they progress through high school.

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During the course of my study of the AVID program at WHS, I was able to
examine the students in their AVID elective class numerous times throughout the fall
semester. During my visits, I observed the AVID students working on various
assignments and projects relating to the AVID curriculum. One day the students were
working in small groups preparing for the upcoming college fair. They were creating
presentations that they were planning to display for the freshman and sophomore classes
at WHS. The AVID students were busy on their laptops communicating with each other
and collaborating on the presentations. These collaborative groups or study teams enabled
the students to serve as sources of information for each other. This sense of cohesion
amongst the AVID students, where students were working cooperatively and efficiently
together, was evident every time I visited the AVID class. The supportive and collegial
environment provided to the AVID students will be explored later in this chapter.
On another visit to the AVID elective class, one student approached Miss H., the
AVID elective teacher, and stated that she had just received an acceptance letter to a
particular university that she had recently applied to. After the student discussed this
with her AVID teacher, Miss H. announced this student’s acceptance to the entire AVID
class and the students cheered, clapped and congratulated the student on her acceptance.
I asked Miss H. if this was a common occurrence when students get accepted and she
stated this is a routine that is done every time an AVID student is accepted into any
college that they had applied to. Next, she walked me over to her computer to show me a
table that she had created. The table listed all of the colleges that each student had

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applied to, the ones into which he/she had been accepted, and the amount of scholarship
money that had been awarded to the student. This list, she indicated, was changing every
day as many students were currently waiting to hear back from the colleges and
universities to which they had applied. The notion of applying and getting accepted to a
four-year university presented itself every time I visited the AVID classroom. The class,
at this point in the program, revolved around the college application process. Procedures
for filling out applications, meeting deadlines for SAT and ACT tests, and learning about
and requesting financial aid and scholarships were daily conversations in the AVID class.
This particular demonstration by the AVID teacher and AVID students showcased the
idea that getting accepted into college was a celebration for all the students in the
program.
In addition to my observations of the AVID class, I was able to interview the
AVID students to understand their perspective of the AVID program and the impact it
has had on their high school years at WHS. Before discussing the specific themes that
surfaced when analyzing my data, I will describe three illustrative interviews with a male
and two female students. These interviews are intended to highlight the students’
particular perspectives of the AVID program while also providing a context for some of
the themes that will be discussed later in the chapter.
Casey is a senior at WHS who has been in the AVID program since her freshman
year. During her middle school years, Casey was an average student who, in her own
words, “did not really care.” Additionally, she stressed how disorganized she was in 8th
grade and how she did not really care about her grades or completing homework. Since

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she joined AVID, she indicated that she has noticed a significant change in her grades,
homework completion, and overall motivation in school. However, she noted that she
did have difficulty when she first entered AVID, especially with taking the Cornell
Notes, which are emphasized in the program. She stated:
Like 9th
grade, it was just like we have to do these Cornell Notes
and I don’t wanna do it, and then she (AVID teacher) was you
have to do it, and plus the AVID grade is hard to do because you
have to do stuff in AVID to get a good AVID grade. And you
have to do the AVID stuff to get a good grade in any other class.
So it’s like really stressful. The first year it was really stressful,
but. . . sophomore year got better and junior year, I was like I’m
cool with it. And then now it’s like, it’s same old.
Casey said that AVID is “helping me get more organized and helping me get better
grades. And you think it wouldn’t help that much, but it, it really does.” She went on to
say that “I’ve gotten better grades in the past three years than I’ve had in 8th
grade, and
that’s like easy stuff. So I think it’s changed me for the good.” When discussing
homework, Casey mentioned that:
I actually do my homework. Like I never did my homework and I
actually do it. So like I think that kind of changed me from having the
motivation to do my homework instead of just sitting around and not
doing anything. So like, I just think about AVID just makes me think
about my grades. Like I want my grades to be good, so I’m gonna do
my homework.
Casey discussed how AVID has influenced her course selection since she joined in 9th
grade. She stated:
My sophomore year I took an honors class, which is the first ever.
And I don’t think I would have done that if I didn’t have AVID.
And it was hard but I made it through and I did good, so, I feel like
AVID definitely pushed me to do that honors class. It was like, I
would have never done that. I think that one honors class actually
changed me and made it click. I’m like, I should be taking honors

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classes. And it’s just kinda like, it definitely boosted my expectations.
It’s just hard to explain because it just kind of happened.
During the interview, I was able to uncover that both Casey’s mother and father did not
attend college. In addition, she has two older brothers who also did not attend college.
Casey mentioned that early in her high school years, she wanted to attend community
college and the AVID program has changed this for her. She said that “. . . I actually
wanted to go to community college a couple years ago and she (Miss H.) kinda like
changed my mind by like all this planning and stuff. I was like oh, maybe I’ll go apply
here and then it turned into eight.” At the time of the interview, she had applied to eight
different schools and had already been accepted to two with scholarship money awarded
at both. She discussed how her visits to local colleges through the AVID program helped
her in deciding what colleges to apply to and she actually applied to two of the schools
she visited. She stated that:
I would never go on a college visit if it wasn’t for AVID. Like the first
one I went on I was like, well this is cool. I wanna do this with my mom.
It makes me wanna go with like my mom and stuff. So like the fact that
they take us there, gives us like another way to see colleges and see if I
like them.
Along with the college visits, Casey said that AVID had helped her with the
process of applying to college. She stated:
The college application process was like I never knew you had to do
these things to get into college. Like the transcripts, the application
form. The school report form and it just taught me to actually do stuff
on my own.

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Casey also discussed how the AVID program had also helped her in preparing for the
SATs while also supporting her in selecting a major in college, which will be forensic
science.
During the interview, I was able to ask Casey about her relationship with
her AVID teacher. When she was initially asked about her relationship, she
started to cry and said “she knows everything about me, like every problem I’ve
had. I’ve come to her and like she knows what I’ve gone through and I don’t
know, it’s just hard to talk about cause I’m gonna cry.” Casey went on to tell me
that her parents went through a divorce during high school and Miss H. was there
to support her during this time. As I asked her more about this relationship, she
went on to say that the consistency with having one teacher throughout high
school was very helpful. She stated:
Because when you have classes that just switch every semester. . . So,
it’s like easy to talk to her, cause I’ve known her for so long. This
might seem weird but, you know how like when you do bad on a test
and you don’t wanna tell anybody? Like I’m comfortable with her to
tell her. Even if she’s gonna yell at me. And like, not yell at me, but
like be upset with me.
She added “I’m like really comfortable with her and I can trust her. And she like knows
everything about she. She’ll help me push to do better next time.”
Casey discussed how being part of AVID is “like we’re all a little family.” She
stated that freshman year the students barely knew each other and “now like we’re like
best friends in the class.” She went to say that:
Once you’re in AVID and you get to have the hang of like being in
like honors classes and stuff you like kind of like it switches your friends

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status sort of. Like if you’re like more, if you get to be more school-
oriented you tend to be with more school oriented friends.
Another student I interviewed was Anthony. Anthony started the AVID program
in 9th
grade. Like Casey, both of Anthony’s parents did not attend college and he has two
younger brothers, so he would be the first person in his immediate family to attend
college. During the interview, I uncovered that Anthony’s father owned and managed a
successful construction business and Anthony had always been interested in this field of
work. Anthony stated how he could just follow his father’s footsteps and run the
business after high school, but he knew that he wanted a college degree first. Anthony
joined the AVID program because he knew he wanted to go to Drexel to be a civil
engineer and thought the AVID program would help motivate him to get into college.
During the interview, he stressed the importance of the relationship he had with Miss H.
Anthony stated that Miss H has:
Been like the mother, you know, for me. She pushes me through things
and she like kinda she, she won’t let me, you know, like in AVID I get a
lot of things done quick and fast and like I have nothing to do, but she
keeps pushing me to do more, do better. So, she’s really been probably
the most influential teacher in the whole school.
When I asked him more about this relationship, he stated that:
AVID, it’s a little bit smaller and we have it all year every other day,
so. you know, it’s we see our teacher more, we know them more, they
know us more, so it’s more like, you know, like a best friend in a sense.
So that’s really why. She’s really been like that to me. She kept; she kept
on top of me. Miss H definitely, you know, took me by, you know, like
almost like her own kid and pushed me to do things the right way.
Anthony stressed that AVID really helped him in understanding what he had to do to get
into the college of his choice. He said that:

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In 9th
grade in AVID, she (Miss H) sat us down and said ‘where do
you guys want to go?’ You know, and she showed us this is what you’re
gonna need to get into these colleges. And from 9th
grade on, we’ve been
working up to this point. You know, to get into these colleges. So that’s
what it’s really all transcends down to.
He went on to say that:
I have really, really seen how important it is, and like the impact AVID
has on kids that are in the program. As far as kids that aren’t in the
program . . .kids that aren’t in the program are like, oh my god, I don’t
know how to apply to college. And I don’t even know what to do, like
you know, they’re like throwing them out to the world. But AVID,
they like, they get you ready so you just cruise right through.
Throughout the interview, Anthony referenced how being part of AVID has changed his
overall demeanor in school. He mentioned that being in AVID makes him “more
professional.” He added that” the way I handle myself is very professional from AVID.
You know, I don’t talk like I’m seven years old anymore, like most kids do in this high
school.” Anthony also stated that Miss H. does an excellent job pushing him and the
other students and said that “I think once kids actually see that they’re doing their best
they start to, you know, change their ways and like this isn’t bad, you know. Acting like
the right way, like acting like a normal 17 or 18 year old should.” The last topic that
Anthony discussed in depth was the change in the types of courses he selected once he
joined the AVID program. He said that the first year in AVID he did not take any honors
courses. “I started out with some and last year I had, you know, more and more and now
I’m just taking all honors classes. If I was not in AVID, I’d be just all academic classes
and then I would just fly by underneath the radar.”
Anthony stated that if not for AVID, he would still be applying to Drexel, “but I
think without Miss H pushing me and making sure I was doing the right things and you

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know, all this, I don’t think it would have been you know, possible, really. I really don’t
think it would be possible. He concluded by stating that if not for being part of the AVID
program, “I think I’d just take basic classes, you know, and I would just be a basic
student. Being in AVID, you know, you really excel and they really bring out the best of
you.”
A third participant who I would like to highlight is Kelsey R. Kelsey R. started
AVID during her sophomore year of high school. She stated that:
I started AVID sophomore year. In my freshman year, I had C’s and a
D because I didn’t really think it was that important. Well, I knew it
was school, but I didn’t realize that my freshman year could impact me
going to colleges. Going to AVID was just like an eye-opener. This
is going to help me with the rest of my life.
Kelsey R. added that:
Freshman year when I didn’t have AVID, I was not getting good
grades. I had a huge leap sophomore year with the grades that I was
getting and the classes I was taking. I picked up an Honors class and
this helped with my GPA and also helped my self confidence knowing
that I can do this and it is not as hard as people say.
Kelsey R. focused most of her answers on the preparation for college that AVID
provided. She stated that it has made her a more organized person and “kind of matured
me in a way because we focus more on college notes and things that colleges look for so
as much as we are doing high school work here we are kind of turning it into college
notes. It is more like college/high school. So that really helps a lot.” Kelsey R. added
that:
I would not be thinking about any colleges or majors or know anything
that I was doing without it. You are more of an adult the second you
walk through the door and without AVID I don’t think I would be as
mature as I am now and I wouldn’t be thinking about the future like

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my friends who aren’t in AVID who are like well, I am going to go
here because it looks good on TV and it is so much more than that.
Without AVID, I would just be one of them I think.
Kelsey R. discussed how she feels ahead of other students who are not in the AVID
program. She said that she has completed all of her college applications and is now
working on scholarships. She says “I am kind of ahead of the game and my friends who
are not in AVID are just now applying. It really helps me because I think I am one step
up from everyone else. I am going to be getting my notices that I got into colleges or
didn’t when my friends are applying.” Furthermore, Kelsey R. mentioned that AVID
helped her with SAT and ACT process. She says:
I took the PSATs my sophomore or junior year and I wouldn’t’ have
even known what they were. Before AVID I know the SATs and you
needed to do good to get into college. With AVID it helps me know
that you can take them multiple times and you can take the ACTs if
you are better at that. It gave me so many more options and usually if
I am doing SATs twenty other AVID students are also doing them so
we prepare for it and give each other rides to get there and tell each
other not to be nervous and that its okay and we check in with each
other and make sure we are all okay.
During the interview, Kelsey R. discussed how, like Casey, she was focusing on
attending a community college before entering the AVID program. She asserted that “no
one in my family has ever gone to college, so I will be the first one.” She mentioned that
living with a single mom will be tough financially, but “it will be a lot more beneficial for
me to go to a university than just to settle for community college.” Kelsey said that “now
I know what I am doing and feel like I am on top of everything and have really good
grades right now. This makes me feel so good about my future knowing that I really can
do it. I have all A’s and this has never happened.”

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Similarly to Casey and Anthony, Kelsey also mentioned the relationship she had
with her AVID teacher, Miss H. She stated that Miss H is “like my school mom.”
Kelsey added that:
If I don’t do my homework, she knows about it. If I am chatty in class,
she knows. I go to her whether it is school related or outside of school
because I have been with her so long and I think she really knows me well.
She knows how I can study and how I can’t study. For finals on half days,
she stays after with me for hours just to make sure I know what I am
doing. It is good just to have her around even if has nothing to do with
school, like family life. She is just good to go to because she – not so
much gives me advice – but she know what kind of person I am and the
things I can do to make situations better.
The interviews highlighted above provide a preview of several of the themes that will be
comprehensively explored later in this chapter while also illustrating the impact the
AVID program had on the students at WHS.
After the completion of my observations of the AVID class and my interviews
with the AVID students, I was able to reflect on the AVID program and its
implementation at WHS. During this time of reflection, I was able to conclude that a
number of my initial beliefs pertaining to my study were inaccurate. Before conducting
the study, my own assessment of the AVID program and how it would impact the
students was clearly more at a macro level. I focused my thoughts on how the AVID
program would impact high school students in a very broad sense; including helping
them graduate from high school and supporting them with their overall academic
achievement. My thought process failed to differentiate how the AVID program would
influence the students specifically within the context of WHS. At WHS, situated in an

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affluent, suburban community, AVID clearly impacted the students in a way that was
different than what I initially expected.
In the early stages of my study, I focused a significant portion of my research
proposal on the No Child Left Behind Act, meeting AYP, and student achievement.
However, after conducting my study, ideas associated with these topics did not regularly
surface during my interviews or observations. Understandably, quantitative data would
be more appropriate in determining the impact of the program on these specific areas;
however, the AVID program, at a school like WHS, is not necessarily designed for the
purpose of improving students’ standardized test scores or helping them complete high
school. Although AVID students did indicate a positive change in their high school
grade point averages as a result of being in the program, I was not able to ascertain if
being part of the AVID program influenced their standardized achievement scores and
thus, improved WHS’s overall scores on the 11th
grade PSSA assessment in Reading,
Math, Science, or Writing.
Furthermore, in my proposal design, I concentrated on the topic of high school
graduation as this is a critical issue facing American high schools. Nevertheless, the
AVID program at WHS does not seem to affect the students in helping them graduate
from high school. As a result of my research, it was clear that all of the AVID students
at WHS were on the path to graduate and I believe that if these students were not part of
AVID, they would still graduate from WHS. According to the State AYP report for
WHS, ninety-nine percent of the class of 2009 graduated from high school. These data
underscore the fact that the 12th
grade AVID students at WHS would graduate from high

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school without the support of the AVID program as graduating from high school is not a
significant problem for students at Westside and more of an expectation. As I will
reference later in this chapter, the AVID program at this particular high school does
influence the students in making their college decisions and attending four-year
universities. There is the possibility that the AVID program could have an impact on
helping students graduate from high school in a school and community that is dissimilar
to Westside. As referenced in the previous chapters, high school graduation is a
nationwide issue and the AVID program, if implemented at a high school in a different
setting, could have an influence on the graduation rate of its participants.
This chapter is an analysis of the data collected in the current study. The purpose
of this qualitative case study was to determine how students’ participation in the AVID
program impacted their high school experience at WHS. Additionally, the purpose of the
study focused on understanding how the AVID program influenced the students’
acquisition and utilization of social capital. Specifically, this study determined the
attitudes and perceptions of these students as they continued their third or fourth year of
participating in the AVID program while analyzing how the AVID program has enhanced
the students’ social capital at school. Furthermore, this qualitative case study gathered the
perspective of the AVID program through the lens of the students who are part of the
program at WHS. In addition, the study discovered the impact AVID had on students’
course selection, motivation, and desire to pursue post-secondary education, specifically
a four-year university. Hence, the data collection process focused primarily on
interviews with the AVID students to gather their personal reflection s about the AVID

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program and its influence on their high school experience. Data obtained and analyzed
from the AVID students who participated in the study provided answers to the following
research questions:
1. How has participation in the AVID program throughout high school
impacted students’ levels of academic motivation and confidence, cultural
assimilation, and school engagement and involvement?
2. How has the AVID program affected the students’ connections to the
3. How has the AVID program influenced the students’ groups and
networks, trust and solidarity, collective action and cooperation,
information and communication, social cohesion and inclusion, and
empowerment?
During the data analysis process, I was able to review all of my interview
transcriptions and analyze the students’ responses to uncover possible themes. After
transcribing the interviews, I grouped similar responses from each participant to find
common answers relating to the students’ experience with the AVID program. After all
interviews were transcribed and each participant’s answers were grouped into similar
topics, specific themes began to emerge from the data. Furthermore, it became clear
from the data that participating in the AVID program at WHS had a positive influence on
all of the students interviewed. Although the AVID program affected each student
individually, the acquisition of cultural capital, social capital, and an academic identity
were common themes to all participants interviewed.

