Module 2_BETCK105H_Introduction to IoT.pdf

JSS MAHAVIDYAPEETHA
JSS ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, BENGALURU
Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Karnataka, INDIA
Approved by All India Council for Technical Education, New Delhi
Accredited by NAAC with A+ Grade
Sub: Introduction to Internet of Things (IOT) - BETCK105H/205H
Text Book: Introduction_to_IoT - Misra_Mukherjee__Roy
Dr. Roopa D N, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, JSSATE, Bengaluru
Module 2
IoT Sensing and Actuation: Introduction, Sensors, Sensor Characteristics, Sensorial Deviations,
Sensing Types, Sensing Considerations, Actuators, Actuator Types, Actuator Characteristics.
Textbook 1: Chapter 5 – 5.1 to 5.9
Introduction
Sensing and actuation are at the heart of IoT, allowing devices to interact with the world around them.
• Sensing:
o Sensing is a fundamental step in IoT applications.
o It involves capturing data from the environment using sensors.
o Sensors detect physical phenomena (e.g., temperature, light, motion) and convert
them into electrical signals.
o Sensing enables data collection for further analysis and decision-making.
• Actuation:
o Actuation is the final step in many IoT scenarios.
o It involves taking action based on the sensed data.
o Actuators are devices that perform actions (e.g., turning on a fan, opening a valve).
o Actuation completes the feedback loop in IoT systems.
• Transduction:
o Transduction is the process of converting energy from one form to another.
o Transducers enable this energy conversion.
o They transform energy (e.g., mechanical, chemical) into a different form (e.g.,
electrical).
Example:
a) In a public announcement (PA) system, a microphone (input device) converts sound waves
into electrical signals, which is amplified by an amplifier system (a process). Finally, a
loudspeaker (output device) outputs this into audible sounds by converting the amplified
electrical signals back into sound waves.
b) IoT devices like smart thermostats use sensing and actuation to enhance our daily lives by
automating tasks and improving efficiency!
Sensing: The thermostat has built-in temperature and humidity sensors. These sensors
continuously monitor the room’s environment. When the temperature rises or falls beyond
a set threshold, the sensors detect this change.
Actuation: Based on the sensed data, the smart thermostat decides to take action. If the
room becomes too warm, the thermostat actuates the air conditioning system. Conversely,
if it’s too cold, it actuates the heating system.The actuators (AC compressor, heater)
respond by adjusting the room temperature.

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Feedback Loop: The smart thermostat creates a feedback loop. Sensing: Detects
temperature changes. Processing: Analyzes the data. Actuation: Adjusts the HVAC
system. This loop ensures your home stays comfortable without manual intervention.
Basic terminological differences between transducers, sensors, and actuators:
Sensors
Sensors are devices designed to measure or respond to changes in their environment. They detect
external stimuli (such as temperature, pressure, light) and convert them into usable signals. Sensors
play a crucial role in various applications, from industrial processes to everyday consumer devices.
Sensors perform transduction, converting one form of energy into another. For example: A
temperature sensor converts heat energy into electrical signals. A barometer converts atmospheric
pressure into electrical signals.
A sensor is sensitive only to the property it is designed to measure. Example: A temperature sensor
focuses solely on ambient temperature. It remains insensitive to other properties (like light or
pressure).

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A sensor does not influence the measured property. Measuring temperature with a sensor does not alter
the room’s temperature. This principle ensures accurate and reliable data collection.
So we can say, sensors are the silent observers of our world, quietly translating physical phenomena
into meaningful information.
Simple outline of a sensing task.
Here, a temperature sensor keeps on checking an environment for changes. In the event of a fire, the
temperature of the environment goes up. The temperature sensor notices this change in the temperature
of the room and promptly communicates this information to a remote monitor via the processor.
Sensors can be classified based on:
1) Power Requirements, 2) Sensor Output, and 3) Property to be measured.
1) Power Requirements:
The way sensors operate decides the power requirements that must be provided for an IoT
implementation. Some sensors need to be provided with separate power sources for them to function,
whereas some sensors do not require any power sources.
Depending on the requirements of power, sensors can be of two types.
(i) Active: Active sensors do not require an external circuitry or mechanism to provide it with
power. It directly responds to the external stimuli from its ambient environment and converts
it into an output signal.
For example, a photodiode converts light into electrical impulses.
(ii) Passive: Passive sensors require an external mechanism to power them up. The sensed
properties are modulated with the sensor’s inherent characteristics to generate patterns in the
output of the sensor.
For example, a thermistor’s resistance can be detected by applying voltage difference across it
or passing a current through it.

