method of data collection lecture.ppt
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Questionnaires, interviews, observation, and existing data are common methods for collecting data in research. Questionnaires involve paper or online surveys to collect self-reported information from participants. Interviews are conducted face-to-face, by phone, or online and allow researchers to ask participants questions and get more in-depth responses than questionnaires. Observation research involves watching and recording behaviors directly. Existing data sources include medical records, organizational records, journals, and other documents that contain relevant pre-collected information.
method of data collection lecture.ppt
- 2. Questionnaires • One of many data collection methods • Only method for certain human response data
- 3. The General Characteristics Of Questionnaires
- 4. Questionnaire • Paper-and-pencil format • Answers given in writing
- 5. Questionnaire Development • Development of a reliable and valid questionnaire is difficult. • Many literature resources available for use in the construction
- 6. Questionnaires Measure • Knowledge levels • Opinions • Attitudes • Beliefs • Ideas • Feelings • Perceptions
- 7. Validity of Questionnaires • Rests on validity of the data obtained • Governed by the respondents’ willingness or ability to provide accurate information
- 8. General Appearance of a Questionnaire • Neat and attractive • Minimal length • Grammatically correct • No typing or spelling errors • Clear margins and adequate spacing • High-quality printing and paper
- 9. Questionnaire Guidelines • Written in the respondents’ preferred language • Contain appropriate knowledge and reading level • Avoid slang expressions, colloquialisms, and medical or nursing jargon
- 10. Formulas to Determine Reading Level • The Flesch Reading Ease • The Fog Readability Formula • The Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level • SMOG (Simple Measure of Gobbledygook)
- 11. Length of Questionnaires and Question Construction • Questionnaire length – Limit required completion time to 10 minutes or less – Not longer than two or three pages • Question construction – Keep questions as short as possible – Desirable length is fewer than 20 words. – Divide a long question into two questions
- 12. Wording of Questions • State questions in an affirmative rather than a negative manner • Avoid – Ambiguous questions – Double negative questions – Double-barreled questions
- 13. Categories of Questions • Demographic • Open- and closed-ended • Contingency • Filler
- 14. Demographic Questions • Gather data on the characteristics of the sample • Characteristics of sample = demographic and attribute variables • Examples – Age – Educational background – Religious affiliation
- 15. Closed-Ended Questions • Respondents are asked to choose from given alternatives. • Examples – True-or-false questions – Checklist type questions – Multiple-choice questions – Matching questions
- 16. Open-Ended Questions • Respondents complete questions in their own words. • Examples – Essay questions – Fill-in-the-blank questions
- 17. Contingency Questions • Are relevant for some respondents and not for others • Examples – Have you ever been hospitalized before? ______Yes/No. (If No, go on to question number 5) – How would you rate the care you received during your last hospitalization? ____ Poor ____ Fair ____ Good
- 18. Filler Questions • Items in which the researcher has no direct interest • Included to reduce the emphasis on the specific purpose of other questions
- 19. Placement of Questions • Group all questions about a certain topic together • Put demographic questions at beginning or end
- 20. A Cover Letter • Should be written clearly with simple instructions • Important factor for motivation • Accompanies all mailed questions
- 21. A Cover Letter (cont’d) • Elements of a cover letter – Identification of the researcher and any sponsoring agency or person – Purpose of the research – How participant was selected – Reason the respondent should answer the questionnaire – Length of time to complete the questionnaire – How data will be used or made public
- 22. A Cover Letter (cont’d) • Elements of a cover letter – Deadline for return of questionnaire – An offer to inform respondent of results of study – Researcher’s contact phone numbers, address, or both – Personal signature of the researcher
- 23. Completion Instructions • Should be clear and concise • Provide examples of the appropriate way to respond to particular questions, if needed
- 24. Distribution of Questionnaires • Made available at a convenient location • Through a mailing or distribution system • Through Internet.
- 25. Factors Encouraging Questionnaire Return Rate • Time of mailing • Hand-addressed outer envelopes • Personal signature of the researcher • Motivational information • An incentive for completion
- 26. Factors Encouraging Questionnaire Return Rate • Neatness and clarity of the instrument • Ease of completion • Time required to complete the instrument • Guarantee of anonymity • Inclusion of a preaddressed, stamped envelope
- 27. Advantages of Questionnaires • Quick and generally inexpensive • Easy to test for reliability and validity • Administration is time efficient. • Can obtain data from widespread geographical areas • Anonymity can be guaranteed in cover letter.
- 28. Disadvantages of Questionnaires • Costly to mail if there is a large volume • Potential low response rate • Respondents may provide socially acceptable answers or fail to answer.
- 29. Disadvantages of Questionnaires (cont’d) • Respondents may not be representative of the population. • No opportunity to clarify items that may be misunderstood • Respondents must be literate. • Respondents must have no prohibitory physical handicap.
- 30. Interview • Method of data collection • Interviewer obtains responses. • Face-to-face encounter, by telephone, or through an Internet connection
- 31. Interview Purpose • Obtain factual data about people • Measure opinions, attitudes, and beliefs
- 32. Interview Schedule • Contains a set of questions to be asked by an interviewer
- 33. Recording Interview Data • Entered directly on the interview schedule • Recorded on a separate coding sheet • Recorded on audiotape • Recorded on videotape
- 34. Interviewer Training • Responsibility of the study’s investigator • Should be rigorous • Should be carried out in groups
- 35. Interviewer Training (cont’d) • Provide description of study, purpose, and methodology • Provide explanation of interview schedule, purpose of each question, meanings of all words, use of probes
- 36. Types of Interviews • Unstructured • Structured • Semistructured
- 37. Unstructured Interviews • Interviewer directs the course of the interview. • Conducted like a normal conversation • Topics pursued at the discretion of the interviewer
- 38. Unstructured Interviews (cont’d) • Used in exploratory or qualitative research studies • Interviewer may start with a broad opening statement. • Further questions and probes may be used.