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Thematic Summary of Key Findings in the Analysis
Theme Number One: Students acquisition of cultural capital as a result of their
participation in the AVID program at WHS
Although the notion of social capital was the theoretical focus of this study, the
concept of cultural capital strongly emerged during the data analysis. Like social capital,
cultural capital was discussed by Pierre Bourdieu in the 1970s and 1980s. According to
Bourdieu, the concept of cultural capital posits that individuals of a given social strata
transmit cultural values and knowledge in accordance with their social standing (1977).
Bourdieu believed that a person’s economic standing was not enough to address the
disparities in educational achievement of different social classes. Thus, the notion of
cultural capital was a partial explanation for the class-based socialization of culturally
relevant skills, abilities, tastes, preferences, or norms that act as a form of currency in the
social realm. Furthermore, Bourdieu, according to his theory of cultural reproduction,
asserted that children from middle-class families are advantaged in gaining educational
credentials due to their possession of cultural capital. He argued that the possession of
cultural capital varies among different social classes, yet the system of education assumes
the possession of cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1979).
In the school setting, cultural capital can be grasped as those culturally based
resources that can act as a form of "capital," such as skills, abilities, or mannerisms for
social rewards such as acceptance, recognition, inclusion, or even social mobility.
According to Rachelle Winkle-Wagner (2010):
Since its genesis, the concept of cultural capital has permeated
educational research. Cultural capital, developed through the

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theoretical and empirical work of sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1979/
1984), extends beyond an understanding of financial inequalities to
explain the way that privilege and power are perpetuated. Cultural capital
is associated with the class-based socialization of culturally relevant skills,
abilities, tastes, preferences, or norms that act as a form of currency in the
social realm. Cultural capital can act as a form of "goods" in educational
settings like schools and universities, offering privileges of some students
over others (vii).
Bourdieu’s arguments regarding cultural capital challenged the ubiquitous view
that schools were the mobility engine that could promote or demote individuals on the
basis of their merit. His ideas of social reproduction were posited that schools, as they
are created, channeled students towards class destinations that largely mirrored their own.
Hence, schools, according to Bourdieu, were not democratic institutions that allowed
students to overcome their economic hardships and, consequently, their move up the
social hierarchy. Bourdieu (1977) believed that the vast social and economic divisions
that persist within our society are duly transmitted by the schools as students from lower
class families, as a result of their lack of cultural capital, have less access to educational
opportunities. In their discussion on Bourdieu, Lamont and Lareau (1988) state that:
. . .schools are not socially neutral institutions, but reflect the experiences
of the ‘dominant class.’ Children from this class enter school with key
social and cultural cues, while working class and lower class students must
acquire the knowledge and skills to negotiate their educational experience
after they enter school (p. 155).
Therefore, schools should recognize this fundamental inequity and become the means of
redistributing cultural capital so that admission to college becomes more available to all,
not just middle and upper class students.
According to Bourdieu (1977, 1979, 1986), cultural capital can be acquired
primarily in two ways, through one’s family and through education. Although cultural

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capital could be acquired through education, it is more difficult to acquire cultural capital
only through education. Bourdieu believed that an individual who acquires high-status
cultural capital through their family and through education will be more privileged in
society generally. Additionally, formal schooling often can reinforce the cultural capital
of family origin, not necessarily overcome its deficits.
Both ‘field,” the social and cultural environments in which people act and
interact, and “habitus,” the mode of acting and making meaning of daily life, play a
significant role in the acquisition and use of capital (Bourdieu 1986). Winkle-Wagner
(2010), states that cultural capital depends on idea of “field.” “The field is the space in
which cultural competence, or knowledge of particular tastes, dispositions, or norms, is
born produced and given a price” (p. 7). Furthermore, it is only within a particular field
that cultural capital holds value, produces an effect, or even exists. In the case of this
study, the field is the educational setting at WHS. Thus, the cultural capital students gain
in this educational setting through AVID is primarily relevant and valued in the
educational domain, such as high school and college. “Integrally linked to field is the
sum total of one's cultural capital, the series of dispositions that one has internalized and
that one will employ,” referred to the habitus (Winkle-Wagner, 2010, p. 8). This habitus
is the collection of dispositions, norms, and tastes that an individual gains naturally as
being immersed in a specific “field.”
Winkle-Wagner (2010) states that “the past three decades have seen the increased
use of the term ‘cultural capital’ in classrooms, research articles, and discussions in
education” (p. 1). One reason for the proliferation of cultural capital in the educational

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realm is the increase of high school intervention programs, such as AVID. AVID utilizes
the concepts of cultural capital through its student-centered approach and its focus on the
acquisition of skills and information that will support the students in being successful in
high school and acceptance into a four-year university. Students at WHS were able to
visit college numerous colleges with their AVID teacher and other AVID students. These
visits were to both state schools and private universities and the students were able to
walk around the campus and receive an orientation at each campus. Additionally, AVID
students received academic tutoring, college advisement, personal counseling, and study
skills instruction.
Furthermore, Miss H., the AVID teacher, engaged in an explicit socialization
process in her classroom that paralleled the implicit socialization process that occurs in
well-to-do families. AVID teachers explicitly teach aspects of the implicit culture of the
classroom and the “hidden curriculum” of the school. Furthermore, they mediate the
relationship between families, high schools, and colleges by serving as advocates and
sponsors of AVID students. Students of middle-class, college-educated parents take
advantage of college preparation because they know of its importance through their
parents. Thus, AVID plays this role for students who do not have parents who attended
college by providing them with both the information in applying to college and the
mindset that they will attend a four-year university. College preparation activities, such
as SAT prep courses, are a vital part of securing acceptance into a four-year, moderate to
highly selective college. These college preparation activities are an essential component
of the AVID curriculum. The cultural capital acquired during through the AVID

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curriculum is vital in preparing the students for college and giving them the “capital” to
be able to navigate the application the process. (Indiana University, 2010, August 15).
Furthermore, in Bourdieu’s terms (1986), AVID gives low-income students some of the
cultural capital at school that is similar to the cultural capital that more “cultured” parents
give to their children at home (Mehan, Hubbard, Lintz, & Villanueva, 1994).
Sub-Theme #1 – Cultural capital as it relates to success in school
After interviewing the AVID students it was apparent that being part of AVID
had increased their “cultural capital” as it related to the classroom setting. In my
interviews, it became clear that their participation in AVID enhanced their acquisition
and utilization of effective practices that promoted their success in the classroom. The
“capital” the students acquired as a result of participating in the AVID program
influenced their behavior in the classroom setting along with the organization, time
management, study-skills and note-taking strategies they learned in AVID. Furthermore,
students gained access to “capital” as a result of changing their course selection due to
their participation in AVID.
One area of cultural capital the students acquired was enhanced classroom
behavior. As noted earlier in this chapter, cultural capital relates to the skills, abilities,
and mannerisms as deemed appropriate for success in a particular environment, or as
Bourdieu termed, a specific “field.” The “field” for the AVID students was the
classroom setting and being part of the AVID program made the students more cognizant
of their classroom behaviors, not just in the AVID elective class, but all of their classes.
Students indicated that since being part of the AVID program, they now consciously sit

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in the front row of their classes; they focus more on the teacher so they can take their
Cornell notes, and they concentrate more on paying attention in class.
Kelsey R. stated that since entering AVID:
Now I am sitting in the front row and know I have to sit there to pay
attention. So I am always somewhere close to the front and taking notes
even though they might say that I do not need to write this down. I know
for myself that I need to write it down so I remember.
Kelsey went on to say that before joining the AVID program, she was “chatty” and would
always be texting her friends in class. Now, she says that her cell phone is in her
backpack and does not look at it throughout the school day. She stated that paying
attention to her cell phone “will throw off my focus” and went on to say that:
I just keep that out of it because that is for after school and freshman
year I was the total opposite. I was the drama queen always talking,
always texting and chatting and not doing my work and it is so
different now.
Anthony talked about how Miss H. discussed these behaviors with the AVID students.
He said that Miss H:
Wanted us to be . . .the most attentive, the most, you know, active kids,
and it’s definitely you know, translated over to my other classes where I
sit in the front row, I raise my hand all the time. I’m always, you know,
asking questions and being very participative.
Anthony also discussed how he sits towards the front in his classes and how he is “always
paying attention.” He went on to say that he is “always looking out, you know, for things
that can benefit me and he is “always trying to take notes. “
Christina stated that since joining the AVID program it has impacted her focus in
class. She says “I moved to the front of the class in all of my classes and I never sit in the

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back anymore. I focus a lot more now and if someone is talking, I don’t pay attention to
them. I’m definitely more focused.
Casey talked about how taking notes in class forces her to listen attentively in
class. During the interview she stated that:
Once you have to do notes the way that AVID does with the Cornell
notes, it’s like it’s really important that you pay attention and that you
like listen to every word that they say instead of dozing off and not
listening. I feel like I had the most problem with that cause I always
like doodle and like doze off. Like after she like enforces the Cornell
notes, trust me, they’re really hard to write, so you have to like really
concentrate.
Kelsey K. discussed how being in AVID has made her think more about the long-term
impact of doing well in her classes. She joined AVID after 9th
grade and said:
In 9th
grade it is like I did not care and was like whatever, but now I
know I have to do my work and colleges look at all of your years in
high school. It helped me by knowing that I needed to focus more in
class and take more notes.
Kelsey K. went on to say that she focuses on “sitting in the front of my classes and taking
notes” and “paying attention and not talking” during class.
Another student Marcus discussed how if he misbehaves in class, he knows that
Miss H. will hear about. He said “I know that if I act up in class, I’m going to have to
hear from Miss H. every day, so I’m more structured and more obedient.” During my
interview with Hiro, he discussed how before joining AVID he “came to school to
socialize really, but AVID changed all that.” He went on to say that he sits in the front in
his classes because it makes him feel like he has more “of a connection with the teachers,
better relationship, I ask questions.”

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The answers the AVID students provided regarding their behavior in class relate
to Bourdieu’s (1986) notion of “habitus” or as Winkle-Wagner (2010) states “the series
of dispositions that one has internalized and that one will employ” (Winkle-Wagner,
2010, p. 8). The AVID students had internalized a plethora of behaviors and norms that
they employed when part of a specific “field” or a classroom setting.
Another topic that the AVID program focuses on is organization, study skills, and
note taking. These concepts clearly presented themselves when observing and
interviewing the students. During the interviews, students discussed how being part of
AVID has made them more aware of the importance of being organized and how this
correlates with their academic achievement. Furthermore, they talked about how they
have learned how to study for tests by breaking down their studying and not
procrastinating. In regards to time management, they conversed about how they have
learned how to prioritize their tasks so that they can effectively and efficiently complete
them. Additionally, all students talked about the importance of Cornell notes and the
impact this has had on their classroom routines, studying habits, and overall organization.
Tessa discussed “how AVID helped me become more organized and helped with
time management” and also how AVID helped her in knowing “how to write and keep
notes and keep an organized binder,”
Along the same lines, Kelsey R. discussed the importance of taking notes and
how this will help when she gets to college. She stated that:
It has made me more organized person and kind of matured me in a
way because we focus more on college notes and things that colleges
look for so as much as we are doing high school work here we are kind

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of turning it into college notes. It is more like college/high school. So
that really helps a lot.
She added that “without AVID I would not be as organized with keeping binders and
knowing where everything is.”
During my interview with Mary, she talked about how since joining AVID she is
“more organized.” Mary also brought up the idea of timeliness. She stated that “Miss H.
taught me a lot about how getting your work in on time is very important. So that way
you can also get other things done and have free time.”
Christina discussed how she runs track and cross country and how Miss H. has
talked to her about how to manage her time and study for her tests. Christina said that
AVID:
Has helped me with time management because I do run cross country
and track all year. Miss H. would tell us during finals week to study
this much every night for this class. It would definitely help me when
I would come home from practice. I would know to study for a class
and how long. I have a certain routine that I follow every day.
Casey discussed how the use of the AVID binder has helped her in staying
organized. She stated that she was the “messiest person ever in 8th
grade” and “… like
every paper, couldn’t find it. Casey went on to say that:
If you gave me like one week, I couldn’t find it. And now like I have
this binder that has like everything in one subject and another in like
the other ones and it’s just so much better. I feel like, phew, I can
breathe, cause then I’m so organized now.
During the interview with Sean, he said in regards to the AVID curriculum “they
really stress organization and that “. . . it’s good to be organized. Like I said, I wasn’t
organized when I came here. Yeah, I’ve really turned it around.” Sean added that he

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hopes he can continue being organized in college “because I think it’s going to be real
important. Staying organized is going to be key going to college.”
Sam stated that “AVID helps you become more organized, cause that’s basically
75% of the AVID program. Organization and that just increases your grades itself, just
by organizing your stuff well.”
During Kelsey K’s interview, she mentioned the idea of time management and the
notion that “We learned that you have to prioritize and do what’s most important first.”
She added that “I mean from 9th
grade, I was not organized at all. I didn’t really take
good notes and now I can do those things.”
Along the same lines as Kelsey K., Marcus added that “I tend to procrastinate a
lot, but with AVID, it gives more of planning your schedule more, yeah time
management.”
Lindsay highlighted the fact of how important taking notes are. She stated that
“. . .because if you don’t take good notes, once you leave the classroom, you’re not going
to be able to retain as much information. Cornell notes keeps your mind thinking about
those notes and its processing it better.”
Mary added the importance of learning to take notes and how this will continue
when she goes to college. Mary stated that “basic note skills are important because when
you’re in a college course, you need to learn how to write down the most important
things that are said, not just write everything. I will use these in college.”
Anthony stated that the Cornell note taking process is “the greatest thing in the
world. He went on to say that he uses the Cornell process outside of school for certain

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classes of certifications he has completed outside of school. Anthony said that “when I
have to take notes I use Cornell notes. It just helps you, you know, keep focus on what
you’re, you know, taking notes of and what you’re actually trying to get out of the notes.”
Christina mentioned the idea how the note taking process with support her when
she gets to college. She said:
I feel that it helps you apply yourself better. We learned my
sophomore year how to take notes the right way so that when we are
all in college and there is not a PowerPoint up there, we know how to
work off of what the teacher is saying. They taught us how to go back
and review our notes and what to look over and just how to study, so
we are ready for college.
Christina added that:
I used to be a good student, but I would sit in the back of class and pay
attention, but not really go home and study. With AVID, now I sit in
the front row in all of my classes and I take notes whether the teachers
says to take notes or not. I go home every night even if I don’t have a
test or quiz and I will study my notes.
Casey added the note taking by saying that Miss H. “told us to like zone in and
make connections and like not write everything but, but write the important stuff.”
Marcus talked about how AVID made him use the Cornell process in past years, but now
he would “rather use a regular sheet of paper because I know I’m not going to have
Cornell in college.” He added that when he was a freshman” I wouldn’t write down what
the teacher was talking about, I just wrote what was on the board. Now I’m actually
taking active notes, like when they’re talking, I’m taking notes.”
Hiro added that he the AVID class has not focused as much on Cornell this year
but said that “I feel as though it will have an impact on my college life. It has helped me
a lot. The Cornell notes keep my notes organized. I like the notes.”

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As indicated by the students’ responses, the AVID students learned elements of
the “hidden curriculum” that supported them in their AVID class and their other classes
at WHS. These pieces of the “hidden curriculum,” including note taking, time
management, and organization were explicitly taught to the AVID students by their
AVID teacher during their AVID elective class. Through this direct instruction and
repeated exposure, the AVID students internalized these routines and behaviors as they
became part of their “habitus” (Bourdieu, 1986).
One focus of AVID is for students to schedule college-prep courses during their
high school years. At WHS, this course selection included moving the students from
“Academic” classes to “Honors” classes or “Advanced Placement” classes. During my
interviews with every student, I was able to discuss the students’ course selection with
the students and how, since joining AVID, they moved from just taking “Academic”
classes to taking either one or more college prep courses. Students had these course
selection discussions with their AVID teacher along with the college counselor, Miss G.,
who consistently visited the AVID class to discuss high school course selection.
Research has concluded that access to a college preparatory curriculum while in
high school is the most critical variable for helping students gain access to postsecondary
education (Perna, 2000). Effective college-prep programs help prepare students
academically through “untracking,” tutoring, and curriculum reform (Gandara & Bial,
2001).