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2) Sensor Output:
The output of a sensor helps in deciding the additional components to be integrated with an IoT node
or system. Typically, almost all modern-day processors are digital; digital sensors can be directly
integrated to the processors. However, the integration of analog sensors to these digital processors or
IoT nodes requires additional interfacing mechanisms such as analog to digital converters (ADC),
voltage level converters, and others.
Sensors are broadly divided into two types, depending on the type of output generated from these
sensors, as follows.
(i) Analog: Analog sensors generate an output signal or voltage, which is proportional
(linearly or non-linearly) to the quantity being measured and is continuous in time and
amplitude. Physical quantities such as temperature, speed, pressure, displacement, strain,
and others are all continuous and categorized as analog quantities. For example, a
thermometer or a thermocouple can be used for measuring the temperature of a liquid (e.g.,
in household water heaters). These sensors continuously respond to changes in the
temperature of the liquid.
(ii) Digital: These sensors generate the output of discrete time digital representation (time, or
amplitude, or both) of a quantity being measured, in the form of output signals or voltages.
Typically, binary output signals in the form of a logic 1 or a logic 0 for ON or OFF,
respectively are associated with digital sensors. The generated discrete (non-continuous)
values may be output as a single “bit” (serial transmission), eight of which combine to
produce a single “byte” output (parallel transmission) in digital sensors.
3) Measured Property:
The property of the environment being measured by the sensors can be crucial in deciding the number
of sensors in an IoT implementation. Some properties to be measured do not show high spatial
variations and can be quantified only based on temporal variations in the measured property, such as
ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure, and others. Whereas some properties to be measured show
high spatial as well as temporal variations such as sound, image, and others.
Depending on the properties to be measured, sensors can be of two types.
(i) Scalar: Scalar sensors produce an output proportional to the magnitude of the quantity being
measured. The output is in the form of a signal or voltage. Scalar physical quantities are
those where only the magnitude of the signal is sufficient for describing or characterizing
the phenomenon and information generation. Examples of such measurable physical
quantities include color, pressure, temperature, strain, and others. A thermometer or
thermocouple is an example of a scalar sensor that has the ability to detect changes in
ambient or object temperatures (depending on the sensor’s configuration). Factors such as
changes in sensor orientation or direction do not affect these sensors (typically).
(ii) Vector: Vector sensors are affected by the magnitude as well as the direction and/or
orientation of the property they are measuring. Physical quantities such as velocity and

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images that require additional information besides their magnitude for completely
categorizing a physical phenomenon are categorized as vector quantities. Measuring such
quantities are undertaken using vector sensors. For example, an electronic gyroscope,
which is commonly found in all modern aircraft, is used for detecting the changes in
orientation of the gyroscope with respect to the Earth’s orientation along all three axes.
Functional components of a typical IoT sensor node.
These nodes play a crucial role in collecting data from the environment and transmitting it to other
nodes or remote servers. IoT sensor nodes combine sensing capabilities, processing, wireless
communication, and efficient power usage to create a dynamic network for environmental monitoring
and data dissemination. The key components are:
At the heart of the sensor node is its sensor(s). Sensors can measure various physical properties (such
as temperature, humidity, light, or motion). They detect changes in the environment and generate
corresponding electrical signals. For example, a temperature sensor monitors room temperature.
The processor unit handles data processing and decision-making. It processes the signals received
from sensors. The processor determines when to transmit data or take specific actions. Efficient
processing is essential for low-power operation.
The radio unit enables wireless communication. It allows the sensor node to exchange data with other
nodes or a central server. Wireless communication ensures flexibility and scalability. Nodes can
communicate without physical wires, simplifying deployment.
The power unit supplies energy to the sensor node. Nodes often operate on batteries or energy-
harvesting sources (such as solar panels). Low-power requirements are crucial for extended battery
life. Efficient power management ensures sustained operation.

