Module 7

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MODULE 7:
BASIC BUSINESS BOOK-KEEPING AND
ACCOUNTS
By
Ifeanyi Osagbobu

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Course Outline
1. Introduction
2. Who are the users of accounts/financial information?
3. Why do they need accounts/financial information?
4. accounting And Bookkeeping defined
5. Bookkeeping and accounting systems
6. Accounting methods
7. Accounting and bookkeeping software
8. Bookkeeping flow
9. Basic books of account
10.Basic business records
11.Trial balance and accounts
12.Other matters to consider in business bookkeeping and accounting
Introduction
Every person/organization (Company) needs resources to do business. Apart from
raising money and doing business, a Company must aim at becoming financially
sustainable in the long run. Financial sustainability can be measured by the
Company’s net income (the surplus of revenues over expenses); liquidity (the cash
available to pay bills); and solvency (the relationship between assets and
liabilities). These three words sound like big terms, but both the illiterate and
literate know the tricks and benefits of good money management. Without

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effective management of financial resources, no organization can go very far in
the accomplishment of its vision.
This lecture is aimed at revealing some basic elements of bookkeeping and
accounts to help even a non-accountant business owner manage, track and give
account of the use of the Company’s resources.
Who are Users of accounts/financial information?
Users can be grouped into two broad categories namely internal users and
external users. Internal users are the owners, managers and employees who
actually work for the business. External users include lenders and other creditors/
(suppliers of goods & services), investors, customers, and governmental
regulatory and taxing agencies.
Why do they need accounts/financial information?
Users need this information to make profitable decisions promptly. Lenders and
other creditors want to make sure that they will be paid back for the credit that
they have extended to a business. By analyzing financial information, they at least
have something to base their lending or credit decision on. The days of the
"friendly" banker are gone. You need to provide them with financial information
as a basis for their loan decisions. A "good old boy" handshake won't cut it now.
Similarly, customers want to make sure that the business they're buying products
or services from is going to be around and not in a poor financial position as to
have to close its doors. Other users have their own reasons for using this financial
information.
Since users require financial information to base their decisions on, let's
determine what is required to fill this need.
Let's begin with a definition for accounting.
Accounting is the art of analysing, recording, summarizing, reporting, reviewing,
and interpreting financial information.
Let's also define what bookkeeping is and is not. Is it arranging books in shelves?
No! Well friends, that's not the bookkeeping you're going to learn here.
Bookkeeping is one of the components of accounting. Think of accounting as the
mother and bookkeeping as one of her children.

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Bookkeeping is the process of recording and classifying business financial
transactions (activities). Bookkeeping's objective is simply to record and
summarize financial transactions into a usable form that provides financial
information about a business or an entity.
Accountants normally plan and set up the accounting and bookkeeping system for
a business and turn over the day to day record keeping to the owner or one of
his/her employees. In this age of computers, more and more of the daily
bookkeeping is being done using bookkeeping software and computers although
some businesses still maintain manual records. Due to the reasonable cost of
computers and software, I recommend an automated (computer) bookkeeping
system. In order to illustrate and understand what is actually being recorded and
summarized by a computer bookkeeping system (behind the scenes) my lessons
will illustrate the manual method of recording a company's financial information.
Bookkeeping Systems
Businesses need to determine the type of bookkeeping system that will be used
for recording their transactions. Many small businesses start out using the single
entry system.
 Single Entry System
The single entry system is an "informal" accounting/bookkeeping system
where a user of this system makes only one entry to enter a business
financial transaction. It generally includes a daily summary of cash receipts
and a monthly record of receipts and disbursements (worksheets).
A bank book, for example, is a single entry bookkeeping system where one entry
is made for each deposit or cheque written. Receipts are entered as a deposit and
a source of revenue. Cheques and withdrawals are entered as expenses. If a
manual system is used, in order to determine your revenues and expenses you
have to prepare worksheets to summarize your income and categorize and
summarize your different types of expenses. Bookkeeping software and spread
sheets are also available to do this for you.
The emphasis of this system is placed on determining the profit or loss of a
business.
It got its name because you record each transaction only once as either revenue
(deposit) or as an expense (cheque). Since each entry is recorded only