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Tessa discussed that in her freshman year she was not in any honors
classes and then in her sophomore year she had one. She added that “now in my
senior year, I’m in three honors classes.” Kelsey R. stated that:
Freshman year when I didn’t have AVID, I was not getting good
grades. I had a huge leap sophomore year with the grades that I was
getting and the classes I was taking. I picked up an Honors class and
this helped with my GPA and also helped my self confidence knowing
that I can do this and it is not as hard as people say.
Kelsey R. also added that being part of AVID helped her in the process of scheduling
classes that would help her in improving her GPA. She added that:
My freshman year I took the courses that were needed, but I was in
French and I was really struggling and I didn’t think it was ok not to
take a language. Miss H. said that it was going to bring my GPA down
and that I need to take a core curricular course that would substitute for a
language, so I took the 2 years that I needed and then I took another class
that would be helpful.
During my interview with Lindsay, she stated that in her freshman year, she did
not have any Honors classes, but now she has two. Mary said that the first year in AVID,
she was in one honors course. She said AVID “has influenced my course selection
because it helped me realize that it would be important not just for college, but for me to
be enlightened.”
Anthony talked in detail about how AVID has changed his course selection. He
indicated that freshman year he scheduled all academic classes, “But then Miss H. said
you know if you really wanna go to Drexel you gotta push yourself and you gotta start
taking honors classes. And that’s all I’ve been really taking.” Anthony said he “started
out with some (Honors classes) and last year I had, you know, more and more and now

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I’m just taking all honors classes. If I was not in AVID I’d be just all academic classes
and then I would just fly by underneath the radar.”
During my interview with Christina, she stated that during her freshman she was
doing well in all academic classes. She said when she joined AVID, “I was so scared to
be put up in Honors classes and Miss H. really pushed it and helped me out with it. So
then I moved up to all Honors classes and was still keeping the same grades that I had
when I was in Academic classes.” Christina added that “I definitely would not have
reached out and put myself in Honors courses if I was not in AVID. . .”
Not all the students in AVID at WHS scheduled all Honors courses. Casey stated
that “I take like academic courses mostly. But my sophomore year I took an honors
class, which is the first ever. And I don’t think I would have done that if I didn’t have
AVID. She stated that it was it was hard “but I made it through and I did good, so, I feel
like AVID definitely pushed me to do that honors class. It was like, I would have never
done that. Casey added that:
I think that like one honors class actually like changed me and made it
click. I’m like, I should be taking honors classes. And it’s just kinda
like, yeah, it definitely boosted my expectations. I don’t, it’s just hard
to explain because it just kind of happened. It’s just kind of like
nothing you think about. I just, I don’t know, I think it definitely did
it.
During my interview with Sam, he stated that AVID has influenced his course
selection as he did not have any Honors classes his freshman year and “I wouldn’t of took
any honors classes. “ He went on to say that “I have English Honors and Government
honors and I probably wouldn’t have gone into Math 5. I have Math 5 now.” He said
that Miss H. discussed the idea of taking honors classes and said that “schools would

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rather see you get a ‘C’ in an honors course than get like a ‘B’ or ‘A’ in a regular course
that they know is like not as challenging. They wanna see you like challenge yourself.”
Marcus explained how he had one Honors class before he joined AVID. He said
that “freshman year I had Accelerated Math II honors. They wanted me to take another
honors class . . . I was kind of scared because it was my first year and I thought it’d be
real hard. But then she said that they help you with the honors classes, so I was like I
think I want to do that.” He added that sophomore year he had two honors courses “and
last year I had three, and this year I got AP (Advanced Placement) Calculus and then
Honors Government, Honors English, and Honors Physics, and Honors Economics.” He
added that if not for AVID, he “probably would’ve just stayed with honors math.”
AVID students were influenced with “bridging” social relations once they
transitioned from “academic” classes to more college-prep classes. These relationships,
as Putnam (2000) states, tend to be weaker and more diverse, but more important in
‘getting ahead.’ Thus, now the students were part of a peer network of students who
were focused on attending college and achieving in school. Additionally, their
participation in these college-prep classes provided the AVID students with exposure to
more middle-class peers who possessed the necessary “cultural capital” to achieve in
school.
Along with the notion of scheduling college-prep classes, many of the students
discussed how, unlike their peers who are not in the AVID program, they are taking
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Tessa stated that “If I was not in AVID, I would probably be picking the really
easy electives, but since I’ve been in AVID, I’ve been selecting the more challenging
electives.” Kelsey R. stated that:
Everyone says take it easy your senior year, so without AVID I would
probably take Ceramics or Bead making or something like that, just to
relax. Instead I am taking classes that will show colleges that I am not
slacking and really looking forward to my future and that I want to do
good in all of my classes. I am really not taking it easy and thanks to
Miss H.
She added that “Especially senior year, people usually take it easy, but I am doing the
total opposite by getting as much work in as I can and getting good grades and am
working now for my future.” Lindsay stated that:
Even in my senior year, that’s normally the year that everybody slacks off
a bit, I’m taking 2 honors’ courses right now. I would have been that
typical student that says ‘oh, I don’t need to take hard courses my senior
year, they don’t look at it. Colleges look at your senior year and if they see
that you are slacking off, they’re probably not going to be interested in
you as much, so I’ve been taking two honors’ classes and I’ve been
choosing courses that have to do with my intended major.
In regards to senior year, Anthony stated that “I think I pushed myself more this year than
I did any other year. Cause you know, you screw up this year, you might not go to
college. You know, although you could get into college, but you know, once colleges see
well, you got in but, you know, you slack off the rest of the year then they might just say
never mind. Christina stated that:
A lot of my friends are taking like three different gym classes and I
wouldn’t allow myself to that personally, so I took 3 electives and my
electives right now are Sports Med and Physics. So it is not like they are
easy courses, but are still challenging. So I am still applying myself as
much as I have been.

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Marcus indicated that this is “my hardest year.” When speaking of his peers who were
not part of AVID, he said “a couple of my friends have two gym classes, they have
exercise physiology . . .then they’ll have like a cooking class.” He went on to say that
“before I wasn’t planning on taking AP Calculus this year. I was going to take honors
and then Miss H. encouraged me to do it, so I was like alright.” Marcus stated that if not
for AVID “Right now I’d probably be in easy classes. I’d probably just take the easy road
out because I’d think college doesn’t really look at my classes this year because this time
I’m already accepted.”
Sub-theme #2 – Cultural capital as it relates to applying to college
College visits are an important component of the AVID program. At WHS, the
students were able to go away for a weekend as a group and visit both private and state
schools. The students at WHS discussed the impact of these college visits in helping
them determine the type of school to which they wanted to apply. Additionally, the
students discussed how these visits allowed them to see both a rural and urban school as
well as large and small schools. After the visits, students began to refine their
understanding of the type of school to which they wanted to apply to. Furthermore, some
of the students actually applied to and were accepted by colleges they visited.
Kelsey stated that “We were visiting colleges and it helped me – I used to think I
wanted to go to Penn State just because everyone wants to go to Penn State and then I
realized I would do awful there. It is way too big. AVID helped me see a whole bunch
of different schools.” Kelsey added that she would not have visited colleges on her own

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because it would have been hard for her mother to take off of work. She added that
having Miss H. with her on the visit was also impactful. She stated that “she has been to
college and she knows what she is talking about. She added that one of the schools she
visited she had never heard of before and “. . . without that trip I wouldn’t even know to
go there. I went there and I said that I have to go here.”
Lindsay said that college visits were one of the most important components of the
AVID program. She said the visits “helped me realize what I liked in college and what I
didn’t like and it helped build unity in the class.” She went on to say that the “visits
helped me realize that I want a small school. I don’t want a big school where I’m just
known as a number in the classroom. I want to be known as myself and have a good
connection with my teachers so that if I have a question and I am not asking a question
over another 100 students.” During the interview, she consistently mentioned the impact
of college visits and said “without them it would be harder to make a decision on what
school I wanted to go to.”
Mary said “I feel like they (college visits) were successful because we realized
what type of school that we would really fit in and the type of school was best to fit our
character. They actually helped us decide what college would be best and the whole
process for signing up or applying to colleges, made it easier. After the visits, Mary
understood that she wanted more of an urban school and “didn’t want a school that’s too
small, but I don’t want a school that’s too big. So like medium.” She added that if she
was “not in AVID, I would not have gone on as many college visits. I probably would
have only visited a couple, not as many.”

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Anthony stated that during the visits, you kinda get a feel for what you like and
what you don’t like in a college campus and I think that’s a major, major part in just
selecting a college.” During the interview with Casey, she said that “I would never go on
a college visit if it wasn’t for AVID. It makes me wanna go with like my mom and stuff.
So like the fact that they take us there, gives us like another way to like see colleges and
see if I like them.” Casey said that she had already applied to two of the schools that the
AVID students visited.
Some students discussed how AVID has helped them with improving their SAT
or ACT scores. Kelsey R. discussed how she took the PSATs her sophomore and junior
year and “wouldn’t’ have even known what they were. Before AVID I know the SATs
and you needed to do good to get into college.” With AVID, Kelsey discussed:
It helps me know that you can take them multiple times and you can
take the ACTs if you are better at that. It gave me so many more
options and usually if I am doing SATs, twenty other AVID students
are also doing them so we prepare for it and give each other rides to
get there and tell each other not to be nervous and that its okay and we
check in with each other and make sure we are all okay.
Anthony said that:
We took our PSATs in I think 9th
or 10th
grade and when we got the scores
back we sat down and we analyzed them. You know, we picked apart, we
went through the whole test, every question we got wrong, every question
got right. We noticed things, you know, like why did you get it wrong,
you know, why did you get it right. You know, we just kinda analyzed. It
was like, it was almost like a SAT prep in a sense. So that, that’s how
they really pushed us to get better grades on our SATs.
Casey talked about how the AVID program provided her with SAT prep. She said that:
I just learned all these new like ways to like study for them. Cause I never
thought you could study for the SATs cause it’s just like based on like
your knowledge. And um, we did these tests on-line that I would have

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never went on if I it wasn’t in AVID, so I think that I would have missed
out on and probably my grades would have been worse for SATs.
Research has shown that helping students complete college applications and
helping students prepare for entrance exams are important predictors of enrollment (Horn
& Chen, 1998). During my interviews with the AVID students, it was clear that the
program strongly influenced their ability to apply to college. Many students in the AVID
program did not possess the knowledge or “capital” as it related to applying to college.
Students consistently stated that they did not know all that was involved in the process.
Furthermore, many of the students in the AVID class did not have parents who had
attended college and, consequently, their parent’s did not possess the “capital” needed for
this process. Students discussed various aspects of the application process they learned
about because of AVID. These aspects included how to prepare for college interviews,
fill out required forms, make appointments for visits, and apply for financial aid or
scholarships. Additionally, the students constantly mentioned that if they would not be at
the same place right now in the application process if they were not in AVID. They
consistently referenced how their friends who are not in AVID are behind them in the
process along with how comfortable and happy they feel that they are “ahead of the
game.” The AVID students recognized that the program had provided them with the
information to apply to college while also setting deadlines allowing them to complete
everything.
Tessa stated that “I know how to prepare for college interviews and make
appointments for college visits. I know how to do more things independently.” Similar

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to Tessa, Marcus discussed the ideas he learned about college interviews. Marcus stated
that:
…I learned how to do more interviews, like don’t give them more of a
generic answer that anybody would give them. Be yourself and try to stick
out as best you can. I learned to always reach out to a good school even if
they didn’t show any interest in you. Show them they you want to go
there, so if they’re holding an event at a school, go to them. Go to as many
things as possible to get your name out.
Kelsey R. discussed how she is ahead of all of her peers who are not in AVID. She
stated:
It is so good, like I am finished doing all of my applications, my college
essay was done in Sept. now I am doing scholarships. I am kind of ahead
of the game and my friends who are not in AVID are just now applying. It
really helps me because I think I am one step up from everyone else. I am
going to be getting my notices that I got into colleges or didn’t when my
friends are applying. It helps me be ahead of the game.
Along the same lines, Lindsay added that her “friends are still looking into college and
have not started sending out applications yet” and she already has one acceptance letter
and is “sitting back and relaxing waiting for the letters to come.” She added that: I
would not be at this point without AVID. I would probably be at the same point as my
friends who are still stressing over sending their transcripts and now I’m sitting back
relaxing and just watching the mailbox and just seeing what comes in the mail.”
Furthermore, Mary discussed how “AVID really pushes and they keep us pressed
with applications. Even if you get a little discouraged like ‘This is a little overwhelming”
they help make it a little easier.” She added that “My friends are not in the same place as
me. Some of them aren’t because a lot of the times I would talk to them and say, ‘Well,

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I’m glad I got this out and this done, we already did this in AVID.’ They are not aware
about certain deadlines. During my interview with Anthony he said:
Kids that aren’t in the program are like, oh my god I don’t know how to
apply to college. And I don’t even know what to do, like college is like,
you know, they’re like throwing them out to the world. But AVID, they
like, they get you ready so you like, you just cruise right through.
Christina stated that “A lot of people in my grade have not starting applying for colleges
and I am already done the college process. We started last year getting all of that done.
It is a lot more helpful because it is not really rushed at the end of the process.” She went
on to say that “They kind of forgot about the whole applying to college thing. They are
just starting with the process. I feel that they will be more rushed and will jump right into
it instead of taking their time and being more well prepared.
Casey stated that she really did not know what to do to apply for college. She said
“Like, like the college application process was like I never knew you had to do these
things to like get into college. Like the transcripts, application form. The school report
form, and like it just like taught me to like to actually do stuff on my own. She added:
But like if I wasn’t in AVID, like I would not be like preparing for college
right now. So like I don’t expect any of the other like any of my other
friends who aren’t in AVID to do that. Like I’ve already applied to eight
schools, so like when I talk to other friends they’re like, oh like I applied
to like one, and I’m like, oh that’s it? Like I just feel like they should be
with us too.
Moreover, Sam discussed that “If I wasn’t in AVID I probably wouldn’t be this far into
the college application process. I wouldn’t, I’d probably be rushing to get them, the
applications in right now. Hiro added that “I know some students who have not even
applied to colleges yet and those that want to go to college, but do not know what to do.”

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After interviewing the students, one component of the AVID program at WHS
proved to be extremely influential. Students in the AVID program began thinking about
attending college very early in their high school years. They had time to think about and
research numerous schools to which they would be interested in applying. Additionally,
the AVID students had time during AVID class to explore the different majors that were
offered at the schools they were interested in. In addition, students discussed how after
they had time to pick a major that interested them, they then scheduled classes during
high school that related to these majors. This allowed the students to determine if this
was definitely a topic that they wanted to spend four years studying as well as better
prepare them for their major in college. Sean said:
We started looking at colleges freshman and sophomore year and nobody
else, if I was a freshman or sophomore not in the AVID program, I’d be
like, ‘College? I have three years for that, why am I looking at this now?’
So I think that was really key the first two years to get us looking and be
active, like, ‘Look, these are schools and this is what they look like, this is
what you’ll be coming to in three years, so try and keep up.’ Miss H.
really stressed in the first year, we sent out letters of like we wanted to
receive more information from your school and this and that, just to get
our names out there, so I think that was a real good activity.
Along the same lines as Sean, Anthony stated that since 9th
grade, Miss H. “sat us
down she said where do you guys want to go? You know, and she showed us this is what
you’re gonna need to get into these colleges. And from 9th
grade on we’ve been working
up to this point. You know, to get into these colleges. So that’s what it’s really all
transcends down to.”
Tessa stated that “I would not be thinking about any colleges or majors or know
anything that I was doing without it.” Lindsay stated that the:

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AVID class allowed me time to really get down and do research on it
(occupational therapy) and figure out what I really wanted to do. Right
now I’m in an internship for occupational therapy. Without AVID I
wouldn’t really know what I wanted to do. Without AVID I would
probably be going to some state school for a general major and now that I
am realizing that I’m going to a private school devoted just for exactly
what I want.
Christina had a strong statement regarding the influence the AVID had on helping her
determine a major. She said “It helped me not want to go to college undecided. It helped
me choose a major and be able to take classes now to better prepare me for when I do go
to college.”
Casey talked about how during AVID elective class the students had time to
research different jobs they could acquire based on the major they selected. She said” . .
.we went over like most of like the subjects and the jobs that you could get after. So like
I realized that like I had an interest in like this one subject, but I had an interest in
forensic science too and it made me like compare the two and I picked the science one
over it.
Sean talked about during his junior year as the students “spent about two days
probably going through all the majors that were possible. . . .we basically just searched
majors on College Board and it would come up with good fits for you.”
Marcus stated that:
Well we took a lot of surveys, it might have been last year or two years
ago. I realized before that I wanted to do something in business. At first I
wanted to do something in accounting and then I took an accounting class
and I didn’t really like it. I took two years of that and I wasn’t interested in
it. This year I’ve realized that I wanted to do something in business
management.

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In addition to supporting the students in selecting a major, participation in the AVID
program had a substantial impact on the students’ college selection. Students discussed
how spending time in AVID learning about colleges and the entire application process
strongly influenced their decision on which schools to apply to.
Some students talked about how they had the mindset of going to community
college before participating in AVID. Kelsey R. stated that without being part of AVID,
I would probably to be going to [community college] sadly. She added that:
Just because I have a single mom and it is going to be tough
financially. The teachers helped her (mom) understand about grants
and loans and it is not going to be that expensive and even if it is, we
can work around it. It will be a lot more beneficial for me to go to a
university than just to settle for [community college].
Along the same lines, Lindsay said:
Without AVID I would not have cared as much and I would have been
like ‘oh well, it will come to me and there’s always [community
college] and I can just go to community college or something. I didn’t
really think about college and now with AVID it made me realize that
I don’t want to go to a community college. I want to go right into
college and know that I got there because I worked for it.
During my interview with Casey, she said “I actually wanted to go to [community
college] a couple years ago and she (Miss H.) kinda like changed my mind by all this like
planning and stuff. I was like oh, maybe I’ll go apply here and then it turned into eight,
so.” Lindsay stated that she learned how to select the right college by being part of
AVID. She said:
AVID helped me realize that I shouldn’t just choose a college because
it has an activity that I like. I should be choosing a college because of
the program that they have. Miss H. would tell us that you can’t just
go to a school because of a sport that you are interested in. You

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should’ base your college on that. You should look at academically
where they are and what they have to offer.
Mary said:
AVID helped me narrow down things because a lot of the times in
AVID when we were researching colleges, we would make sure it
wasn’t a college that wasn’t fitting our GPA, and it was the programs
they had there or the courses that we could take that we were
interested in.
Christina stated that being able to go on College Board really helped her in determining
what schools to apply to and also to visit. She said “We went on College Board almost
every day and we did tests that matched us up with schools that best suited us. From
there over the summer, I know I went to look at four of the colleges that were on my list
to get a better feel for what it was like. She added that “I think it helped me narrow down
my search for what I kind of school I wanted. I knew what kind of location I wanted,
how large I wanted the school to be just by being put in the environment of different
schools and realizing what schools were what. She knew she wanted to major in physical
therapy and in AVID she “narrowed it down on College Board and from the schools I
wanted to go to that had my major. I have been going to different schools that offer the 5
or 6 year program where I can get my doctorate with my physical therapy.”
Sean discussed how he selected his school because he was able to compare two
schools that had the same major that we wanted to focus on and determine that one was
more hands-on than the other. Based on his research, this influenced his decision to
attend one more than the other. Kelsey K. knew that she wanted to major in nursing in
college. She said that “Miss G and Miss H helped me pick out good nursing schools.
Some students discussed how in AVID they were forced to set up a meeting with the

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college counselor. Marcus said that “I didn’t really know which schools to look at and
that really opened up my eyes to a lot more schools.”
The concept of cultural capital consistently centers on the idea a child’s parent
possessing this “capital” and transmitting this to their child via the home. Often the
notion of cultural capital centers on analyzing how this “capital” can be internalized by
the child through repeated exposure to their “field” or home. This amount of “cultural
capital” possessed by an individual or family is particularly difficult to accurately
measure. Nonetheless, some individuals try to quantify cultural capital by analyzing both
the circumstances at the home of a child while also examining the parent’s habits
regarding involvement in their child’s education. Interestingly, during my interviews,
every student interviewed stated that their parents were involved in their education,
attended back-to-school nights and parent-teacher conferences. Furthermore, the students
discussed how they talked about school with their parents on a daily basis regarding what
happened at school. Additionally, they stated that their parents checked up on their
grades and knew how they were doing in school.
If the level of parental involvement was analyzed in this study, it would be clear
that the parents of the AVID students had high expectations for their children and were
involved in their child’s education. According to Grenfell and James (1998), parents
across social classes highly value education. The parents of the AVID students were
supportive and involved in their child’s education; however, they did not possess the
cultural capital needed to support their children in preparing and applying to college. As
previously stated, many of the students’ parents did not attend college and, consequently,