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Sensor Characteristics
All sensors can be defined by their ability to measure or capture a certain phenomenon and report them
as output signals to various other systems. However, even within the same sensor type and class,
sensors can be characterized by their ability to sense the phenomenon based on the following three
fundamental properties.
• Sensor Resolution: The smallest change in the measurable quantity that a sensor can detect is
referred to as the resolution of a sensor. For digital sensors, the smallest change in the digital output
that the sensor is capable of quantifying is its sensor resolution. The more the resolution of a sensor,
the more accurate is the precision. A sensor’s accuracy does not depend upon its resolution. For
example, a temperature sensor A can detect up to 0.5 ◦ C changes in temperature; whereas another
sensor B can detect up to 0.25◦ C changes in temperature. Therefore, the resolution of sensor B is
higher than the resolution of sensor A.
• Sensor Accuracy: The accuracy of a sensor is the ability of that sensor to measure the environment
of a system as close to its true measure as possible. For example, a weight sensor detects the weight of
a 100 kg mass as 99.98 kg. We can say that this sensor is 99.98% accurate, with an error rate of ±0.02%.
• Sensor Precision: The principle of repeatability governs the precision of a sensor. Only if, upon
multiple repetitions, the sensor is found to have the same error rate, can it be deemed as highly precise.
For example, consider if the same weight sensor described earlier reports measurements of 98.28 kg,
100.34 kg, and 101.11 kg upon three repeat measurements for a mass of actual weight of 100 kg. Here,
the sensor precision is not deemed high because of significant variations in the temporal measurements
for the same object under the same conditions.
Sensorial Deviations
Sensorial deviations are considered as errors in sensors. Sensorial deviations in IoT can affect the
accuracy and reliability of sensor measurements.
Non-critical IoT applications may tolerate minor deviations, but critical applications like healthcare
and industrial monitoring require high-quality sensors.
As the quality of the measurement obtained from a sensor is dependent on a large number of factors,
there are a few primary considerations that must be incorporated during the sensing of critical
systems. Understanding and addressing these considerations are essential for ensuring the accuracy,
reliability, and effectiveness of sensor measurements in IoT applications.
Considerations that must be incorporated during the sensing of critical systems.
Truncation: When a sensor's output signal exceeds its maximum or minimum capacity for
measurement, the signal is truncated or clipped to fit within these limits.
Imagine a temperature sensor designed to measure temperatures between -20°C and 50°C. If the
temperature exceeds 50°C, the sensor's output signal is truncated or limited to 50°C to prevent damage
to the sensor.

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Full-Scale Range: The measurement range between a sensor's minimum and maximum values,
indicating the span of values the sensor can accurately measure.
A pressure sensor may have a full-scale range of 0-1000 psi, indicating that it can accurately measure
pressures within this range. Any pressure outside this range may result in inaccurate readings.
Sensitivity Error: Deviation in sensor output from the specified value due to fabrication errors,
calibration discrepancies, or other factors affecting sensor sensitivity.
A light sensor may have a sensitivity error where it consistently reads light levels slightly higher or
lower than the actual value due to variations in sensor manufacturing or calibration.
Offset Error or Bias: Constant deviation between the sensor's output and the actual value being
measured, often attributed to inaccuracies in the sensor's calibration or inherent biases.
If a temperature sensor consistently reads 1.1°C higher than the actual temperature of 0°C, it exhibits
an offset error or bias of 1.1°C.
Non-linearity: Deviation of a sensor's transfer function from a straight line, indicating inaccuracies in
sensor response across its measurement range.
If a sensor’s transfer function (TF) deviates from a straight line transfer function, it is referred to as its
non-linearity. The amount a sensor’s actual output differs from the ideal TF behavior over the full range
of the sensor quantifies its behavior (Accuracy). It is denoted as the percentage of the sensor’s full
range.
Drift: Slow and independent changes in sensor output over time, which may be caused by
environmental factors, aging, or material properties.
Over time, a pH sensor may exhibit drift, where its output gradually shifts even in the absence of
changes in the measured property (pH level). This drift may occur due to aging of sensor components
or environmental factors.
Noise: Random fluctuations or interference in sensor signals, leading to inaccuracies in measurements
and affecting sensor reliability.
A microphone sensor may pick up background noise or electromagnetic interference, leading to
fluctuations in its output signal, even in the absence of changes in the sound being measured.
Hysteresis Error: Deviation in sensor output due to past input values, where the present output
depends on the history of inputs provided to the sensor.
An analog pressure sensor may exhibit hysteresis, where its output varies depending on whether the
pressure is increasing or decreasing. For example, the sensor may produce different readings when
pressure increases from 0 to 100 psi compared to when it decreases from 100 to 0 psi.
Quantization Error: Error introduced in digital sensors during analog to digital conversion, caused
by the approximation of analog signals to discrete digital values.