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once, debits and credits (recording method required for the double entry
system) are not used to record a financial event.
While the single entry system may be acceptable for tax purposes, it does not
provide a business with all the financial information needed to adequately
report the financial affairs of a business. In the near future, we'll probably see the
single entry system go into extinction.
 Double Entry System
The double entry system is the standard system used by businesses and
other organizations to record financial transactions. Since all business
transactions consist of an exchange of one thing for another, double entry
bookkeeping using debits and credits, is used to show this two-fold effect.
Debits and credits are the device that provide the ability to record the
entries twice and are explained in more detail later in this lecture.
The double entry system also has built-in checks and balances. Due to the use of
debits and credits, the double-entry system is self-balancing. The total of the
debit values recorded must equal the total of the credit values recorded.
This system, when used along with the accrual method of accounting, is
a complete accounting system and focuses on the income statement and balance
sheet. This system has worldwide support as the system to use by businesses for
recording their financial transactions.
It got its name because each transaction is recorded in at least two places in the
accounts using debits and credits.
Accounting Methods
One other decision faced by a new business is what accounting/bookkeeping
method to use to track its revenues and expenses. An accounting method is just a
set of rules used to determine when and how income and expenses are reported.
Some businesses will choose to use the accrual method of accounting while
others may prefer to use the cash basis along with some special rules.
You're more than likely to encounter both the term method and basis used when
this topic is discussed. In some cases you'll see the term cash method used and in
other cases see the term cash basis used. Likewise you'll see the term accrual

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method used and the term accrual basis used. They both refer to the same
concept and are used interchangeably.
1. Cash Method
The cash method or basis of accounting recognizes revenues (earnings) in
the period the cash is received and expenses in the period when the cash
payments are made. Actually, two types of cash methods (basis) of
accounting exist:
 Strict cash method (basis) - A strict cash method follows the cash flow
exactly. A modified cash method includes some elements from the
accrual method of accounting and provides special methods for handling
items such as inventory and cost of goods sold, payroll tax expenses and
liabilities, and recording and depreciating property and equipment.
 Modified cash method (basis) - Many small businesses use
the modified cash method.
By concentrating on recording revenues and expenses, the purpose of the cash or
modified cash method of accounting is on determining the net income or loss for
a period based on the cash received and the cash spent.
Many small businesses start out using the cash basis rather than the accrual basis
of accounting.
Use of the cash basis generally is not considered to be in conformity with
generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Is this necessarily bad? No, if no
need is foreseen for what is called audited financial statements there's no need
for concern. In most cases, audited statements are only required for the "big
boys" (companies whose ownership interests are publicly traded). The "little
guys" like the ma and pa shops don't need to worry. Still, when possible, a
business should strongly consider using the accrual method of accounting.
Information, such as the amounts billed to customers for products and/or services
and not paid, and the amounts billed by suppliers for their products and/or
services and not paid is not normally recorded and maintained in the "books"
using the cash method. Journals are the means of recording such items in the
ledger.

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2. Accrual Method
The accrual method or basis of accounting records income in the period
earned and records expenses and capital expenditures such as buildings,
land, equipment, and vehicles in the period incurred but not paid.
The purpose of the accrual method of accounting is to properly match income and
expenses in the correct period.
In order to accomplish the completeness of accounts, the accrual method of
accounting records revenue as earned when the product and/or service is shipped
or rendered and invoiced (billed) to customers. Likewise, expenses and capital
expenditures are recorded as incurred when the product and/or service is
shipped or rendered and invoiced (billed) by the supplier. At this point, no
payment of cash is involved in the transactions.
Information, such as the amounts billed to customers for products and/or services
and not paid; and the amounts billed by suppliers for their products and/or
services and not paid is recorded and maintained in the "books" using the accrual
method. This is the accounting method that is required to be used in order to
conform to generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) in preparing financial
statements for external users.
The Difference between the two methods: the difference between the two
methods used for recording revenues and expenses results from when the
business transaction is recorded in the "books" (timing). A business using the
accrual method will record revenues and expenses in their "books" before a
business using the cash method. In other words, unlike the cash method, they
don't wait until they get paid by the customer or wait until they pay a supplier to
record the transaction.
Note: "to be fore warned is to be forearmed". Cash Flow and Profits are two
different things. Due to the timing difference as to when revenue and expenses
are recorded and when the cash resulting from the revenue and expenses is
actually received or paid out , a business using the accrual method of accounting
and reporting a "hefty" profit does not necessarily mean that they have the cash
to pay their bills.
Though the accrual method provides a better measure of profit and loss, many
small businesses still use the cash basis of accounting. I think, with the advent of