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lacked the knowledge of the application process as they had never participated in this
process when they were in high school. Hence, although intimately involved in their
child’s education and wanting their children to succeed, they did not have the knowledge
to support their children in this particular area. Therefore, this “capital,” the knowledge
and skills that supported the students in applying and attending a four-year university,
was provided to the students through their participation in the AVID program.
Bourdieu can be criticized for not precisely describing exactly which aspects of a
student’s home environment constitute cultural capital that can be transmitted to
educational success. Over time, cultural capital has been investigated and measured in
various formats, including analyzing a student’s and parent’s participation in “cultural
activities,” such as book reading and buying, types of television shows watched, and
attendance of movies, the theatre, and museums. Additionally, researchers have tested
students’ knowledge of cultural figures as well as examining a student’s active and
passive vocabulary (Sullivan, 2001). Lee and Bowen (2006) determined a student’s level
of cultural capital by measuring the involvement of their parents in their education. This
research has focused on describing cultural capital in relation to a student’s home
environment; however, this is exactly what schools need to overcome in order for all
students to be successful in the school setting. If schools do not make an effort to provide
students with this cultural capital, then Bourdieu’s notion of social reproduction will be
an accurate portrayal of the American education system. As demonstrated in the findings
in this chapter, AVID attempted and succeeded in providing students with the necessary

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cultural capital that made the students successful during high school and supported them
in applying and getting accepted into a four-year university.
It is commonly taken for granted that any student who possesses desire and
commitment can transcend all barriers and succeed in school and in life. Although not
impossible, this sadly does not occur frequently or easily enough, and certainly not
without the help of others. All students need someone to guide them and give them
appropriate, quality information to help them make decisions about their education and
future lives.
Theme Number Two: Students acquisition of social capital from their AVID teacher,
other AVID students, and the change in their peers outside of AVID
The primary theoretical focus of this study was determining if participating in the
AVID program at WHS influenced the students’ acquisition of social capital. After
conducting interviews with the AVID students and observing them in their AVID elective
class, it was evident that various structures inherent in the AVID program supported the
students in obtaining social capital from their AVID teacher, the peers in their AVID
class and the change in their peers outside of AVID.
The term “social capital” has become a catchphrase for the myriad ways in which
social interactions matter. Lin (2001) stresses the connection of social capital to social
networks as resources that are embedded in social networks and accessed and used by
actors for actions. Along the same lines, Portes (1998) describes social capital as “the
ability of actors to secure benefits by virtue of membership in social networks or other
social structures” (p. 6). There are many definitions attached to the concept of social

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capital along with the term being connected to numerous environments or “fields.” This
study focuses the notion of social capital relating to the relationships the AVID students
possessed only in the school setting and, mainly, within their AVID class.
Corresponding to the multifaceted definitions of social capital, there are many
ways that social capital has been measured. One approach measures social relations by
the number, structure, and properties of relationships along individuals. This also
includes measuring the intensity and frequency of the interactions along with the
structural characteristics if the social network. Another approach measures individuals’
beliefs about their relationships with others which include their attitudes and expectations
of trust towards others. Although difficult to quantify, social capital, in this particular
study, relates to the associations the students developed as a result of their participation in
the AVID program that positively impacted their academic success and access to college.
Both cultural capital and social capital are related in their origination, their
relevance in specific environments, and the impact they can have in the realm of
education. Some researchers consider cultural capital as a form of social capital (Gould
2001). As stated by Winkle-Wagner (2010):
Cultural capital could interact and work together with social capital to
perpetuate privilege in that one's social capital, one's social connections,
drives the availability of cultural capital that one acquires and the cultural
capital that is recognized in a particular field. Thus, one's social network
becomes a type of "credential" in social settings.
In this particular study, students discussed how both cultural capital and social capital
gained from the AVID program impacted their high school experience at WHS. This

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section of the chapter will focus entirely on the social capital that the students acquired
through their participation in AVID.
Sub-Theme #1 – Social capital provided by the AVID teacher
Research suggests that one of the most effective ways to convey information to
high school students is through mentoring. The support of a mentor can potentially help
students navigate through the academic pipeline. Levine and Nidiffer (1996) conducted
in-depth case studies with 24 low-income students who overcame substantial obstacles
and enrolled in higher education. In each case, the student cited the positive effect of a
mentor on their academic success. Mentors generally provided these students with
motivation and information on resources, course-taking, test-taking, college applications,
and financial aid. Researchers found that students who engage with a mentor for a
sustained period of time are more likely to enroll in higher education (Gandara, 2001).
A major component of the AVID program at WHS is the relationship the students
developed with their AVID teacher. This relationship was cultivated through the
extensive time the students spent with Miss H. As previously described, the students
took part in their AVID elective class every other day for 80 minutes for multiple years.
Students described how instrumental Miss H. was in there success in high school and
their acceptance into a four-year university. Furthermore, students described how Miss
H. was like their “mom at school” who advocated for them in ensuring they were
successful and on the right path. Students’ responses about their AVID teacher describe
not only how Miss H. was a resource to help them in school, but also how she supported
them in dealing with problems outside the school setting.

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Tessa stated that Miss H. is “a lot of help and she’s a good support system.” She
added that “It was nice to have a relationship with someone who really cared about your
grades and who you could go to when you were struggling and when you were upset
about something and she kind of just backed you up and gave you advice on what to do.”
Tessa discussed how being with Miss H. for a couple of years “allowed our relationship
to grow stronger and I was able to be more comfortable.” Kelsey R. discussed how Miss
H. is “like my school mom.” She added:
If I don’t do my homework, she knows about it. If I am chatty in class,
she knows. I go to her whether it is school related or outside of school
because I have been with her so long and I think she really knows me well.
She knows how I can study and how I can’t study. For finals on half days,
she stays after with me for hours just to make sure I know what I am
doing. It is good just to have her around even if has nothing to do with
school like family life. She is just good to go to because she – not so
much gives me advice – but she know what kind of person I am and the
things I can do to make situations better.
Lindsay described Miss H. as “supportive” and some who “listens to concerns”
and is there to “help make decisions.” She went to say that “I talk to her about anything.
Like if I am struggling in a class, I can say ‘Miss H. what can I do?’ and she says ‘you
know what, this looks like this is where you are struggling and you need to devote more
time to studying or you need to get your HW done.” Lindsay added that Miss H. is
“beneficial to be that extra guidance” and she “looks at our grades and if she sees
anything below a B, she calls you up to her desk and tells you that you need to bring it
up.” She ended by saying that Miss H.”gives you that extra push to make sure we are
doing what we are supposed to do.”

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Mary stated that “I’ve had her for all four years for AVID and she knows me
inside and out” and that “If it were not for Miss H. I would have struggled more.” Mary
went on to day that “She always checked up on me, even with my grades, but like how I
was feeling at home and stuff. So she was always there.” Mary added that Miss H.
would also talk to her teachers for her if she was struggling with a particular subject. She
said “she would talk to a teacher and ask if we could do this extra work or extra credit,
even if the teacher didn’t do extra credit. She would help us out.”
Similar to Kelsey R., Anthony stated that:
Miss H., she’s been like the mother... She like pushes me through things
and she like kinda she, she won’t let me, you know, like in AVID I get a
lot of things done quick and fast and like I have nothing to do, but she
keeps pushing me to do more do better. So, she’s really been probably the
most influential teacher in the whole school.
Anthony described how it is difficult in having the same type of relationship with other
teachers because he is not with them on such a consistent basis. He said:
Where’s for every other teacher you have in this school you’re only really
with them 80 minutes a day. You know, and you can’t you know, get the I
guess relationship down cause she’s also teaching another or he or
whatever your teacher is, is teaching another 20 kids or so. AVID it’s a
little bit smaller and we have all year every other day, so. You know, it’s
we see them more, we know them more, they know us more, so it’s more
like, you know, like a best friend in a sense. So that’s, that’s really why.
She’s really been like that to me.
Anthony also said:
Miss H. knows us. Like I think the very first thing we did in the 9th
grade
AVID we got to know our teachers well. You know, this is our
background, this, you know, this is what we like to do. And I think that’s
helped all the way up until now, you know, really understanding who we
are and what we wanna do. And that’s very, very important for the
college process, especially when she’s writing my recommendations.

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Anthony added that Miss. “took me by, you know, like almost like her own kid and
pushed me to do things the right way” and that “She pushes you to do your best, you
know. She gives you the college experiences.”
Christina said that “I have had her for four years now so every time that I am
having a bad day I go to her to talk to her about it.” She added that Miss. H.” cares a lot
about what we do. She is very personable. She knows what college everyone wants to
go to and she works with you to make sure that can happen. She cares a lot and that
definitely shows.” Christina added that Miss H. has been instrumental in the college
application process. She said:
I guess just knowing that someone cares and is there to help with the
process. I am the first one in my family to go away so my parents do not
really know what to do and Miss Hannold has been through it before. She
knows how to help me with the entire process.
When asked about her AVID teacher, Casey started off by saying that “She knows
everything about me.” She added “like every problem I’ve had I’ve come to her and like
she knows like what I’ve gone through and. I don’t know, it’s just hard to talk about
cause I’m gonna cry.” Casey got emotional speaking about Miss H. as she has been
through a lot of difficult times during her high school years and had always relied on
Miss H. for support. Casey talked about how comfortable she is around Miss H. She
said “it’s like easy to talk to her, cause I’ve known her for so long.” She went on to say
“this might seem weird but, you know how like when you do bad on a test and you don’t
wanna tell anybody? Like I’m comfortable with her to tell her. Even if she’s gonna yell
at me. And like, not yell at me, but like be upset with me.” She added that “Because I’m
like really comfortable with her and I can like trust her. And she like knows everything

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about she. She’ll help me push to do better next time.” Casey discussed how if she is
struggling in a class Miss H. will “go to my teacher and have her like make sure that I am
coming after school. And if I’m not coming after school then Miss H. will say something
to me, like you need to do this or get your grade up, so you have to like actually show
initiative to like do things.” Casey relied on Miss H.’s support in helping her be
successful in her classes. She said that “Cause she does do a lot with like if I’m doing
bad in a class she’ll go and like make sure that I do better. If I didn’t have her I probably
would probably be doing consistently like C’s. Like instead of like having B’s, then like
possibly A’s.” Casey added that because of Miss H. she does not need her mother for
support with many things.
Sean discussed how if he has any problems in a particular class, he will go talk to
Miss H. about it. He added that Miss H. “will get in touch with one of my teachers if I’m
having trouble . . . she would talk to them. He stated that Miss H. would “email the
teacher and say, say if I did bad on a test or something and I wanted to review it, she’d be
like, ‘I saw Shawn did bad, can he review this with you?’ And she’ll shoot them an email
and I’ll go the next day or something and I’ll review the test with them or something.”
Sean added that “. . . she always put out the extra time to help every student in the class,
especially me if I struggled. She’s always keeping in touch with our teachers and keeping
in touch with us to see how we’re doing, which is real good.” Sean said that his mother
came up with the term that Miss H Is “like your mom at school. She finds out everything
you do so you can’t, not say mess up because everybody makes mistakes, but you have to
be more on top of your stuff.”

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Sam discussed how “individually she has helped me. I just listened to what she
says to everybody and then I go apply it myself.” Sam discussed how many ideas Miss
H. talked about have stuck with him. He said:
I would just never like, live life as though nothing is guaranteed, you
always have to take what you want. You have to go after it cause um,
people have had those experiences where they thought it was just gonna
come and the other person took it and that’s how they got the job, so. I
just wanna apply that in my life and thank her for it.
Sam added that having Miss H. for a couple of years as created a bond with her it “makes
me wanna listen to her.”
Kelsey K. said that “if I have a problem or issue at school I would go to Miss H.
first.” She added that “She is great. I love her” and “She is always there if there is a
problem. She always pushed you to do better. She has helped with study skills, time
management . . .”
Marcus discussed how Miss H. has “helped me a lot with the college process,
applying and all that. He added that “She’s been the most helpful with college. The other
day she had these two scholarships for the Ronald McDonald House and she kind of set
them aside for me and I was kind of happy for that because she knows I need
scholarships for the schools I’m going to.”
Hiro said that Miss H. has been “a big part of my high school experience . . .” He
added that Miss H. “is always there for me when I need help out of class and in class. In
terms of academics, she helped me become the student that I am today by teaching me
the AVID curriculum, notes-wise. The whole college process. I would not know
anything if it weren’t for her. Hiro added that Miss H. is “real with me and she is real

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with all of the students. If I am slacking, she is not going to hesitate to get on my back. I
appreciate that a lot.”
In conclusion, Miss H. was able to address both the personal and academic needs
of the AVID students due to her meaningful and sustained relationship. Furthermore,
there were regular times in the school week for AVID students to meet with Miss H. to
discuss how they were doing in school. The students’ responses suggested that Miss H.
was committed in supporting the student’s and took pride in their success. Additionally,
Miss H was responsible for addressing academic and social needs, communicating with
the students’ families, and advocating for the students. The students’ personal
relationship with Miss H. provided the students with a positive support system that
helped them in achieving goals while at WHS. As (Quillian & Redd, 2005) state, social
capital is not a single explanation or variable, but rather points toward a variety of
explanations of how informal human and social relationships are important for human
behavior. Thus, as indicated by the AVID students’ responses, their relationship with
their AVID teacher was instrumental in their success while being part of the AVID
program at WHS.
Sub-Theme #2 – Social capital gained from other AVID students
According to Ryabov (2005), the ideas of connection and acceptance are
important when considering a peer group. Peers, in the school setting, are a group of
students with whom an individual spends time and feels a sense of connection along with
shared participation in specific types of activities and behaviors. Only when students are
united by a shared identity or through their participation in common activities do they

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form a peer group. Furthermore, a peer group is one when an individual seeks acceptance
or approval and where a student needs to feel a sense of identification with his or her
peers.
The relationships formed as a result of the students’ interactions with other
students in their AVID class connect with Putnam’s ideas of bonding. According to
Putnam (2000), bonding social capital refers to the relations amongst relatively
homogenous groups where close ties are formed similar to a family or close group of
friends. The ideas associated with bonding relate to the social interactions the AVID
students encountered at WHS. First, being part of AVID and the consistent interaction
with the other students created a sense of “bonding” amongst the students as close ties
were formed.
Many students used the term “family” to describe the relationship they had with
the AVID students. Tessa stated that AVID “Feels somewhat like a second home.” She
added that “We’re like a big family because we all work together and we go on trips
together to colleges and we get to know each other more on a personal level.” Kelsey R.
said:
Everyone in our class since we have been together so long we are such
good friends and they aren’t people I would be friends if I was not in
AVID because we are not in the same social group or different activities.
If you are together for 4 years, you are bound to talk to everyone at least
once. It brings us all together and we went on the AVID trip and it was
good because we really got to know one another and really talked and had
a lot of laughs. It was so much fun. It really helps because now they are
all in my classes so if I don’t remember the HW I can just text one of them
and they know. Also in classes when I don’t feel like asking the teacher, I
can ask another AVID student that I know because they are on the same
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Kelsey R. also discussed how she talks to the AVID students about things going
on outside of school as “it is always good getting an opinion from someone who is not in
your close circle of friends that you have known forever. These kids will keep it real for
you. If you are applying to a college your friends will say’ that is really good.’ The
students in AVID will say ‘you shouldn’t go there, you are better than that.’ They know
what they are talking about so it is good to go to them for stuff like that.”
Lindsay said that in AVID, the group starts “to become a family as we have been together
for so long” and that you “know the people so well” and “can go to them about academic
problems or questions.” She added that we “all get along great.” Furthermore, she said
that we have “we all want to go to college and be successful” and we “help each other
and learn from other’s mistakes; talk about mistakes together so we know what not to.”
Mary added that “we did a lot of group activities that helped us get to know other AVID
students and really I guess you could say feel comfortable with them and trust each
other” and that “Everyone knows each other and we feel comfortable with each other.”
Anthony compared AVID to having “our own little small clique in school I guess you
could say.” Christina stated:
Our class has been together for three or four years now and we just did an
overnight trip a little while ago. I feel like it is just those people that you
can go to and they know what you are dealing with the whole college
process, what classes you are in and how your grades are and everything.
So it is like a little community that you can work off of.
Christiana added that:
When we came into AVID we were forced to be together. We definitely
built connections that I would not necessarily say I have with friends
outside of AVID. Just because they don’t really know what we are going
through with the college process. So we have a special connection.