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In digital temperature sensors, quantization error occurs when the analog temperature signal is
converted into discrete digital values. The difference between the actual temperature and the nearest
digital value represents the quantization error.
Aliasing Errors: Errors arising from improper sampling frequencies, leading to distorted
representations of signals and misinterpretation of data.
If a digital sensor samples a signal at a frequency lower than the Nyquist frequency (twice the highest
frequency present in the signal), aliasing occurs. For example, if a sensor samples a 1 kHz signal at
500 Hz, it may mistakenly interpret the signal as a 500 Hz signal.
Environmental Influences: External factors, such as temperature, humidity, or electromagnetic
interference, that impact sensor performance and introduce deviations in output values.
A humidity sensor may provide inaccurate readings if exposed to high temperatures, as heat can affect
the sensor's performance and introduce deviations in its output values.
Sensing Types
The different sensing types commonly encountered in IoT: 1) scalar sensing, 2) multimedia sensing,
3) hybrid sensing, and 4) virtual sensing.
Scalar sensing
Scalar sensing encompasses the sensing of features that can be quantified simply by measuring changes
in the amplitude of the measured values with respect to time. Quantities such as ambient temperature,
current, atmospheric pressure, rainfall, light, humidity, flux, and others are considered as scalar values
as they normally do not have a directional or spatial property assigned with them. Simply measuring
the changes in their values with passing time provides enough information about these quantities. The

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sensors used for measuring these scalar quantities are referred to as scalar sensors, and the act is known
as scalar sensing.
Some scalar sensors shown below: Figures (b), (d), (e), (f), (g), (h), (i), and (j).
A simple scalar temperature sensing of a fire detection event is shown in Figure below:
Multimedia sensing
Multimedia sensing encompasses the sensing of features that have a spatial variance property
associated with the property of temporal variance.
Unlike scalar sensors, multimedia sensors are used for capturing the changes in amplitude of a
quantifiable property concerning space (spatial) as well as time (temporal).
Quantities such as images, direction, flow, speed, acceleration, sound, force, mass, energy, and
momentum have both directions as well as a magnitude.Additionally, these quantities follow the vector
law of addition and hence are designated as vector quantities.
They might have different values in different directions for the same working condition at the same
time. The sensors used for measuring these quantities are known as vector sensors.

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Figures (a) (c) are vector sensors.
A simple camera-based multimedia sensing using surveillance as an example is shown in Figure
Hybrid sensing
The act of using scalar as well as multimedia sensing at the same time is referred to as hybrid sensing.
Many a time, there is a need to measure certain vector as well as scalar properties of an environment
at the same time. Under these conditions, a range of various sensors are employed (from the collection
of scalar as well as multimedia sensors) to measure the various properties of that environment at any
instant of time, and temporally map the collected information to generate new information.
Example: In an agricultural field, it is required to measure the soil conditions at regular intervals of
time to determine plant health. Sensors such as soil moisture and soil temperature are deployed
underground to estimate the soil’s water retention capacity and the moisture being held by the soil at
any instant of time. However, this setup only determines whether the plant is getting enough water or
not. There may be a host of other factors besides water availability, which may affect a plant’s health.
The additional inclusion of a camera sensor with the plant may be able to determine the actual condition
of a plant by additionally determining the color of leaves. The aggregate information from soil
moisture, soil temperature, and the camera sensor will be able to collectively determine a plant’s health
at any instant of time. Other common examples of hybrid sensing include smart parking systems, traffic
management systems, and others.
Figure shows an example of hybrid sensing, where a camera and a temperature sensor are collectively
used to detect and confirm forest fires during wildlife monitoring.