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easy to use computer accounting and bookkeeping software, we'll see more
businesses adopting the accrual basis of accounting.
Relationship between the Type of Bookkeeping System Used and the Accounting
Method Used
The Single Entry bookkeeping system is used along with the Cash Method of
accounting alone.
Debits and Credits are not used to record financial events.
The Double Entry bookkeeping system can be used with both the Cash and
Accrual methods of accounting. Debits and Credits are used to record financial
events.
Also, you can keep two sets of books, one on the cash basis and the other on the
accrual basis, for the same business. However, you have to select one of the
methods for tax purposes and continue to use it in the future. This is perfectly
legal. It's when you keep two sets of books to hide your true earnings that trouble
begins.
Accounting and Bookkeeping Software: Single or Double Entry?
Accounting and bookkeeping software programs actually allow the user to make a
single (one) entry and the software handles creating the debit and credit entries
automatically. The double-entry system is still there, but it's hidden from the user.
The one exception is the general journal where the user does enter debits and
credits.
Let's look at a sample transaction of invoicing (billing) a customer to illustrate
what I'm talking about. An invoice to a customer is created and printed, and the
resulting transaction is automatically recorded in the "books" as an increase to
the amounts owed by customers and an increase to revenues (sales) using debits
and credits.
Wow, since its automatic, does that mean we don't need to learn about debits
and credits later? No! You need a properly trained bookkeeper or accountant that
is also familiar with the software product in order to properly use the software.
That old saying "GIGO" (Garbage in - Garbage out) definitely applies here.

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Let's also muddy the water regarding the cash method and accrual method of
accounting.
Some accounting software allows you to convert data back and forth between a
cash basis and accrual basis of accounting. As I stated earlier, you do have to
select one of the methods for tax purposes and continue to use it in the future.
What's the Recommended Type of Bookkeeping System and Accounting Method?
Most accountants when asked will recommend that a business use the double
entry bookkeeping system and the accrual basis or method of accounting which is
based on the revenue realization principle and a principle called the matching
concept. The revenue realization principle states that revenue should be recorded
when actually earned.
Don't tell me accountants actually play matchmakers or promote a dating service!
No. The matching principle is recording the revenues earned during a period using
the revenue realization principle and matching (offsetting) the revenues with the
expenses incurred in generating this revenue. Why is this so important? All
businesses small and large need information to determine how well or badly they
are performing; however, if this information is misleading it could lead to false
conclusions and wrong actions.
The following sample business transactions for a consulting and landscaping
company are used to illustrate the accrual basis of accounting/matching concept
and the cash basis of accounting.
January 2015 Billed N30, 000 to Customers for Services performed & completed in
February 2015.
January 2015 Received Payments from Customers of N15, 000.
Jan. 2015 Billed N12, 000 by outside Contractors for Services performed &
completed in Feb ’15.
January 2015 Paid outside Contractors N8, 000
February 2015 Received payments from Customers of N15, 000
February 2015 Paid outside Contractors N4, 000

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Cash Basis Accrual Basis
Jan 2015 Feb 2015 Total Jan 2015 Feb 2015 Total
Revenue N15,000 N15,000 N30,000 N30,000 - N30,000
Expenses N8,000 N4,000 N12,000 N12,000 - N12,000
Profit/(Loss) N7,000 N11,000 N18,000 N18,000 - N18,000
Possible Conclusions from the Cash Method
 The company made money in January and February.
 The company is making more profit on the same amount of revenues. We
had revenues of N15, 000 in both January & February, but made a bigger
profit in February.
 In February, we must have implemented some expense saving measures or
got cheaper prices on our contracted services.
Are any of these conclusions valid? No! The "real" world as illustrated by the
accrual method shows we had a great January and made N18, 000 but February
was terrible. We celebrated our great January and relaxed in February. We didn't
go out to get additional business and consult for some more clients and do some
more business.
BOOKKEEPING FLOW: Transactions (recorded in Source Documents) – Book of
Accounts (Subsidiary & General Ledgers) – Trial Balance – Accounts in that order
from the activities (transactions) carried out to the final accounts in form of
balance sheet and profit & loss account.
BASIC BOOKS OF ACCOUNT
Subsidiary books and source documents
The subsidiary books are shown in the table below:
SUBSIDIARY BOOKS SOURCE DOCUMENTS
Purchase day book Incoming invoices, debit notes received

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Sales day book Outgoing invoices, debit notes issued
Returns outward book Incoming credit notes
Sales returns book Credit notes sent out
Bank/(Cash) book Cheque/Bank tellers receipts & cheque counterfoils
Petty cash book Petty cash vouchers
The Subsidiary books above are kept:
 to record sales and purchases individually
 as first entry of transactions and
 Keep track of creditors and debtors.
Below are sample subsidiary books by name
Purchase day book:
Date Names Folio Details Amount Total
=N= =N=
X
X
Transfer to Purchases A/C XX
Sales day book:
Date Names Folio Details Amount Total
=N= =N=
X