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Casey said that “Our AVID class is like a big family.” Casey said that all the AVID
students “want to get into college, so it’s like all preparing for college” and “we all have
that same goal to get to college.” When discussing a teambuilding activity she
participated in during AVID class Casey said “…we all trust each other cause we’re all
like really good friends -- cause of AVID.” She added that “I kind of feel like, not only
do I have my real family, I have them too.”
Sean said “I think now this year you can see everybody’s really together, like,
“Oh how’s your college applications going?” They all want to know where you’re going
and how you’re doing, so it’s nice to have that environment.” Being an athlete, he
compared AVID to a team. He said “Yeah I’d say it makes me feel like I’m as important
there as I am on my sports teams. I’m just as involved, I’m with people I like to be
around, it’s a good experience.”
Sam didn’t see AVID as a club, but as "a group that I’ve been with for so long
I’ve gotten used to it. So like, we look after each other, like if they’re in my class I’ll tell
them if they don’t know what I know I’ll tell them to get up on it or apply yourself, cause
we’re in the same situation as each other.” Kelsey K. said AVID is “like a family in there.
We can go to each other.” She added that “If I had a problem, since I am friends with all
of them, I could go to then and I am sure they would help. “
Marcus said that “we all take some of the classes so if we all need help we all can
ask each other . . .” Hiro was the only student to join AVID during his junior year. He
added that “It is a family. AVID, I mean, me coming into the AVID program I was new
and they already had this chemistry. They have already been together a couple of years,

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but I definitely felt a part of the family as soon as I walked in.” Hiro went to say that
“Everyone likes each other. Everybody... there are no problems with each other.
Everybody gets along for the most part.” He added that “everybody has the same desire
to succeed in coursework and community service.” He added that he feels “comfortable
around everyone in the class” and that he “bonded with people I would not normally talk
to or acknowledge.”
As students spend significant time with the other AVID students, many saw their
friendships grow with other AVID students. Many students discussed how they have
become friends with other AVID students. Tessa said that “Being in AVID, I gained
more friends.” Kelsey R. added that there are some students in AVID who she would
normally not associate with and said that “It is good to have a wide group of friends” and
being part of AVID “it just gave me more friends and I am more open to knowing
different people and making new friends. Lindsay said:
I’m the typical marching band nerd and some of my friends in AVID are
the cheerleaders and most people think ‘oh, marching band and
cheerleaders don’t mix’ and I normally always thought ‘oooh
cheerleaders, I don’t want to talk to them’ and now I’m realizing that some
of the cheerleaders are the nicest people I’ve ever met.
Lindsay added that being part of AVID “has definitely helped me get involved with
talking to people that I normally wouldn’t have."
Another component of social “bonding” is the concept in which individual
members focus on achieving a common goal. Many of the students discussed how the
AVID students have shared goals regarding their future. Tessa said that all the AVID
students “want to go to a four-year college and some people in my AVID class when they

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were freshman and even in middle school were expecting to go to a community college.
We didn’t realize how much things you can do into a four year college like the financial
aid and scholarships and all sorts of things you have to pay for. Christina added that
“being in AVID I think it sort of a competition with the other students in AVID. We all
have the same classes and we want to be the one with the better grade or do better on our
project. It is a good thing because we always want to out due each other in a good way.”
Kelsey added:
We all need to get into colleges. Everyone says ‘Did you get accepted yet,’
did you get accepted. Right now, we are all in the college process waiting to
hear back and we make such a big deal when someone gets into college. It’s
just really fun because if I did not have AVID I would tell my five friends and
they would be ‘aww, that’s good.’ In AVID, Miss H. screams her head off
when we get into colleges and everyone is so excited for you and it really
feels good and you know that everyone is excited for you and you are not just
by yourself.
Sam added that “we all share the same goals, but in different ways. Just academically,
we all wanna get 4.0s or better, but it’s like the level past that is what you’re looking for
to have success in your own way.” Along the same lines, Mary stated:
A lot of the students in AVID they don’t want low grades and they want
what’s best for themselves and for each other. We all love to have fun.
Everyone wants to go to college even if it’s not in their financial range
they want to go to college that fits them and that’s best and not to worry
about the tuition costs and all that – not a community college.
Mary also said that “Everyone has a good positive mind set. I feel like everyone wants to
do what is best for them and what’s best for them is a high expectation.” Kelsey K. said
that all of the AVID students want to “go off to college and we all want to pick a career
and everything.” She said that “the friends that I have in AVID are very driven and they
push me to do my work and get things done on time.” Anthony stated that all the AVID

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students want to “get into college and be successful in life.”
The AVID program intentionally and formally creates a peer network inside the
school setting where students are forced to bond and share common experiences and
goals. One idea the AVID program incorporates is the notion of “fictive kin” (as cited in
Ryabov, 2005). Fictive kin refers to a close relationship between those not related by
blood, but linked by a common economic or social goal. In the case of AVID and other
college-prep programs, students enter into a peer network in which they not only have
access to information and resources, but they are also granted an identity that presumes
that college is their future. The idea of fictive kin serves as a source of support and
identity and creates expectations for the students involved in the group. Additionally, the
AVID students extensive time spent together forms this bond, common identity, and
concern for other’s well-being.
Ryabov (2005) states that the impact of peer groups depends on the way in which
they fulfill the following four functions: the amount of time spent together, the purpose
of the peer group, the way in which they provide an identity for group members, and the
strength of the network. One component of the AVID program is the importance of
sustained interaction over a significant period of time. At WHS, the students attended
their AVID elective class for approximately 80 minutes every other day for multiple
years during high school. Furthermore, after interviewing the students, a strong focus,
identity, and sense of belonging amongst the AVID students emerged. Although the
primary purpose of the program is college acceptance, the implicit goals of creating a
positive peer network to support this goal was evident. The students seemed to possess

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strong bonds with one another and a sense of connection with one another. Part of this
was due to the extended time spent with each other, but also as a result of the fact that
they were focused on achieving the same goals.
Roseth, Johnson, and Johnson (2008), discuss the notion of “integrative social
relationships” (p. 224). These types of relationships among individuals include a sense of
belongingness, social responsibility, and caring. Additionally, the researchers discuss the
idea of “cooperative goal structures” as ones “where the goals of the separate individuals
are so linked together that there is a positive correlation between their goal attainments”
(p. 224). Thus, when individual’s goals are structured cooperatively, their actions will
tend to promote the success of others. This is done via mutual help and assistance,
sharing resources and information, and acting in trustworthy and trusting ways.
Two theories support the perspective that peer relationships may enhance
achievement goals; Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory and belongingness theory.
Maslow’s theory states that achievement can only happen once an individual’s need for
belonging is sufficiently met. Thus, if students do not feel like they are part of a specific
peer group, they will not be able to achieve academically. Belongingness theory posits
that all people have a drive to form and maintain positive, lasting, and significant
relationships with others. These theories indicate that if a program, like AVID, can foster
these positive peer relationships, then students will be more successful in the school
setting. According to my interviews with the AVID students, it was evident that they had
established positive, cooperative relationships with the other AVID students that
promoted their school engagement and success at WHS.

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Sub-Theme #3 – Social capital relating to the change in their peers outside of AVID
Igor Ryabov (2005) discusses the notion of human beings spending their lives in
a “complex web of relationships.” He discusses how children, as they become
adolescents, increasingly look to their peers to “provide a sense of acceptance and
validation.” Ryabov suggests that some students form relationships with other students
that promote academic engagement, but others join peer groups can do the exact opposite
and disengage students from the school. Thus, the importance of surrounding adolescents
with peers who will direct them in a positive and engaging direction is clearly evident.
Additionally, the impact of peers and peer groups can be even more influential when
students lack the parental support or appropriate “cultural capital” at home.
Certain students might find that a peer group they have newly associated with is
dissimilar to another peer group, thus forcing them to reconsider and reflect on these
groups. As previously indicated, peer groups can have powerful affects on adolescents
and the choices a student makes in regards to who they associate themselves with can
significantly impact their academic achievement and, consequently, their access to
college.
Many students talked about how since being part of AVID, they have analyzed
their own friends and try to associate with peers who have the same goals as them. Tessa
stated that “I know with AVID that you need to keep up your grades and work towards
your goals and for the friends that aren’t really sure what they are going to be doing, I
know I can’t always do what they are doing.” Along the same lines, Kelsey R. stated
that:

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I think I am the kind of person who has a plan for the rest of my life and
that is what I want to stick to and it is a little touch because some of my
friends - some I have been friends with my entire life since 1st
grade – we
are on different pages with our lives. They don’t really know what they
want to do and they just kind of like living in the moment right now and
that is not me at all. I always plan for the future no matter what like I am
writing this paper and this is going to help me get into college. That is just
how I think of everything. My close knit friends – like group of 5 – they
are not really like that. They are like I don’t know what I want to do and I
don’t know where I want to go to school. So that’s a little tough because
they don’t know, but I know so. It kind of works in favor of me because it
helps me meet new people because in my classes there are people who I
never talk to and I’m like Do you know what you are doing next year and
they know so it sparks conversation.
Kelsey R. also said that “I won’t really go up to my friends if they are the ones who are
texting and taking the stupid classes and they don’t really care because it will throw off
my focus.” When asked if being part of AVID has changed her friends she said:
Yes. I really do think so and I have not thought about it until now. When
they do not have any goals or they are just settling for what they have. We
have nothing in common anymore because I am so driven and they are not
and it is such a turn-off. It makes me be more aware of the people I want
to surround myself with. .
Lindsay stated that “Being part of AVID has changed the way I select friends because I
don’t want to be friends with somebody who slacks off all of the time or isn’t motivated
because that does not give me a good impression on how they’re going to be later on.
This has gotten better since I have been in AVID. Along the same lines, Mary said that
“Well, it’s kinda hard to explain. I feel like maybe me being in AVID kind of got me
separated from friends I used to have. Like in 8th
grade, I had a couple of other friends,
but like being in AVID I wasn’t able to get into other courses.” Thus, Mary’s friends had
to change as she was scheduling different classes due to AVID. Mary added that:

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When I was younger, I would have friends. I wouldn’t know what types
of aspirations my friends have to the extent of being an adult. Like I
would know that they like dancing or something and that age, maybe what
they wanted to pursue like as a teenager or something, but I never knew
like what they wanted to do later in life. So the friends that I had, it kind of
changed. Because now I kind of... I want friends who are... I don’t want to
say I don’t talk to anyone who doesn’t want to do anything with their life,
but kind of want to associate myself with people who are trying to be like
me in a sense.
Christina said that “I can’t really hang out with people that don’t study or that mess
around all of the time. Just because I take school more seriously, so I feel that I can’t
really relate to people that don’t. I don’t know if this has to do with AVID or my
personality.” Along the same lines, Sam said:
I’ll say this, when people say um, try to surround yourself with people that
have the same intentions and goals as you, that sort of changed my
perspective on a lot of people that I know. And after what they, like after
what I know about them and what they do on their off time I just don’t
mess around or surround myself with that like kind of activity. . .
Hiro added that having focused people around him has supported him at WHS. He said
“Definitely because my surroundings . . . When you are around people that are focused
that makes you want to be more focused. I didn’t have that before in my previous
schools.” He added “. . . the people that I surround myself with right now all want to
succeed, they all do work, and they are all focused. They all have the same goals. I am a
very competitive person and if other people are doing well, I want to do the same.
Casey discussed how she understood how AVID might change someone’s friends.
She said “I can understand why it would do that because once you’re in AVID and you
get to have the hang of like being in like honors classes and stuff you like kind of like it
switches your friends status sort of. Like if you’re like more, if you get to be more

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school-oriented you tend to be with more school oriented friends.”
Implicit in the concept of social capital as it applies to adolescents is the impact of
group membership as an adolescents peer group is generally identified as one of the most
important influences on individual achievement. Peer group theory predicts that a
students’ academic success will vary depending on the peer group that the student most
often comes into contact with. Just as a peer group can have negative effects on a
student, a peer group that is informally or formally created, can have a positive impact on
a student. As indicated, these students now think critically at the peers with whom they
surround themselves with. Furthermore, the students indicated that they will disengage
with peers who do not possess the same goals that they do.
Social capital is captured from embedded resources in social networks.
According to Lin, Cook, and Burt (2001), the notion of social capital “contains three
ingredients: resources embedded in a social structure; accessibility to such social
resources by individuals; and use or mobilization of such social resources by individuals
in purposive actions” (p. 12).
The National Research Council’s (2004) research on effective schools and
programs concluded that the student engagement and learning are fostered by a school
climate characterized by an ethic of caring and supportive relationships, respect, fairness,
and trusts; and teachers’ sense of shared responsibility and efficacy related to student
learning. The research also found that student outcomes were most improved when a
caring and supportive environment was combined with a focus on learning and high
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Furthermore, research has shown that social support is a predictor of college
attendance and completion (Perna, 2000) as social support helps students see college as a
realistic option. Students are more likely to plan to attend college if their friends also plan
to enroll (Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999). Strong social networks help support
students’ academic and emotional development, which can influence their likelihood of
enrolling in college (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2001). In addition to peer support, research has
shown that mentors play a key supportive role in helping low-income students overcome
obstacles and enroll in college (Levine & Nidiffer, 1996). These components were
clearly evident and supported the students in the AVID program at WHS.
Theme Number Three: Students acquisition of an academic identity
According to Erikson (1968), adolescence is a time of identity crisis as
adolescents are trying to figure out how they relate to the world. An adolescent must
struggle to discover and find his or her own identity, while negotiating and struggling
with social interactions and “fitting in.” During this identity crisis, adolescents must find
an answer to the identity questions: "Where did I come from?" "Who am I?" "What do I
want to become?" Erikson (1968) believed that identity development takes center stage
in adolescence and young adulthood, when advances in cognitive skills, heightened
societal pressures, and opportunities to explore future roles prompt youth to focus on the
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James Marcia (1991) expanded on Erikson’s work and divided the concept of
identity crisis into four states. These states are titled: Identity Foreclosure, Identity
Moratorium, Diffusion, and Identity Achievement.
During “identity foreclosure,” an adolescent commits to an identity without
exploring alternatives. The adolescent in this state is committed to an identity, but not as
a result of their own searching or crisis. In the “identity moratorium,” the adolescent is
still undergoing the identity search and begins to question his or her ideas and beliefs.
The individual is beginning to commit to an identity, but is still developing it. The
“moratorium” status is characterized by the active exploration of alternatives. Such
exploration may be followed by “identity achievement.” “Identity achievement” occurs
when the adolescent has explored and committed to important aspects of their own
identity. However, some adolescents may become overwhelmed by the task of identity
development and neither explores nor makes commitments. This describes Marcia's
“diffusion” status, in which adolescents may become socially isolated and withdrawn.
An adolescent’s environment, such as their lives at home and school, clearly influences
the development of an identity as adolescences pay careful attention to the world around
them for information about who they might become. Furthermore, identities formed in
adolescence have significant implications for students’ educational aspirations and
achievements.
The notion of identity crisis is of importance when discussing the AVID program.
All of the students began participating in AVID either in their freshman or sophomore
year, a time when students are beginning to form an identity at school. AVID focuses on

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cultivating an academically-focused identity by providing the students with a clear
understanding and path for attending a four-year university.
The AVID program focuses on teaching the students that if they are motivated
and work hard in school they can attend a four-year university and have successful
careers. After interviewing the AVID students, it was evident that the students had
internalized this concept as their participation in the program had influenced their
perspective of themselves as students and shaped their overall outlook on the educational
process. Students developed more confidence in their academic abilities and were more
motivated to achieve in school. Additionally, they learned how to set goals and learned
about the necessary steps needed to attain those goals. Furthermore, the AVID students
were more aware of the importance of education on their future. As a result of
participating in the AVID program, students saw themselves as successful students who
were academically focused.
Mehan, Hubbard and Villanueva (1994) discuss the notion of “achievement
ideology” (p. 94). This ideology, according to the researchers, is a belief in the value of
hard work and individual effort in achieving goals. Some students do not buy into, or
they have given up in hard work and individual effort or can be classified as “anti-
academic” because they see “little reason for their coursework and cannot envision how
schooling will help them achieve their goals” (p. 94). The concept of “achievement
ideology” presented itself in my interviews with the AVID students as many understood
the connection between working hard and setting goals and how this lead to future
success.

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When interviewing the students, it was clear that they developed more confidence
in their academic abilities as a result of being part of AVID. Furthermore, they
developed a belief in their own efficacy and the importance of succeeding in school,
enough to support other students who needed support in the school setting. Kelsey R.
stated:
Freshman year when I didn’t have AVID, I was not getting good grades. I
had a huge leap sophomore year with the grades that I was getting and
the classes I was taking. I picked up an Honors class and this helped with
my GPA and also helped my self confidence knowing that I can do this
and it is not as hard as people say. This makes me feel so good about my
future knowing that I really can do it.
Sam stated that being in AVID has “made me more confident in my work. Like
this stuff, the study skills and organization skill methods that they give us I, when I
apply that in the actual classroom and the results are better and it makes me more
confident going into the class.” Mary said that “As a person I would say just more
confidence. It teaches you how to be individually confident, motivated. So even with
your friends, if you are confident within yourself and motivated within yourself, you can
like teach your friends and you and your friends can help each other.” Similar to what
Mary mentioned, other students discussed that they now possess the knowledge and
skills to help other students who are not in the AVID program. Kelsey R. stated that:
I am more focused in my classes and for someone that isn’t, I can really
help them out. My one friend Ryan is a mess and he is all over the place.
His backpack has papers everywhere and I used what I have in AVID to
be Miss. H. for him. If he does not have his homework I can say ‘What
are you doing?’You need to come to school, you need to do your
homework.’ So I am his Ms. H. because he does not have AVID.

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Along the same lines, Lindsay discussed how it has made her more responsible and how
she is:
Willing to help others who are struggling because I realize that I used to
be in their shoes and now that I’ve got the skills to be better. I feel like it
should be my part to try to help them. My one friend still hasn’t turned in
any of her transcripts and I tell her’ you need to get that stuff in, colleges
are already starting to accept things. So I feel that I am trying to do my
part to try to help them through AVID.
Students discussed how being in AVID has made them more motivated to well in
school while others mentioned how they now want to challenge themselves to do even
better in school. Christina said that before being in AVID “like I could have done better,
but I did this. And like sometimes I would do good, and then sometimes I would do
really bad. So now I’m like, I’m better about school now. Like I used to, I used to not
really care.” Tessa stated that “being in AVID makes me want to get good grades and I
know I have expectations to meet.” Tessa added that “It pushed me a lot and motivated
me.” Lindsay said that she was “a B and C student and I am now pushing myself harder;
all A's and B's and I never thought that I would be here. Knowing your responsibilities
as a student, knowing what you need to be doing and not to slack off.” Lindsay added
that AVID provided her with the “extra motivation that keeps us going. Giving me that
extra push to work harder and without AVID I wouldn’t have had that push.” Casey said
that AVID has motivated her as she said:
I actually do my homework. Like I never did my homework and I actually
do it. So like I think that like kind of changed me from like having the
motivation to do my homework instead of like just sit around and not do
anything. So like, I just think about like AVID just makes me think about
my grade. Like I want my grade to be good, so I’m gonna do my
homework.