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Virtual sensing
Many a time, there is a need for very dense and large-scale deployment of sensor nodes spread over a
large area for monitoring of parameters. One such domain is agriculture. Here, often, the parameters
being measured, such as soil moisture, soil temperature, and water level, do not show significant spatial
variations. Hence, if sensors are deployed in the fields of farmer A, it is highly likely that the
measurements from his sensors will be able to provide almost concise measurements of his neighbour
B’s fields; this is especially true of fields which are immediately surrounding A’s fields. Exploiting this
property, if the data from A’s field is digitized using an IoT infrastructure and this system advises him
regarding the appropriate watering, fertilizer, and pesticide regimen for his crops, this advisory can
also be used by B for maintaining his crops. In short,A’s sensors are being used for actual measurement
of parameters; whereas virtual data (which does not have actual physical sensors but uses
extrapolation-based measurements) is being used for advising B. This is the virtual sensing paradigm.
Figure (d) shows an example of virtual sensing. Two temperature sensors S1 and S3 monitor three
nearby events E1, E2, and E3 (fires). The event E2 does not have a dedicated sensor for monitoring it;
however, through the superposition of readings from sensors S1 and S3, the presence of fire in E2 is
inferred.
Sensing Considerations
The choice of sensors in an IoT sensor node is critical and can either make or break the feasibility of
an IoT deployment.
The following major factors influence the choice of sensors in IoT-based sensing solutions: 1) sensing
range, 2) accuracy and precision, 3) energy, and 4) device size.
(i) Sensing Range:
The sensing range of a sensor node defines the detection fidelity of that node. Typical
approaches to optimize the sensing range in deployments include fixed k-coverage and
dynamic k-coverage. A lifelong fixed k-coverage tends to usher in redundancy as it requires
a large number of sensor nodes, the sensing range of some of which may also overlap. In
contrast, dynamic k-coverage incorporates mobile sensor nodes post detection of an event,
which, however, is a costly solution and may not be deployable in all operational areas and
terrains. Additionally, the sensing range of a sensor may also be used to signify the upper
and lower bounds of a sensor’s measurement range. For example, a proximity sensor has a
typical sensing range of a couple of meters. In contrast, a camera has a sensing range

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varying between tens of meters to hundreds of meters. As the complexity of the sensor and
its sensing range goes up, its cost significantly increases.
(ii) Accuracy and Precision: The accuracy and precision of measurements provided by a
sensor are critical in deciding the operations of specific functional processes. Typically, off-
the-shelf consumer sensors are low on requirements and often very cheap. However, their
performance is limited to regular application domains. For example, a standard temperature
sensor can be easily integrated with conventional components for hobby projects and day-
to-day applications, but it is not suitable for industrial processes. Regular temperature
sensors have a very low-temperature sensing range, as well as relatively low accuracy and
precision. The use of these sensors in industrial applications, where a precision of up to 3–
4 decimal places is required, cannot be facilitated by these sensors. Industrial sensors are
typically very sophisticated, and as a result, very costly. However, these industrial sensors
have very high accuracy and precision score, even under harsh operating conditions.
(iii) Energy: The energy consumed by a sensing solution is crucial to determine the lifetime of
that solution and the estimated cost of its deployment. If the sensor or the sensor node is so
energy inefficient that it requires replenishment of its energy sources quite frequently, the
effort in maintaining the solution and its cost goes up; whereas its deployment feasibility
goes down. Consider a scenario where sensor nodes are deployed on the top of glaciers.
Once deployed, access to these nodes is not possible. If the energy requirements of the
sensor nodes are too high, such a deployment will not last long, and the solution will be
highly infeasible as charging or changing of the energy sources of these sensor nodes is not
an option.
(iv) Device Size: Modern-day IoT applications have a wide penetration in all domains of life.
Most of the applications of IoT require sensing solutions which are so small that they do
not hinder any of the regular activities that were possible before the sensor node deployment
was carried out. Larger the size of a sensor node, larger is the obstruction caused by it,
higher is the cost and energy requirements, and lesser is its demand for the bulk of the IoT
applications. Consider a simple human activity detector. If the detection unit is too large to
be carried or too bulky to cause hindrance to regular normal movements, the demand for
this solution would be low. It is because of this that the onset of wearables took off so
strongly. The wearable sensors are highly energy-efficient, small in size, and almost part of
the wearer’s regular wardrobe.
Actuators
An actuator can be considered as a machine or system’s component that can affect the movement or
control the said mechanism or the system. Control systems affect changes to the environment or
property they are controlling through actuators. The system activates the actuator through a control
signal, which may be digital or analog. It elicits a response from the actuator, which is in the form of
some form of mechanical motion. The control system of an actuator can be a mechanical or electronic
system, a software-based system (e.g., an autonomous car control system), a human, or any other input.