- 39. Unstructured Interviews (cont’d) • Give more freedom in question format • Produce more in-depth information • Conducted more like a normal conversation • Discuss topics at the discretion of the interviewer
- 40. Structured Interviews • Use a structured set of questions • Ask same questions, in same order, in same manner • Very objective
- 41. Semistructured Interviews • Interviewers ask a certain number of specific questions. • Additional probes are allowed or encouraged. • Closed-ended and open-ended questions
- 42. Interview Phases • Prior to the interview • During the interview • After the interview
- 43. Interviewer Tasks: Prior to the Interview • Introduce self • Explain study purpose • Explain how participant was selected • Explain how obtained information will be used • Tell how long the interview will last
- 44. Interviewer Tasks: During the Interview • Make the participant comfortable • Provide privacy • Control unnecessary noises • Use language that is clearly understood
- 45. Interviewer Tasks: During the Interview (cont’d) • Talk in a conversational tone • Inform participant that there are no right or wrong answers • Do not pressure participant for answers • Leave sensitive questions until the end of the interview
- 46. Interviewer Tasks: After the Interview • Ask participants if they have any questions • Provide further explanations of the study if necessary • Thank the participants for their contribution • Provide compensation if appropriate • Indicate how participants may obtain study results
- 47. Interviewer Influence • Nonexperimental research: Rosenthal effect • Experimental studies: experimenter effect
- 48. Influencing Factors in Face-to-Face Interviews • Ethnic background • Age • Gender • Manner of speaking • Manner of dress
- 49. Influencing Factors in Telephone Interviews • Tone of voice • Dialect
- 50. Interview Advantages • High response rate • In-depth responses • Wide range of participants • High percentage of usable data • Ability to observe verbal and nonverbal behavior
- 51. Interview Disadvantages • Time consuming • Expensive • Arrangements may be difficult.
- 52. Interview Disadvantages (cont’d) • Participants may – Be influenced by the interviewers’ characteristics – Intentionally provide socially acceptable responses – Be anxious because answers are being recorded
- 53. Observational Research • Data gathered through visual observation • Nurses are well qualified to use this method. • Carefully developed plan is essential.
- 54. Researcher Decisions in Observational Research • What behaviors will be observed? • Who will observe the behaviors? • What observational procedure will be used? • What type of relationship will exist between the observer and the subjects?
- 55. Observable Behavior Examples • Psychomotor skills • Personal habits • Nonverbal communication patterns • Interrater reliability – The degree to which two or more raters or observers assign the same rating or score to an observation
- 56. Types of Observations • Range from very structured to very unstructured
- 57. Structured Observation Research • Data-collection tool, usually some kind of checklist • Expected behaviors are identified on the checklist. • Observer indicates the frequency of behavior occurrence.
- 58. Unstructured Observation Research • Researcher attempts to describe events or behaviors freely. • Process requires a high degree of concentration and attention.
- 59. Combination of Observational Methods • Utilizes observation guide • Designed with some preconceived categories • Also allows the observer to record additional behaviors • Provides both quantitative and qualitative data
- 60. Classification of Observational Research • Event sampling • Time sampling
- 61. Event Sampling Versus Time Sampling • Event sampling – Involves observation of an entire event – Example: change of shift report • Time sampling – Involves observations of events or behaviors during certain specified times – Example: 2 hours after dinner
- 62. Physiological Measures • Involve the collection of physical data from subjects • Measures are objective and accurate. • Advantage—precision and accuracy • Disadvantage—expertise required for using devices
- 63. Attitude Scales • Self-report data-collection instruments • Respondents report attitudes or feelings. • Score given for the item responses • Totals may be obtained for individual subject or a group. • Types of attitude scales – The Likert scale – The semantic differential scale
- 64. The Likert Scale • Usually contains five or seven responses for each item • Responses range from strongly agree to strongly disagree. • Equal number of positive and negative worded items important
- 65. The Likert Scale (cont’d) • Scores assigned to each response – Positive items scored in positive direction – Negative items scored in reverse direction – Total scores are obtained.
- 66. The Semantic Differential Scale • Subjects give their position or attitude about the concept. • Continuum exists between two adjectives or phrases presented. • Positions on continuum vary from 5 to 9. • Scores then calculated for all the subjects
- 67. The Delphi Technique • Uses several rounds of questions • Seeks a consensus on a particular topic from a group of experts • Not necessary to bring experts together in a face-to-face meeting
- 68. Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) • Presents subjects with a straight line drawn on a piece of paper • The line is anchored on each end by words or short phrases. • Phenomenon extremes are listed at the ends of the line. • Subjects are asked to make a mark on the line at the point that corresponds to their experience of the phenomenon.
- 69. Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) • The line is usually100 mm in length. • Quantitative data is obtained from measurements of the responses.
- 70. Preexisting Data • Data is used from previous research. • Existing information is reanalyzed for new research. • Preexisting data sources – Patient charts – Records from agencies and organizations – Personal documents – Almanacs – Professional journals