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Kelsey K. said that “In 7th
I did not care and I did not do well at all. In 8th
grade I
did better, but not as well as I could have. 9th
grade it was the same and then in 10th
grade AVID helped me so much.” Hiro said that being in AVID has changed him as a
student. He said “It makes you want to do better in all of your courses.
Many students discussed how being in AVID has made them have higher
expectations for themselves. Mary discussed how everyone in AVID has high
expectations. “Everyone has a good positive mind set. I feel like everyone wants to do
what is best for them and what’s best for them is a high expectation.” Christina said that
“I have higher expectations for myself. I want the better grades and to go Above and
Beyond.” Furthermore, Marcus said that if he was not in AVID he “wouldn’t have tried
to challenge myself as much, I would’ve been just happy with the A in a regular class, I
would’ve never thought of going to a higher class because I’m getting an A in this
class.” Hiro stated that “I have higher expectations for myself, so do my teachers, so
does my mom.” Mary said that she always wanted to well in school and that “AVID
was just like the icing on the cake. I mean they make me not want to slack off at all.”
Anthony said that he knew being in AVID would “help me push me and motivate
me to get to college. Like I didn’t, freshman year I didn’t think it would have as much
of an impact as it has, now that I see it, like senior year.” Anthony added that “Miss H.
does an “awesome job pushing people and pushing people and pushing people to be able
to do their best. And I think once kids actually see that they’re doing their best they start
to, you know, change their ways and like this isn’t bad, you know.”

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Students discussed how AVID has changed their outlook of the entire educational
process along with the way they interact with others. Students acknowledged the
necessity of academic achievement for both academic and future success. Kelsey R.
stated that “with AVID and being an AVID student, I feel that I am ahead of everyone
else and just my life in general and colleges and everything.” Anthony discussed how
being part of AVID has made him more “professional.” He added “You know, I, the
way I handle myself is very professional from AVID. “ Marcus discussed that he is more
“courteous to my surroundings, like I’m more respectful because people are always
watching you wherever you’re at. And school you can’t look at as a fun time, it’s kind of
like your job, like a business.” Hiro discussed that “the most important piece of the
program is how important education is and what it takes to succeed in education. I
would not know half of the information about education or college if it was not for
AVID. About note taking and all that it entails. They teach you how to act, you can’t
like a fool in AVID and you have to represent it with class.” Lindsay added:
I’m a lot more interested in school because before I didn’t like school and
I thought it was dumb, pointless. Now I am realizing that it’s like, as
struggling and annoying as it is sometimes, but it is beneficial and you
need it. It’s definitely a good amount of time spent.
Many students discussed how being in AVID has made them set goals and work
towards achieving these goals. Additionally, students stated how important setting goals
are as they plan out their future. Tessa said that “AVID helped me with just setting
goals for myself and knowing that you have to do certain things in order to achieve these
goals.” Lindsay said being in AVID “Made me realize that I needed to work myself
because if I wasn’t going to work myself now I wasn’t going to get where I want to be in

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the future .It made me more aware of what I need to be doing to be successful in the
future.” Kelsey K. said that “I knew I wanted to go to college. It was never an option for
me not to go. AVID has helped me set higher goals and knowing that I can do better.”
Sam stated:
If I was talking to a ninth grader or somebody eighth grade coming in I
would advise them to go in the program if you’re not sure or like your life,
where your life will take you, or you need some encouragement or
somebody to push you or motivate you, go in AVID cause it makes you
think outside the box. And it really gives you an outlook on life that you
never seen before.
Hiro said that “I was not the greatest student for my career. AVID changed that, I can
tell you that. I struggled. I did not like school. I did not like taking tests. I didn’t like .
. . I just came to school to socialize really, but AVID changed all that.” Hiro added that
“I am not as successful as I would like to be, just because of my past. Now I am on the
track that I want to be on.”
Zirkel (2002) posits that “It is critical that we understand the social and cultural
contexts which frame students’ sense of opportunity and effect differences in students’
commitment to their education and to the pursuit of educational goals” (p. 358). Thus,
student motivation can change with both environmental and interpersonal factors. That is,
parents, teachers, and other school professionals can create the conditions for student
motivation to flourish and have the potential to improve their academic performance
(Reeve, 2002). During my interviews, it was clear that the student’s academic mindset
was a result of being around academically-oriented peers juxtaposed with developing
strategies for managing an academic identity at school.

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As discussed in this chapter, the students, as a result of participating in the AVID
program, acquired the necessary cultural capital, social capital, and academic orientation
to succeed at WHS and gain acceptance to a four-year university. These interviews
indicate that without the AVID program, these students would not have had the capacity
to access a variety of resources that supported them in their path to applying and getting
accepted to a college in which they were interested in attending.
During my interview with the AVID teacher, Miss H., she discussed many of the
ideas relating to the themes of cultural capital, social capital, and an academic identity.
Miss H. described AVID as a program:
. . .geared towards teaching students hidden skills that most successful
students already have. So it is like teaching them hidden curriculum to
accelerate kids in the academic middle from a general course preparation
to more rigorous course work. The goal for me has just turned into
teaching them skills that will help them be successful in post-secondary
and graduate with a degree.
Miss H. stated that “one misconception that people have is that AVID is an at-risk
program or a remedial program, but it is really not.” She described it as acceleration.”
She discussed that when AVID students first started, they had this misconception of the
program. She stated that the students “would come in and be like ‘are we here because
we are dumb, like why are we here.’ They didn’t understand that someone saw the
potential in them and that it just needed to be refined and fostered a little bit.”
When discussing the AVID group at WHS, she thought that at least half of the
students were already headed for a four year university. She added that “there is another
group that I don’t think would have gotten that and I definitely know of at least five
students that would either not be going to college at all and going to the workforce or

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they would try to go to community college for a semester and probably would not be very
successful.” Thus, Miss H. believed that many of the AVID students were on a college
track without AVID, but there was a group of students who would either have not applied
to college or only applied to community colleges.
According to Miss H., one important component of AVID was “convincing them
the value of a college education.” She added that:
Some of them came from very working class backgrounds whose parents
did not go to college. So they don’t understand why I am I going to
spend all of this money when they see those thousands and thousands of
dollars. They don’t understand it is an investment in their future. In the
long run that is what is going to make you successful. I think a lot of
them would not have gotten that if they were not in AVID.
Miss H. believed that the note taking pieces of the AVID program were important and
helpful for the students, but thought the most beneficial parts of the program for the
students were “the mentorship relationship and the college piece.”
When discussing the mentoring piece of AVID, Miss H. stated:
It is interesting when you look at the AVID class, that every teacher has
their own style. I know that a lot of the focus on AVID’s curriculum is
writing and reading and I came from a History background. I was taught
how to teach content and I have been learning over the years how to
incorporate the skills.
She added that her mentorship composed of staying on top of the students and making
sure they are they are doing what they are supposed to. She said that an important piece
is providing them with “encourage and support” and being “really tough when I need to.”
She said that “I think over the four years, that has really developed to where they do not
like coming to me sometimes because they know that I am not going to be happy, but
they are like I need to talk to her about this and I need her to see this.” Miss H. said that”

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I have parents calling me now and saying this is going on at home and I just wanted you
to know. They come to me with things.” She stated that at the last parent conferences, “I
think I hugged every single one of them.” She said the parents are:
Coming in and getting emotional over graduation and sending their kids
away and I am doing the same thing. It has been interesting to see how
this has all developed. It has been wonderful. They taught me so much
like how to be more empathetic and understanding, but also holding those
high expectations.
In explaining the college piece, she said that “the amount of time that we have
taken to explain what college is and how is it different. Let’s go see it, this is how you
apply, this is the financial aid. It is a step by step process.” For the students’ final
semester senior year, she said the focus is “how you can be successful in college.” She
said the lessons have centered on “how time management changes when you get to
college, this is how you are going to have to budget your money, this is how you use a
course syllabus.”
Miss H. discussed how many of the lessons and the information delivered to the
AVID students could benefit all high school students. She said that “we have talked
about that in meetings about how we will do lessons in here and the college counselor
will look at me and say ‘I feel bad for the other 350 seniors that are not getting this
information.’ She added that:
It is true and it is a scary statistic that 40 percent of these kids that leave
this high school will not make it through their first year. I honestly think
that a lot of the kids in this room would have fallen into that and they are
not anymore because of AVID.

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Miss H. discussed how the structure of AVID is challenging to replicate. She said “we
think about that a lot. There is just something about being able to sit in the classroom and
spend the 90 minutes together.” She added that:
I feel like with the normal high school schedule, I see kids for a semester
and then I don’t see them after that and they are done. In those 6 months,
you forge these great relationships with students, but you know there is
something different about seeing a kid every other day for 4 years and
about what you can establish.
Miss H. talked about the relationships the AVID students had with each other
along with the peer groups they joined when taking more college-prep course. In
describing the relationships between the AVID students, she said “I always laugh about
this because I feel there is something that happens between junior and senior year.” She
said that freshman year, many of the students did not know each other and then
“sophomore year we brought in 10 more people and then it became very cliquey. They
would work together but they would not pull together as a whole.” Miss H. stated that
“something happened between mid-junior year and through this year as the cliques broke
down.” She said this year she will see things like “so and so will get into a college and
they will all be like ‘YES!!’ and now they all kind of pull for each other.”
Miss H. said that when she begins next year with a new group of 9th
grade AVID
students, she will focus more on forming these relationships among the AVID students
earlier. She said that:
When I start over with my new AVID group, I will have college visits
sooner and spend the first 3 months freshman year on teambuilding, so I
can foster those relationships sooner. That will be a main focus of mine,
creating this collective whole from day one.

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Miss. H. talked a great deal about the importance of having the students move
from the “academic track” to the ‘honors” track during high school. She stated that “I
think one of the challenges when you have these kids in an academic track is that I think
that they generally do want to work and want to rise, but there is a lot of social pressure
not to well in some of those classes.” She said that the “negative social pressure, like it is
cool not to do your best, vanished” for the AVID students. Miss H. added that “in their
interactions with other peers, it really challenged them to be better.”
Miss H. discussed how the students “learned what makes them successful.” She
added that “there are certain core skills that everyone needs to know, but you also need to
know how you learn best. She said that through AVID, the students began to understand
what type of learner they were and were able to assess their strengths and weaknesses and
then “start to gear themselves” towards these characteristics. She added that “some of
those other skills, like sitting in the front of the classroom, they learn that even though it
is not the best thing in the world as kids like to sit in the back of the room and talk to their
friends, they know that is what is going to make them successful.”
Miss H. talked about the importance of having the AVID students think about
college early in their high school experience. She said that “when kids start in AVID, it
seems so far away and so remote that they don’t do what they need to do now.” She
added that “they have this magical thinking that it is just going to happen. So to have
kids start looking at colleges early is important.” She said that many students want to go
to particular colleges and have no idea why. She stated that the students “have such a
narrow focus on looking at colleges” as she said that most just want to go to a local

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school. She added that the “bottom line is that there are so many schools out there that
are so much better suited for your personality or your social needs, your academic needs.
I feel like the AVID kids went through the process by continually always going back to
research colleges.” Miss H. said that the AVID students “did college searches, I would
say, once every 3 or 4 months” and every time she would have them look at “5 schools
that you have not looked at before.”
Miss H. stated that the process of constantly looking at a variety of college kept
the students “in check, as students will understand the types of GPAs they need to get
into certain schools and either work towards this goal or know that they have to look
elsewhere.” She added that “sometimes the students are devastated as some had these
dreams of going to these schools.” She said that:
I think that is so important for them to understand that if this is your goal
then you have to work towards this all the way through. Continually
refining what you want to do and major in and who offers it, where can
you go, also helped them really push themselves in school.
Furthermore, Miss H. talked about the research process also helped change the
classes they scheduled during high school. She said that “I would say if you really want
to get into engineering, here is what you need to have and what you need to take in high
school. If you want to go into this major, here are good courses to take in high school to
help.” She said that she was helping the students in “building their resume in high
school around what they were potentially trying to do” and that “I think it really helped
them get into some of these schools.” Last, Miss H. discussed how the research process
helped the students to apply to the “right schools” and to “get a lot of money.” She added
that” even the kids who I would say did not have the most stellar transcripts; they applied

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to the right schools and received money.” She concluded by saying that of all the lessons
and information the students learned in being part of the AVID program, she thought the
students “really responded to the exposure to a college going culture and a college going
atmosphere.”

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CHAPTER 5
Introduction
According to the National Governor’s Association (2004), American high schools
have changed very little over the past century. It has been called a “sorting place” for
our system of education and a place that is failing to prepare many of our students for
postsecondary success. Despite a multitude of individual and societal benefits associated
with postsecondary attainment alongside a legislative shift focused on high school
reform, college access and degree completion rates remain uninspiring in the United
States. High schools across the country need to improve in effectively leading students
to four-year universities and completing their degrees. This improvement is critical if
the Unites States hopes to meet President Obama’s challenge of making the United
States the nation with the highest proportion of college graduates by the year 2020
(University of Southern California, 2010).
Best practices research in education coupled with sociological studies have
outlined various types of “capital” that educational settings can exploit to create a
“college-going” culture. This culture can, in turn, influence college attendance rates and
student success at both the high school and college level. This study, although
diminutive in scale and positioned in one type of school and community, has noteworthy
implications for both educational leaders and policy makers. The ideas associated with
cultural capital and social capital, while already well-established, could have more of an
influence in the realm of education, especially in the creation of successful intervention
programs for high schools. Additionally, this study demonstrated that an effective

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intervention program can provide an opportunity whereby “social and cultural resources
are converted into educational advantages” (Lareau & Horvat, 1999, p. 37). Furthermore,
the early creation of an academic identity and a college-going mindset is extremely
critical in the educational development of adolescents. These three themes - social
capital, cultural capital, and an academic identity - should be topics that are at the heart of
any high school reform effort in the United States so that all students have an equal
chance to attend a four-year university with the necessary skills to be successful and
graduate.
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to understand the perspective of the
AVID program through the lens of the students who were part of the program at WHS.
The students’ participation in AVID was examined using the framework of social capital
theory to determine if the relationships they developed as a result of participating in the
program had impacted the students’ motivation at school, desire to pursue post-secondary
education, and acceptance into a four-year university. Listed below are the research
questions proposed for this qualitative study. These research questions will be
comprehensively explored in the sections that follow.
1. How has participation in the AVID program throughout high school impacted
students’ levels of academic motivation and confidence, cultural assimilation, and
school engagement and involvement?
2. How has the AVID program affected the students’ connections to the
3. How has the AVID program influenced the students’ groups and
networks, trust and solidarity, collective action and cooperation,
information and communication, social cohesion and inclusion, and
empowerment

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Findings and Interpretations
Theme Number One: Students acquisition of cultural capital as a result of their
participation in the AVID program at WHS
Although the notion of cultural capital was not a direct focus of the study when I
first began, the ideas associated with this theory quickly emerged when analyzing the
interview and observation data. One component of cultural capital theory is the specific
and critical information that an individual acquires as a result of their economic or
cultural position in the world. Many of these AVID students, due to their economic
status and their parents’ lack of being college educated, were in dire need of information
about the college process. This explicit information about applying, financing, and
attending college was provided to the students through AVID. Furthermore, the students
acquired, both directly and unintentionally, the critical “hidden curriculum” skills that
prepared them to tackle challenging, college-prep courses during high school. This
“capital” that was supplied to the AVID students unequivocally influenced their high
school experience and, in turn, their futures.
When referring back to my research questions, I was able to ascertain that the
AVID program had a considerable impact on the student’s academic motivation,
confidence and school engagement. As indicated in Chapter 4, the students described
how they were more motivated to achieve in school and, due to participating in AVID,
possessed a variety of skills which helped them feel confident in their academic abilities.
This enhanced confidence was a result of AVID students scheduling more challenging
courses and succeeding academically in these rigorous courses.

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Academic engagement refers to enthusiastic and focused involvement in
academic activities and manifests in behaviors, such as effort and active class
participation (Kindermann, 2007). This idea of “academic engagement” was evident in
the AVID students as they communicated that they were more focused on their
academics, improved their classroom behaviors, and were largely more engaged in their
education.
As indicated in the students’ responses, the AVID program attempts and succeeds
in providing students with the cultural capital to make them successful throughout high
school and supports them in applying and being accepted into a four-year university. By
participating in AVID, the students acquired an academic advantage similar to that of
high socio-economic families as they were able to produce more of the kinds of skills,
cognitive and non-cognitive, that schools reward (Davies & Guppy, 2006). Furthermore,
the AVID students possessed high levels of educational and occupational attainment as
well as important skill sets required for academic success. Additionally, the AVID
students acquired an appreciation of the importance of education and the attitudes and
behaviors that are conducive to success within the school environment (Edgerton, Peter,
& Roberts, 2008).
The AVID program engaged the students in their educational process, expanded
their educational horizons, and supported them in their day-to-day learning. Moreover,
the AVID program offered educational opportunities to cultivate the students’ cultural
capital as they learned organizational and study skills, developed critical thinking skills,

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received academic help from peers and college tutors, and participated in enrichment and
motivational activities that made college seem attainable.
As referenced earlier, the AVID students’ parents cared about their child’s
education and wanted them to be academically successful. The inherent problem was
that the parents, due to their socio-economic status and lack of a college education, did
not possess the capacity to provide their children with the “capital” to they needed in
relation to being successful in the school setting and applying and getting accepted to a
four-year university.
Lareau and Horvat (1999) state:
One of Bourdieu’s major insights on educational inequality is that students
with more valuable social and cultural capital fare better in school than do
their otherwise-comparable peers with less valuable social and cultural
capital. The social reproduction perspective has proved especially useful
in attempts to gain a better understanding of how race and class influence
the transmission of educational inequality (p. 37).
All schools have a population of students who are in need of various forms of cultural
capital to be successful in high school. Many students do not possess the motivation and
desire to succeed academically. Additionally, students lack the necessary information to
access post-secondary education. High schools need to focus on providing students with
this essential capital, so that Bourdieu’s notion of social reproduction and the
“transmission of educational inequality” will not be an accurate portrayal of the
American education system (Lareau & Horvat, 1999, p. 13).