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Outline of a simple actuation system.
A remote user sends commands to a processor. The processor instructs a motor controlled robotic arm
to perform the commanded tasks accordingly. The processor is primarily responsible for converting
the human commands into sequential machine-language command sequences, which enables the robot
to move. The robotic arm finally moves the designated boxes, which was its assigned task.
Actuator Types
Broadly, actuators can be divided into seven classes: 1) Hydraulic, 2) pneumatic, 3) electrical, 4)
thermal/magnetic, 5) mechanical, 6) soft, and 7) shape memory polymers.
Commonly used actuators in IoT applications.

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i) Hydraulic actuators
A hydraulic actuator works on the principle of compression and decompression of fluids. These
actuators facilitate mechanical tasks such as lifting loads through the use of hydraulic power derived
from fluids in cylinders or fluid motors. The mechanical motion applied to a hydraulic actuator is
converted to either linear, rotary, or oscillatory motion. The almost incompressible property of liquids
is used in hydraulic actuators for exerting significant force. These hydraulic actuators are also
considered as stiff systems. The actuator’s limited acceleration restricts its usage.
ii) Pneumatic actuators
A pneumatic actuator works on the principle of compression and decompression of gases. These
actuators use a vacuum or compressed air at high pressure and convert it into either linear or rotary
motion. Pneumatic rack and pinion actuators are commonly used for valve controls of water pipes.
Pneumatic actuators are considered as compliant systems. The actuators using pneumatic energy for
their operation are typically characterized by the quick response to starting and stopping signals. Small
pressure changes can be used for generating large forces through these actuators. Pneumatic brakes are
an example of this type of actuator which is so responsive that they can convert small pressure changes
applied by drives to generate the massive force required to stop or slow down a moving vehicle.
Pneumatic actuators are responsible for converting pressure into force. The power source in the
pneumatic actuator does not need to be stored in reserve for its operation.
iii) Electric actuators
Typically, electric motors are used to power an electric actuator by generating mechanical torque. This
generated torque is translated into the motion of a motor’s shaft or for switching (as in relays). For
example, actuating equipments such as solenoid valves control the flow of water in pipes in response
to electrical signals. This class of actuators is considered one of the cheapest, cleanest and speedy
actuator types available. Figures (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (i), and (j) show some of the commonly used
electrical actuators.

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iv) Thermal or magnetic actuators
The use of thermal or magnetic energy is used for powering this class of actuators. These actuators
have a very high power density and are typically compact, lightweight, and economical. One classic
example of thermal actuators is shape memory materials (SMMs) such as shape memory alloys
(SMAs). These actuators do not require electricity for actuation. They are not affected by vibration and
can work with liquid or gases. Magnetic shape memory alloys (MSMAs) are a type of magnetic
actuators.
v) Mechanical actuators
In mechanical actuation, the rotary motion of the actuator is converted into linear motion to execute
some movement. The use of gears, rails, pulleys, chains, and other devices are necessary for these
actuators to operate. These actuators can be easily used in conjunction with pneumatic, hydraulic, or
electrical actuators. They can also work in a standalone mode. The best example of a mechanical
actuator is a rack and pinion mechanism. Figure (g,h,k,l) show some of the commonly available
mechanical actuators. The hydroelectric generator converts the water-flow induced rotary motion of a
turbine into electrical energy. Similarly, the mechanical switches uses the mechanical motion of the
switch to switch on or off an electrical circuit.
vi) Soft actuators
Soft actuators (e.g., polymer-based) consists of elastomeric polymers that are used as embedded
fixtures in flexible materials such as cloth, paper, fiber, particles, and others. The conversion of
molecular level microscopic changes into tangible macroscopic deformations is the primary working
principle of this class of actuators. These actuators have a high stake in modern-day robotics. They are
designed to handle fragile objects such as agricultural fruit harvesting, or performing precise operations
like manipulating the internal organs during robot-assisted surgeries.
vii) Shape memory polymers
Shape memory polymers (SMP) are considered as smart materials that respond to some external
stimulus by changing their shape, and then revert to their original shape once the affecting stimulus is
removed. Features such as high strain recovery, biocompatibility, low density, and biodegradability
characterize these materials. SMP-based actuators function similar to our muscles. Modern-day SMPs
have been designed to respond to a wide range of stimuli such as pH changes, heat differentials, light
intensity, and frequency changes, magnetic changes, and others. Photopolymer/light-activated
polymers (LAP) are a particular type of SMP, which require light as a stimulus to operate. LAP-based
actuators are characterized by their rapid response times. Using only the variation of light frequency