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X
Transfer to Sales A/C XX
Please Note: Returns formats are just as the two formats above, but with contra
postings to reduce purchases and sales as the case may be. So, put the “x” in
bracket.
Bank/Cash Book: records receipts into bank and payments from bank account
including entries made directly by the bank.
Dr Bank/Cash Book Cr
Date Particulars Folio Amt Date Particulars Folio Amt
=N= =N=
Receipts Payments
Petty Cash Book: records receipts into cash box and payments out of it.
Dr Petty Cash Book Cr
=N= =N=
Receipts Payments
The above two books: Bank and Petty cash books record monies received and
payments made. They combine the functions of the subsidiary ledger and
principal book called general ledger.

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General ledger: is the main book of accounts that record cash and bank
transactions of receipts and payments made in the course of doing business. It
also records all other transactions in double entry system. Only a trained
accountant would be able to keep this book. However, the format is shown
below for business owners’ knowledge:
Dr Ledger Account Cr
=N= =N=
Please Note: We are not treating double entry system of bookkeeping because
not everybody here is literate in accountancy. It is a more complex accounting
system involving journals for non cash transactions like depreciation, accrued
expenses, accrued liabilities etc. that make the accounts fully comprehensive.
BASIC BUSINESS RECORDS
Fixed assets register by class
Date of
Acquisiti
on
Descripti
on
Of
Property
Cos
t
Serial/T
ag
Number
Locatio
n
Conditio
n
Depreciati
on Rates
Remar
ks
Filing of documents

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Please Note that it is of utmost importance to file all documents used in posting
the books and ledgers including bank statements on a daily basis. The name of the
document can be the basis for filing. The name, bank and third parties to the
business like customers, suppliers are also good for filing. This will aid easy
communication and information retrievals as required. Examples of files are:
1. Bank files: for bank statements, letters to the banks, reconciliation
statements etc.
2. Payment voucher files: for payment vouchers and support
documents such as receipts, invoices, internal memos on expenses
etc.
3. Journal files: for keeping all account posting journals.
4. Supplier files: for all letters between the Company and its supplier;
one file for each supplier fully labeled with the supplier’s name,
telephone number and contact person with their address.
5. Customer files: for all letters between the Company and its customer;
one file for each customer fully labeled with the supplier’s name,
telephone number and contact person with their address.
6. And other files as required: Loan file, Post office file etc.
Bank reconciliation statement
NAME OF COMPANY
BANK RECONCILIATION STATEMENT
Bank ………………………………..Account
No……………………………………Month………………………..
Cheque
No
Date Amount
N
Total Amount
Balance as per Bank Statement
 Add Bank Charges xx xxx

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 Add lodgments not
yet entered into Bank
account (un-credited)


 Add Standing order
 Add back other Bank
deductions awaiting
clarification

xx
xx
xx
xx
xx Xxx
Sub totals xxx
 Less Un-presented
Cheques



 Less Payment into
Bank not entered in
cash Bank (Credit
transfer)
 Less other Bank
additions (credits )
awaiting clarification
Balance as per Cash/
Bank book
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx (xxx)
Xxx
Prepared by…………………………………………….. Date………………………….
Checked by:…………………………………………… Date………………………….

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General ledger chart of accounts & trial balance
At the end of a period, trial balance is usually extracted from the ledger in order
to prepare the accounts of the business. The account balances of all accounts in
this chart are reported as debit or credit. The total debits must be equal to the
total credits.
Account Category Code Range DR CR
=N= =N=
1. Non- CurrentAssets: 1000 - 1999
- Land @ cost X
- Acc. Depreciation X
- Building @ cost X
- Furniture & Fittings @ cost X
- Plant & Machinery @ cost X
- Motor Vehicles & Cycles @ cost X
- Acc. Depreciation
X
2. Current Assets: 2000 - 2999
- Accounts Receivable by type X
- Inventory by class X
- Bank & Cash by type or number X
- Prepayments by type X
3. Share Capital & Reserves 3000 - 3999
- Capital
X
- Retained Earnings X
- Current year Profit or Loss X
4. Current Liabilities 4000 - 4999
- Accounts Payable by type X
- Accruals by type X
- Taxation by class X
5. Long term Liabilities 5000 - 5999