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Theme Number Two: Students acquisition of social capital from their AVID teacher, the
peers in their AVID class, and the change in their peers outside of AVID
As indicated by the students’ responses, the social capital gained from Miss H.
was clearly instrumental in the students’ success and desire to apply to a four-year
university. Students felt a strong connection to their AVID teacher and understood that
she was an advocate for them at WHS. They were able to speak to her about issues and
concerns both in the school setting and outside of school. This comfortable and
supportive relationship provided the students with a strong adult presence throughout
their high school years. Dynarksi et al. (2008) state that personal and academic needs can
be addressed through a meaningful and sustained relationship with a trained adult. This
adult, according to the researchers, should be responsible for addressing academic and
social needs, communicating with the families, and advocating for the student. At WHS,
Miss. H. provided this meaningful, supportive adult presence for the AVID students.
Dynarksi et al. (2008) also suggest establishing a regular time in the school day
for students to meet with the adult and to choose an adult who is committed to investing
in the student’s personal and academic success. This notion of an adult advocate ties
directly with the AVID program at WHS as Miss H. served as the facilitator for these
students as they traveled through their high school years. AVID students attended their
AVID class consistently for consecutive years and were able to build this powerful
relationship with Miss H.
In large high schools, such as WHS, students can become alienated and
disengaged where they feel little attachment to school and their teachers. A personalized

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learning environment creates a sense of belonging and promotes a sense of community.
This personalized learning environment fosters a school climate where students and
teachers get to know one another. The idea of providing a personalized learning
environment was indicative of the AVID elective class at WHS. Students felt
comfortable with another and their teacher and shared in each other’s successes. The
AVID students at WHS shared the same goals and academic mindset, which enhanced
their ability to rely on one another for information and encouragement (Dynarksi et al.,
2008).
More specially, the National Research Council’s (2004) research on effective
schools and programs concluded that the student engagement and learning are fostered by
a school climate characterized by an ethic of caring and supportive relationships, respect,
fairness, and trust. The research also found that student outcomes were most improved
when a caring and supportive environment was combined with a focus on learning and
high expectations for student achievement.
The National Research Council’s (2004) findings correlate with the idea of
schools utilizing an ethic of care. Noddings (1992) believed the ethic of care should be
of utmost importance in the field of education. She emphasized that holding on to a
competitive edge in achievement has meant some children may see themselves merely as
pawns in a nation of demanding and uncaring adults (as cited in Shapiro & Gross, 2008,
p.27). The ethic of care emphasizes interpersonal relationships and collaboration over
competition, and strives to facilitate a sense of belonging. It questions who will benefit
from a decision and who will be hurt. This ethic upholds the values of loyalty and trust.

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As Shapiro and Stefkovich (2001) further describe it, the ethic of care suggests that
"students are at the center of the educational process and need to be nurtured and
encouraged, a concept that likely goes against the grain of those attempting to make
'achievement' the top priority" (p.16-17)
The AVID approach at WHS is a collaborative one in which the teacher and
students work together. The goal is a shared sense of responsibility in ensuring the
students are academically successful in high school, graduate, and attend college.
Additionally, the AVID program emphasizes high expectations as it places students into
college preparatory classes, including Advanced Placement and Honors level classes.
Peer relationships can influence students’ academic success, especially during
adolescence. During this time in their lives, students naturally seek out connections with
their peers and many of these connections are based on common interests while others are
based on a desire to belong. It is the social connections students have that can positively
or negatively shape their future paths. Thus, the intentional creation of a valuable and
supportive peer group for students, especially those at-risk of failing, can be an impactful
initiative at the secondary level (Center for Higher Education Policy Analysis, 2006).
A peer group is created when students are united by a shared identity or by
participating in common activities as well as when they seek acceptance and approval.
Peer groups can either be located inside or outside of the school setting and can either be
formal or informal. Formal, in class- peer groups are those that have been organized by
the school and are successful when students share a common academic identity and a
concern off one another’s well-being (Center for Higher Education Policy Analysis,

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2006). Although the explicit purpose of a program, like AVID, is to prepare students for
college, the implicit intention is to create a group of academically-oriented individuals
who collectively share the same goals and cooperatively work together to achieve these
goals.
As indicated by the data, the AVID program at WHS created a peer network of
students in which the students supported one another and motivated each other to
succeed. Furthermore, the program united students based on a common academic
identity and allowed them to support one another in achieving common goals. The
students in the AVID program possessed a level of connection and acceptance with the
other AVID students. This culture of connection and acceptance was cultivated through
the students’ sustained interaction over time, their common interests and goals, the shared
activities they participated in, and the educational environment created by their AVID
teacher, Miss. H.
Greenwald, Hedges and Laine (1996) argue that as family social capital declines,
school resources become more important to promoting student achievement. In this case,
a deficit in resources at home can be at least partially compensated by supportive
resources at school. These are called “compensating effects” because more favorable
conditions in one sphere may compensate for less favorable conditions in the other. The
AVID program at WHS was able to provide its students with social capital from the
AVID teacher as well as through the positive and collaborative relationships with other
AVID students.

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Theme Number Three: Acquisition of an academic identity
Cultural assimilation is the process by which one cultural group is absorbed by
another. Although cultural assimilation typically relates to immigrants and their ability to
become part of the mainstream or dominant culture, in this particular study, the AVID
students had to assimilate to their new AVID culture. For most of the students, as
indicated by their responses in Chapter 4, this was a clear change for them as they now
were more focused and motivated to succeed in the educational setting. This new
“academic identity” was cultivated in the AVID classroom and, as time passed, the
students began to assimilate to this new academically-oriented culture. However, with
this assimilation came changes in their thinking, consciously or subconsciously,
regarding their friendships. As the AVID students began to possess an academic identity
with a specific educational direction, some students began to evaluate their current
friendships. Being part of AVID helped the students to move from affiliating with non-
academically motivated students to those with higher academic aspirations.
Through their responses, the students indicated that they now tended to befriend others
who were more academically oriented and who were focused on school and their future
endeavors.
Peers are important influences on the motivation and self-concept of a student
(Cook, 2009). One concept of relevance to this particular study is the idea that having a
positive academic reputation may be associated with having academic successes
recognized and remembered by peers, being approached more often for academic help,
and affiliating with other classmates perceived as high achieving. Interestingly, many of

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the AVID students discussed how they used the information they learned from AVID to
help other students at WHS, including helping others with organization, applying to
college, and completing financial aid forms. Moreover, the students possessed an
enhanced level of motivation by engaging with other AVID students who were
academically focused. This socialization process with their peers from AVID produced
benefits for all of the students as they were committed to a shared belief system in
achieving academically and applying to and getting accepted to a four-year university.
After interviewing the AVID students, it was evident that the students had
internalized this concept as their participation in the program had influenced their
perspective of themselves as students and shaped their overall outlook on the educational
process. Students developed more confidence in their academic abilities and were more
motivated to achieve in school. Additionally, they learned how to set goals and learned
about the necessary steps needed to attain those goals. The students had reached the idea
of an “achievement ideology” as they understood the value of hard work and individual
effort (Mehan, Hubbard, &Villanueva, 1994, p. 94).
In essence, I believe that the students carried themselves with an “AVID identity.”
One that represented a high school student who was motivated to academically achieve,
pay attention in class, and attend college. The students had internalized the type of
student the AVID program hoped to create and took pride in representing this at WHS.
Recommendations
According to Frances C. Fowler (2004) in her book entitled Policy Studies for
Educational Leaders – An Introduction:

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Every public policy – including education policy – is a response to a
specific social setting that includes a wide range of phenomena studied by
the social sciences, economic forces, demographic trends, ideological
belief systems, deeply help values, the structure and traditions of the
political system and the culture of the broader society (p. 54).
Fowler (2004) mentions that public policies do not “suddenly emerge,” but are responses
to the “complex dynamics of a specific social setting” (p.55) and that most policies aim at
some sort of “change or reform” (p.42). As indicated by an abundance of research on
college enrollment and retention, it is increasingly becoming more apparent that the
American high school is in desperate need of reform. These reform efforts need to focus
on providing students with the support and resources to graduate high school, the
information to understand the college application process, and the skills to graduate from
college.
One method of reforming the traditional high school is by providing students
opportunities through pre-college outreach program, similar to AVID. Based on her
review of the literature on pre-college outreach programs, Heather Oesterreich (2000)
found that programs that are comprehensive in nature and combine a variety of services
have the greatest impact on college access for underserved students. Programs that reach
students early and focus on “readiness” rather than “remediation” are most effective in
preparing students to navigate the academic pipeline.
Furthermore, Patricia Gandara (2001) reviewed evaluation studies and concluded
that the most effective programs had the following elements in common: providing a key
person who monitors the students over a long period of time; providing high-quality
instruction and access to the most challenging courses; making long-term investments

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rather than short-term interventions; incorporating culturally sensitive practices;
providing a supportive peer group; and providing financial assistance and incentives.
Cunningham, Redmond and Merisotis (2003) also reviewed the outreach program
evaluation literature to identify elements common to effective intervention programs.
They found that the most effective programs tended to provide some type of financial
assistance, access to challenging coursework, and a supportive academic environment.
They tend to provide support service to students over a long period of time and use a key
contact person to maintain sustained contact.
Researchers consistently cite the need for high quality data collection and
rigorous evaluations of these pre-college outreach programs to better identify elements of
effectiveness for program participants. Evidence from the few programs that have
undergone such evaluations suggests that these programs can increase access and
persistence in higher education for high school students. More research is needed to
improve our understanding of how these programs impact students and ways in which
they can better serve participants (Jager-Hyman, 2004).
These recommendations for constructing pre-college outreach programs all center
on the themes that emerged in the findings from this study of the AVID program. Thus,
the ideas associated with cultural capital as it relates to information about the college
application process juxtaposed with the support provided by the social capital of peers
and an adult is paramount in the success of pre-college outreach programs. Through the
exploitation of this “capital,” the goal of the intervention program is to create an

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academically focused student who is accepted to a four-year institution and possesses the
skills, knowledge, and attitude to graduate.
One underlying issue is that these college outreach programs only provide
“targeted” students with the opportunity to participate. At a large high school similar to
WHS, there is only a small cohort per grade level that has access to the AVID teacher and
AVID curriculum. As indicated by the students’ responses, the AVID students had
friends who needed their help with the college application process and who would have
benefitted from the information obtained from a class like AVID. Furthermore, the
AVID students’ responses showcased how knowledgeable they were of the college
application process, including the type of college they wanted to attend, their intended
major, and an understanding of the costs of attending college.
Even though WHS is a high-achieving high school in a suburban community
where a majority of families are college educated and where most students attend four-
year universities, there is a convincing need for all students to receive the necessary
resources and information about the college process. Although I lack the knowledge to
ascertain how much information about the college application process that non-AVID
students possessed, I do know what the AVID students experienced. They took part in
formal college visits at a variety of institutions and had an extensive amount of time to
research colleges and the programs they had. Additionally, the AVID students had time
during school to research various majors that interested them throughout their high school
years. Thus, the AVID students at WHS possessed an understanding of the type of
college they wanted to attend, the programs that were offered at various schools, and an

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idea of the major in which they might pursue in college. When analyzing the students’
responses, it was clearly evident that this comprehensive understanding influenced their
decisions in which colleges to apply to. This college-specific knowledge would be
beneficial for all high school students at WHS to have access to.
Other ideas associated with AVID and recommended by researchers for college
outreach programs can have a positive impact on all high school students. One is the
notion of having one sustained adult presence throughout their high school years who
students can build a positive and supportive relationship with.
One recommendation is for the creation of a college outreach program, similar to
AVID, on a larger scale, not just for a cohort of selected students. High schools could
provide this “advisory” time on a consistent basis with the same adult and same group of
students throughout the high school years. Although this program might not be as
intensive as the current AVID program due to time constraints and would have to omit
particular components, the idea of incorporating the social capital piece in conjunction
with providing the necessary information relating to the college application process
would be impactful for students.
Most high schools already have some type of “homeroom” time during the school
day and the implementation of this idea would need the restructuring of the building
schedule so that more time could be allocated. Furthermore, to implement the program,
all staff would need professional development on the college application process and the
information they would be teaching their students. This teacher would be the mentor or
advocate for this group of students throughout their high school years by providing the

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student with information about the application process as well as the social support
needed to achieve the goal of getting accepted to college. Other recommendations would
include requiring all high school students to take a college-prep course during their high
school experience which guided them through the college application process. This
course would explicitly provide information about applying to college, ways to finance
college, including financial aid and scholarships, and facts about the college experience.
High schools could also offer elective classes that presented students with this critical
information about the college process or the school could offer workshops or sessions for
students and parents before or after school.
Although adopting a program like AVID is not realistic for all high schools in this
country, specific themes relating to AVID and other successful pre-college programs
should be part of the high school experience. There is a need for high schools to:
. . . alter their organizational structure to facilitate the development of
supportive instrumental relationships for students. Such relationships will
ensure that students do not get lost in the system and that they have access
to valuable information (Martinez & Klopott, 2005, p. 56).
All students should have access to a sustained relationship with an adult who is
able to support students in navigating the college process. Furthermore, all
students should receive direct, explicit instruction about attending college so that
they possess a comprehensive understanding of the application process as well an
awareness of the programs and majors offered. In addition, students should
receive insight into the finances of attending college, including financial aid,
scholarships, and tuition costs. In conclusion, high schools need to rethink their
current structure and concentrate on providing all students, not just “targeted”

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students, with the appropriate cultural and social capital during their high school
years.
Suggestions for Future Research
In the United States, there has been a proliferation of pre-college programs that
have been created to provide a range of services including, but not limited to, academic
support, mentoring, college planning, financial aid information, and opportunities for
parental involvement. The federal government and state governments, as well as
nonprofit organizations and individual donors, now finance hundreds of programs across
the United States. These programs are designed to support first generation college
students, minority students, and economically disadvantaged high school students (Jager
– Hyman, 2004). Even with the increase in time and money being spent on creating pre-
college programs, there is a scarcity of current and longitudinal data regarding the impact
of these programs.
Gandara (2001) recommends that pre-college outreach programs take the
following steps to improve evaluations: collect baseline data on participants and
comparisons; monitor and report program attrition; carefully match control groups and
compare differences; be attentive to measuring outcomes that the program purports to be
affecting; and attend to program features and outcomes. Most college outreach programs
produce some data regarding their impact on participants. However, very few programs
undergo rigorous evaluations that are statistically sound.

180
Gullatt and Jan (2003) reviewed the existing literature on pre-college outreach
programs and found six major reports that surveyed the field of programs and
evaluations. In general, these authors agree that most current outreach program
evaluation data is unreliable and provides little information about the actual impact of the
program on students. For example, few programs use a control group to compare
outcome variables with program participants. In addition, little is known about the
selection criteria for most programs, so there is no way of knowing if these students
would be more likely than their peers to enroll in college regardless of their participation
in the program. Finally, few programs either report or keep track of their attrition rates.
Gandara (2001) estimates that between one-third and one-half of all students who begin
pre-college outreach programs do not complete the course of the program. This makes it
especially difficult to estimate the impact of the program, since most administrators
report success rates of students who complete the program, ignoring the failure of the
program to impact those students who drop out.
Little is known about the long-term effects of pre-college outreach programs since
most programs do not offer systemic interventions and most administrators do not collect
longitudinal data (Gandara, 2001). In addition, there is no research on the cost/benefit
analysis of these programs. Policy makers do not have a clear idea if programs
demonstrate long-term effectiveness, which types of students are most likely to benefit,
and what constructive programs are likely to cost (Perna & Swail, 2002).
With reform efforts sweeping K-12 education systems and increasing pressure for
accountability on higher education from governments and the public, pre-college

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programs, like AVID, must establish systems to measure program outcomes and impacts.
The intended outcomes of traditional K-12 education, especially since NCLB, have
tended to rely on standardized tests and grades. These measures of success stand in sharp
contrast to the intended outcomes of many pre-college programs, which focus on building
developmental assets and preparing students for college.
Despite increasing investment in pre-college programs, little is known about the
outcomes and effectiveness of these programs (Perna & Swail, 2002). There is a dearth of
longitudinal data on program outcomes, even from federally funded programs and other
large-scale pre-college programs. This is due to the fact that many pre-college programs
lack sufficient funding to conduct comprehensive evaluations. Moreover, program
directors may not see assessment and evaluation as particularly relevant to helping
students get into college and, instead, prefer to devote all funds to programming.
However, with increased expectations among funders for demonstrated outcomes, pre-
college programs must develop systems to measure their impact (Tierney, 2002).
Individual pre-college programs have limited resources and generally lack
expertise in assessment and evaluation. To address these needs, postsecondary
institutions can create centralized systems to measure program outcomes (Perna & Swail,
2002). Documenting participants’ subsequent college enrollment and graduation rates is a
practice that should be applied to all pre-college programs. The National Student
Clearinghouse is a national enrollment verification system that can be used by pre-college
programs to determine college enrollment and graduation rates for pre-college program

182
participants. The system provides detailed information for each student, including
postsecondary institutions attended.
Developing a data tracking system for pre-college programs requires an
investment from institutions, especially in maintaining and updating the system, but
improved data systems are necessary for programs to move beyond anecdotal information
on program outcomes (Tierney, 2002). This data tracking system could provide
pertinent information regarding the success of pre-college outreach programs on college
completion along with data relating to enrollment in college remedial courses.
Other ideas for future research would center specifically on the AVID program.
The success of AVID has been documented through implementation of their own data
collection system. AVID asserts through their findings that the program is’ “a proven,
data driven program with measurable results” (Results, 2010, p.1). One consistent
measure of success from AVID Data Center proves that AVID students complete four
year college entrance requirements at a significantly higher national rate in comparison to
their non AVID peers. A study of 22,210 AVID seniors found that 91% of them
completed four year college entrance requirements nationally, while their non AVID
peers dropped to 36% (Results, 2010).
A second consistent measure of success is the rate at which AVID students apply
and are accepted to four year colleges and universities. Using the 2009-2010 senior data
collection, AVID boasts that 88% of their graduating seniors applied for admission to a
four year college or university. Of those seniors, 74% of them were accepted and
attended a college of their choice (Results, 2010).