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or its intensity, LAPs can be controlled remotely without any physical contact. The development of
LAPs whose shape can be changed by the application of a specific frequency of light have been
reported. The polymer retains its shape after removal of the activating light. In order to change the
polymer back to its original shape, a light stimulus of a different frequency has to be applied to the
polymer
Actuator Characteristics
The choice or selection of actuators is crucial in an IoT deployment, where a control mechanism is
required after sensing and processing of the information obtained from the sensed environment.
Actuators perform the physically heavier tasks in an IoT deployment; tasks which require moving or
changing the orientation of physical objects, changing the state of objects, and other such activities.
The correct choice of actuators is necessary for the long-term sustenance and continuity of operations,
as well as for increasing the lifetime of the actuators themselves.
A set of four characteristics can define all actuators:
i) Weight: The physical weight of actuators limits its application scope. For example, the use
of heavier actuators is generally preferred for industrial applications and applications
requiring no mobility of the IoT deployment. In contrast, lightweight actuators typically
find common usage in portable systems in vehicles, drones, and home IoT applications. It
is to be noted that this is not always true. Heavier actuators also have selective usage in
mobile systems, for example, landing gears and engine motors in aircraft.
ii) Power Rating: This helps in deciding the nature of the application with which an actuator
can be associated. The power rating defines the minimum and maximum operating power
an actuator can safely withstand without damage to itself. Generally, it is indicated as the
power-to-weight ratio for actuators. For example, smaller servo motors used in hobby
projects typically have a maximum rating of 5 VDC, 500 mA, which is suitable for an
operations-driven battery-based power source. Exceeding this limit might be detrimental to
the performance of the actuator and may cause burnout of the motor. In contrast to this,
servo motors in larger applications have a rating of 460 VAC, 2.5 A, which requires
standalone power supply systems for operations. It is to be noted that actuators with still
higher ratings are available and vary according to application requirements.
iii) Torque to Weight Ratio: The ratio of torque to the weight of the moving part of an
instrument/device is referred to as its torque/weight ratio. This indicates the sensitivity of
the actuator. Higher is the weight of the moving part; lower will be its torque to weight ratio
for a given power.
iv) Stiffness and Compliance: The resistance of a material against deformation is known as its
stiffness, whereas compliance of a material is the opposite of stiffness. Stiffness can be
directly related to the modulus of elasticity of that material. Stiff systems are considered
more accurate than compliant systems as they have a faster response to the change in load
applied to it. For example, hydraulic systems are considered as stiff and non-compliant,
whereas pneumatic systems are considered as compliant.

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Questions:
1. What are sensors, actuators and transducers. Give examples for each one.
2. Classify and explain sensors each one in detail
3. Explain sensors characteristics based on three fundamental properties.
4. List and explain all the considerations that must be incorporated during the sensing of critical
systems.
5. How is sensor resolution different from its accuracy?
6. List and explain different sensing types
7. Differentiate between scalar and vector sensors.
8. Differentiate between analog and digital sensors.
9. List and explain the factors that influence the choice of sensors.
10. What are actuators? List and explain the actuator types
11. Differentiate between hydraulic and pneumatic actuators with examples.
12. What are shape memory alloys (SMA)?
13. What are soft actuators?
14. What are the main features of shape memory polymers?
15. What are light activated polymers?
16. Explain actuator characteristics

Module 2_BETCK105H_Introduction to IoT.pdf

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Module 2_BETCK105H_Introduction to IoT.pdf