183
Although AVID has documented success from various studies, there clearly needs
more current and longitudinal data collected. AVID, using its specific criteria, selects
certain students; however not all of the selected students commit to participate in AVID.
One study could compare students that were selected to participate in AVID, but decided
not to with the students that did commit to participate in AVID. This study could
compare the students’ level of knowledge regarding the college application process, their
college application and acceptance status, and their overall success throughout high
school. This study could include longitudinal data as well if the study compared these
two groups of students 3, 5, and 10 years later to determine if participating in AVID had
substantial impact on their lives.
Future research on AVID could also include qualitative and quantitative data
relating to college success. In coordination with a data tracking system, colleges could
track data on GPA and college completion. This, in conjunction with qualitative data at
the college level, could support conclusions regarding AVID’s impact on preparing the
students for college. It would also be of significance if, due to the research the students
conducted in high school about college majors, they remained with the same major
throughout college.
In addition to the quantitative and longitudinal data, there is a need for more
qualitative data on the AVID program from various types of schools, including urban,
rural, and suburban, along with data from schools with diverse student demographics.
This would support conclusions regarding the AVID program’s impact in various
educational settings.

184
Last, there exists the idea of incorporating AVID and its components as a whole
school reform model. Qualitative and quantitative data supporting this initiative would
substantiate, if AVID as a large scale reform model, was effective in improving college
access for all students.
Summary and Conclusion
Despite flaws in the evaluation and study of pre-college-outreach programs, these
programs, if designed effectively, can be catalysts for transforming high schools and
equalizing post-secondary access for all students. Effective programs can serve to
compensate for the shortcomings of the public education system (Swail, 2001).
However, these pre-college outreach programs do not provide support to all students who
are in need. Schultz and Mueller (2006) posit that only about 5 percent of at-risk students
reported participating in such programs, thus these programs alone cannot solve the
underlying issue in American high schools --- equal access for all students to attend and
be successful at a post-secondary institution.
Specific components of these pre-college programs increase the success of the
students involved. Much of the success centers around the ideas associated with
providing students with a college prep curriculum, offering students both academic and
social supports, supplying students with information about the college application
process, and enhancing the students’ confidence and educational aspirations. These ideas
need to be the centerpiece of high school reform so that all students can access the
critically needed support and information during high school. McClafferty, McDonough,
and Nunez (2002) have termed this a “college culture” (p. 1). This is a culture that

185
“encourages all students to consider college as an option after high school and prepares
all students to make informed decisions about available post-secondary options” (p.1).
The formidable idea of creating a “college culture” in high schools is one that needs to be
omnipresent so that all students can access the opportunities a post-secondary degree
merits.
As stated earlier, when thinking about the school setting as an organization, one
has to think of the overall goal of the organization. Many will contrive this goal to be
“making sure students are ready to take on today’s modern society” or “preparing
students to be successful in a future occupation.” Or it simply could be stated as “getting
students into a four-year university college.” In many educational settings, especially the
traditional high school model, students are somewhat “mass-produced” by an assembly
line of teachers who teach the students only content-related information. For many
students this assembly-line production, with its systematic simplicity and lacking of
individual differentiation and adaptability, progresses students through the system.
Students go from grade to grade, from teacher to teacher, and from high school to college
with little distraction and minimal impediments.
However, this is not the case for all students. Some students, with their unique
characteristics and backgrounds, do not thrive within this traditional educational system
and, in the end, do not meet the overall goal of the educational system. At times, the
established school system fails to address particular student’s individual needs, whether
these needs are academic, social, cultural, or emotional. The only way these students will

186
be successful in the classroom and have a chance at a productive future is if their
individual needs are effectively addressed.
The school setting is not a factory. It is a place where personal interactions,
networked communications, and assembled cooperation are pervasive and critical to the
effectiveness of the organization’s success. The survival of a student depends on his
ability to adapt to his or her environment. Each individual student needs to find a “niche”
in his or her own classroom or school – this could be athletics, music, academics,
technical studies, clubs or any other “niche” the school has to offer. These niches support
students with widely differing characteristics, skills, and interests.
At times, in the present high school setting, students with widely differing
characteristics are forced into a limited number of niches or cannot find a niche that helps
them. While it’s true that humans can adapt, it does not mean that they will thrive as they
would have in a more appropriate environment. Rather than expecting students to adapt
to what the school decides they need, specific niches or programs should be created to
provide for the existing needs of students, so that previously ignored talents and abilities
will burgeon. Schools need to perceive students as individuals with innately unique
characteristics, rather than as raw material on an assembly line aimed at uniformity.
The greater the variety of opportunities a school can offer for its students to obtain
their needs and attain their goals, the more likely the student is to flourish. Meeting the
needs of all students is one of the most challenging aspects of teaching in today’s society.
If a school does not successfully meet the complex needs of these students, these students

187
will never meet their full potential and have access and be successful at the post-
secondary level.
As stated by Malcolm Gladwell (2009) in his book Outliers,
It is not the brightest that succeed. Nor is success simply the sum of the
decisions and efforts we make on our own behalf. It is, rather, a gift. Outliers are
those who have been given opportunities --- and who have had the strength and
presence of mind to seize them (Gladwell, 2009, p. 267).
All students need to be given the opportunity to access resources that will provide them
with the necessary “capital” to fulfill their educational and occupational aspirations.
Schools need to offer these opportunities to all students in order equalize their chance of
succeeding in their current and future educational settings. Equally important in
providing these cultural and social resources to students is ensuring that the capital is
“activated” (Lareau & Horvat, 1999, p. 39). Students need specific supports, similar to
those provided in the AVID program, in order to effectively activate the capital that is
provided to them to improve their academic success.
“The process of social reproduction is not a smooth trajectory” (Lareau & Horvat,
p. 50). Thus, a successful intervention program that focuses on providing students with
the indispensable social and cultural resources and assisting them in activating this capital
can alter the trajectory of students. The AVID students’ trajectory changed as a result of
participating in the AVID program during their high school years. The students’ post-
AVID trajectory has navigated them to an acceptance to a four-year institution with the
hope of providing them with the knowledge and skill sets to be successful.
Horvat and Davis (2010) state:

188
Schools are complex systems. They can be sites where these existing
hierarchies are reproduced and they can be places where these same
hierarchies are disrupted and possibilities for class mobility are created (p.
2).
Horvat and Davis (2010) discuss that with the “right resources and approach, more
schools and other educational programs can serve as sites of possibility and
transformation rather than as reproducers of social inequality” (p. 2). As indicated by the
AVID students at WHS, a high school intervention program implemented effectively can
prove to be this “site of possibility” where all students can achieve success academically.
There is a need for a paradigm shift in the American high school where class
mobility is recognized and pursued. A shift from focusing heavily on standards,
requirements, and competition to one that is more organic, personalized, and self-
motivating. Reform efforts for specific intervention programs and those that are focused
on “turning around” entire schools, need to concentrate on providing the necessary
cultural and social capital to its students so that all students have the opportunity to
access a four-year institution and possess the skills necessary to graduate. If schools fail
in providing the appropriate and necessary “capital” to all students, especially those who
are at-risk, Bourdieu’s notion of social reproduction theory will continue to permeate
American high schools and suppress these students’ from succeeding academically and in
life.

189
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APPENDICES
Permission to Audiotape
Investigator's Name: Michael McKenna
Primary Investigator: Dr. Corrinne Caldwell
Department: College of Education/Educational Leadership and Policy Studies
Project Title: Examining the Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID) program
within the context of social capital: A case study of the implementation of the AVID
program in a high-achieving, suburban high school in Pennsylvania
Subject: ________________________________ Date: _______________________
Log #:
I give permission to audiotape me. This audiotape will be used only for the following
purpose:
EDUCATION
This audiotape may be shown to education professionals outside of for educational
purposes. At no time will my name be used.
RESEARCH
This audiotape will be used as a part of a research project at Temple University. I have
already given written consent for my participation in this research project. At no time
will my name be used.
Description:
WHEN WILL I BE AUDIOTAPED?
I agree to be audio taped during the time period:

208
From ________ to __________.
HOW LONG WILL THE TAPES BE USED?
I give my permission for these tapes to be used:
From________ to ____________.
*The data collected for the purposes of this research study, including any and all
audiotapes will be stored for three (3) years after completion of the study.
WHAT IF I CHANGE MY MIND?
I understand that I can withdraw my permission at any time. Upon my request, the
audiotape(s) will no longer be used. This will not affect my care or relationship with
Temple University in any way.
OTHER
I understand that I will not be paid for being audio taped or for the use of the audiotapes.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
If I want more information about the audiotape(s), or if I have questions or concerns at
any time, I can contact:
Investigator's Name: Michael McKenna
Primary Investigator/Advisor’s Name: Dr. Corrinne Caldwell
Department: College of Education/Educational Leadership and Policy Studies
Institution: Temple University
Street Address: 1301 Cecil B. Moore Avenue
City: Philadelphia State: Pennsylvania

209
Zip Code: 19122
Investigator: Office: 215-941-0426 Home: 215-579-4157
Primary Investigator: Office: 215-204-6174
This form will be placed in my records and a copy will be kept by the person(s) named
above. A copy will be given to me.
Please print
Subject's Name:
Date:
Address:
Phone:
Subject's Signature:
__________________________________________________________
(Or signature of parent or legally responsible person if subject is a minor or is
incompetent to sign.)
Relationship to Subject:
Subject cannot sign because:
but consents orally to be audio taped under the conditions described above.
_____________________________________
Witness Signature Date
_____________________________________
Witness Signature Date

210
Consent Form for Parents of Students under the Age of 18
Study: Examining the Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID) program within
the context of social capital: A case study of the implementation of the AVID program in
a high-achieving, suburban high school in Pennsylvania
Investigator: Michael McKenna (contact: (215-527-8922)
Affiliation: Temple University, College of Education, Department of Educational
Leadership & Policy Studies
Primary Investigator/Advisor: Dr. Corrinne Caldwell (contact: 215-204-6174)
Dear Parent or Guardian,
My name is Michael McKenna and I am a graduate student from the Department
Educational Leadership and Policy Studies at Temple University. My advisor, Dr.
Corrinne Caldwell and I would like to include your child, along with his or her
classmates, in a research project studying students’ participation in the AVID program.
This Spring I am conducting a research study entitled Examining the Advancement
via Individual Determination (AVID) program within the context of social capital: A
case study of the implementation of the AVID program in a high-achieving, suburban
high school in Pennsylvania. This study will include 12th grade students at Plymouth
Whitemarsh High School who currently participate in the AVID program. I am
interested in determining the impact of this program on students’ educational motivation
and school engagement. Additionally, I am interested in examining the students’ course

211
selection and plans for after graduating high school. Ultimately, my hope is to learn about
the influence of the AVID program from both the students and parents’ perspectives.
Student participants in the study will be asked to be interviewed two or three
times for approximately 45 minutes. Students who participate will complete the
interview during the school day at a convenient time so there is minimal loss of
instructional time. There are no foreseeable risks to participating in the study. Your child
may enjoy this research while reflecting on their experience in the AVID program.
Any documents containing identifying information will be held in the strictest of
confidence and stored under lock and key in a secure file cabinet. All materials
containing information you provide for the purposes of this study will be maintained for
three years. There is virtually no potential risk associated with your participation in this
study. Your child’s participation is completely voluntary and he/she may end
participation in the study at anytime for any reason without penalty or prejudice. The
choice to participate or not will not impact you child’s grades or status at school.
If you have any questions regarding any aspect of this study, please feel free to
contact me via telephone (215) 527-8922 or email: tub09608@temple.edu or my study
advisor Dr. Corrinne Caldwell via telephone (215) 204-6174 or email:
ccaldwel@temple.edu at any time.

212
Thank you in advance for your cooperation. Your contribution to this project will
provide invaluable data needed to help better understand the impact of the AVID
program.
________________________________________________________________________
I __________________________, have read and understand the above consent form in
its entirety and voluntarily agree to have my child participate in this study. I further
understand that no monetary compensation is associated with my child’s participation in
this study. I assert that I am over the age of eighteen (18).
“I understand that if I wish further information regarding my rights as a research subject,
I may contact Richard Throm, Program Manager and Coordinator at Office of the Vice
President for Research of Temple University by phoning (215) 707-8757.”
Singing your name below indicates that you have read and understand the contents of this
Consent Form and that you agree to have your child take part in this study.
________________________________________________________________________
Child’s Name
Parent’s or Guardian’s Name (please print)
Parent’s or Guardian’s Signature Date
_______________________________________________________________________
Investigator's Signature Date

213
Consent Form for Students Over the Age of 18
Dear Student,
Corrinne Caldwell and I would like to include you, along with your classmates, in a
research project studying your participation in the AVID program.

214
instructional time. There are no foreseeable risks to participating in the study. You may
enjoy this research while reflecting on your experience in the AVID program.
Participation in the study is entirely voluntary and there will be no penalty for not
participating. Moreover, participants will be free to stop taking part in the study at any
time. The choice to participate or not will not impact your grades or status at school.
program.
________________________________________________________________________

215
its entirety and voluntarily agree to participate in this study. I further understand that no
monetary compensation is associated with my participation in this study. I assert that I
am over the age of eighteen (18).
Consent Form and that you agree to take part in this study.
________________________________________________________________________
Student’s Name Date
________________________________________________________________________

216
Assent Form for Students Under the Age of 18
Dear Student,
Corrinne Caldwell and I would like to include you, along with your classmates, in a
research project studying your participation in the AVID program.

217
instructional time. There are no foreseeable risks to participating in the study. You may
enjoy this research while reflecting on your experience in the AVID program.
Participation in the study is entirely voluntary and there will be no penalty for not
participating. Moreover, participants will be free to stop taking part in the study at any
time. The choice to participate or not will not impact your grades or status at school.
program.
________________________________________________________________________

218
its entirety and voluntarily agree to participate in this study. I further understand that no
monetary compensation is associated with my participation in this study. I assert that my
parent understands the study and has signed a consent form.
Assent Form and that you agree to take part in this study.
________________________________________________________________________
Student’s Name Date
________________________________________________________________________

219
Interview Questions (for interviewer use only)
a high-achieving, suburban high school.
Student Interview Protocol
1. Now that I have told you a little bit about my study do you have any questions
before we begin? My goal is to understand your perspective regarding your
participation in the AVID program at WHS. Often the best way to do that is
to start out by asking you to tell me what you think is important for me to
know about your life. So, please start by telling me a little about yourself.
Questions about district and school
2. Tell me about your experiences going to school in the Westside School
District. Have you enjoyed your experiences going to school in this district?
What experiences have given you this perception?
3. Tell me about your experiences going to school at WHS? Have you enjoyed
your experiences so far at this high school? What experiences at the school

220
have given you this perception?
4. Do you think the teachers and staff care about the students at WHS? What
gives you this impression?
5. Have you established a positive and supportive relationship with any adults at
the high school? If so, how did you form this relationship? If not, why do
you think you have not formed a positive relationship with an adult at the high
school?
6. Do you think that your individual needs are being met at this high school?
What else could WHS do to make you more successful? How else could
WHS improve?
AVID and School
7. Tell me about why you decided to sign up for AVID program? What did you
know about the program before agreeing to participate?
8. I am going to ask you some questions about your participation in the AVID
program. Does the program give you a sense of belonging? How about a
sense of community? Does your participation in AVID make you feel like
part of a special group or club? Do you feel that AVID students share the
same goals? Do the students trust one another? Do you feel comfortable
taking risks? Do you think AVID gives you skills to help you be successful in
school and life in general? Explain.
9. I am going to ask you some questions about your experience going to school

221
at WHS. Do you feel connected to the school? Why or why not? I am going
to use the word integrated as meaning you feel part of the school setting. Do
you feel integrated? Why or why not? Do you have a sense of identification
with the school? Do you participate in extracurricular activities? If so, which
ones? Why did you decide to do or not to do these activities?
10. I am going to use four words – Please define these words and explain if you
possess them here at school. Attachment. Commitment. Involvement.
Belief.
Academic confidence/Perception of Self
11. Tell me about yourself as a student. What subjects are the most successful
with? Why? What subjects give you the most difficulty? Why?
12. Do believe that you are successful in school? Why or why not? Do you think
that you are working at your potential in high school? Why or why not?
Peers
13. Tell me about your friends? Are they similar to you or different? How did
you meet these friends? What career aspirations do your friends have? How
do your friends see their own academic ability? What signs give you this
impression?
14. How about your friends’ parents – Are they involved in their education? Do
your friends participate in extracurricular activities? If so, which ones? Do

222
you think your friends feel involved in this high school? Why or why not?
Family
15. I am going to ask you about some characteristics about your family. Do you
live with both parents? If not, how much do you see your parents? How
many siblings live in your household? How many hours does your mother
work each week? How many friends can your mother/father name by sight or
first name? How often does your mother/father know where you are each
day?
16. Tell me about the involvement of your parents or family in your education?
Do they have high expectations for you? How do you know? Do you feel
that they are invested in your education? What signs indicate this? How
much attention do your parents/guardians give to your education? What do
they care about the most? How much do your parents/guardians care about
your future? What signs show this?
Future
17. You will finish high school this school year. What are your plans for after
high school? Why do you think you are pursuing this direction for your
future? Were you influenced by your family and/or peers?
18. Do you think that education is important for your future? Do your
parents/guardians see education as important? How about others members of

223
your family – siblings, aunts, uncles? Do you think that the perception you
currently have will ever change?
19. Is there anything that I haven’t thought of to ask you that you think would
help me understand your perception of yourself as you attend the AVID
program at WHS?

224
AVID Student Selection Rubric
Student Name: _________________________________________ Gender: M F
Race (as specified on Pupil Information Form) ________________________
CRITERIA
INDICATOR
1
INDICATOR
3
INDICATOR
5
Cumulative Grade Point
Average/Rigor of Courses
1.0 – 1.9 2.5 – 3.4 2.0 – 2.4
4sight
8th
Grade PSSA
Below Basic or Basic Advanced Proficient
Math Course Grade
F A B - C
SES data
Does not qualify n/a Free and reduced lunch
Attendance
(absences)/Lateness
More than 10 n/a 10 or fewer
Special Needs
n/a n/a
Single Parent
ESOL
Large Family
Alternate Extenuating
Circumstance
Discipline Problems Frequent Minor None
Interview Form: Written
Student Response
Few responses
complete and little
thought
Most responses complete
and some are thoughtful
Complete and thoughtful
responses
Interview Form: Verbal
Staff Rubric 4-10 11-15 16-20
Teacher/Counselor
Recommendation Form Poor Mixed Positive
Parents’ College
Experience College Degree Some, but no degree None

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