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- Long term Loan
X
- Deferred Tax X
6. Revenue 6000 - 6999
- Sales X
- Other income x
- Interest, etc x
7. Expenses 7000 - 7999
- Prime or Direct cost by type x
- Admin Exp&Overhead by type x
- Bank charges, etc x
- Finance charges x
xx xx
TRIAL BALANCE AND ACCOUNTS
Using the trial balance below, the sample Profit & Loss account and Balance Sheet
are prepared showing both financial performance and position of the company
respectively.
2014 TRIAL BALANCE
DETAIL =N=
PROFIT & LOSS ACCOUNT DR/((CR)
REVENUE (TURNOVER) (7,900,808)
DIRECT COSTS (COST OF
SALE) 2,846,183
ADMIN & GENERAL EXPENSES:
Clerk Wages 360,000
Postage &Telephone 120,000
Transport & Travelling 157,500
Printing & Stationery 51,670
Professional License/Subscription 50,000
Glazing 147,050
Internet Subscription 181,550
Electricity 60,000
Newspaper 47,050
Generator Fuel & Oil 50,000
Water & Cleaning 35,000
Marketing expenses 190,135

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Motor Vehicle Running 77,500
Motor Vehicle Insurance 56,700
Maintenance of Computer &Equipt. 75,400
Generator Maintenance 17,800
Audit Fee 40,000
Audit Expenses 2,000
Bank Charges 16,133
Rent 445,760
Service Charge 44,576
Dep. Exp. P&L 596,800
Proprietor's Drawings 1,200,000
Tax charged to P&L 77,152
BALANCE SHEET
Stocks 2,500,000
Trade Debtors 778,070
Cash account -
GTB 363,367
Tax (P&L)-Provision (77,152)
Creditor (4,742,364)
Accruals (42,000)
Plant & Machinery (GENERATOR) 50,000
Acct Dep. (20,000)
Furniture & Fittings 397,000
Acct Dep. (134,000)
Computer/Medical Equipment 5,876,000
Acct Dep. (1,042,400)
Motor Vehicle 1,850,000
Acct Dep. (1,110,000)
Proprietor's Capital (4,235,000)
Proprietor's current acct (244,077)
Acct Profit 787,405
GRAND TOTAL 0
Sample profit and loss account

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D.E.P. CLINIC AND OPTICAL SERVICES
PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 2014
2014 2013
NOTES =N= =N=
TURNOVER 7,900,808 5,437,163
COST OF SALES (2,846,183) (1,573,446)
GROSS PROFIT 5,054,625 3,863,717
LESS: ADMIN & GENERAL EXPENSES 5 (2,822,624) (2,349,141)
PROFIT/(LOSS) BEFORE TAXATION 2,232,001 1,514,576
TAXATION (93,132) (52,183)
PROFIT/(LOSS) AFTER TAXATION 2,138,868 1,462,393
PROFIT/(LOSS) BROUGHT FORWARD (787,404) (1,049,797)
APPROPRIATION:
DR. HAULDER O. IBENECHE
- Salaries - -
- Drawings (1,200,000) (1,200,000)
(1,200,000) (1,200,000)
ACCUMULATED PROFIT/(LOSS) CARRIED FORWARD 151,464 (787,404)

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The accounting policies on page x and notes on pages y to z form an integral part
of these accounts.
Sample balance sheet
D.E.P. CLINIC AND OPTICAL SERVICES
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31 DECEMBER 2014
ASSETS EMPLOYED: 2014 2013
NOTE =N= =N=
FIXED ASSETS 1 5,866,600 4,463,400
CURRENT ASSETS
Stocks 2,500,000 1,289,000
Debtors and Prepayments 2 778,070 890,020
Bank balances 363,367 828,303
Cash balance - -
3,641,437 3,007,323
CURRENT LIABILITIES
Creditors and Accruals 3 4,784,364 3,700,250
Taxation 4 93,132 78,801
4,877,496 3,779,051
NET CURRENT ASSETS/LIABILITIES (1,236,059) 771,728
NET ASSETS 4,630,541 3,691,673
FINANCED BY:
Proprietors' Capital 4,235,000 4,235,000
Proprietor's Current Account 244,077 244,077
Accumulated Profit/(Loss) 151,464 (787,404)

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4,630,541 3,691,673
The financial Statements were approved by the Proprietor on
……………………………………………………….... and were signed by:
………………………………………………… ) CHAIRMAN/CEO
The accounting policies on page x and notes on pages y to z form an integral part of these
accounts.
NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS - 31 DECEMBER 2014
1 FIXED ASSET 2014
Motor
Vehicles
Plant &
Machinery
Computer &
Clinic Equipment
Furniture &
Fittings Total
Cost: =N= =N= =N= =N= =N=
At 1st January 1,850,000 50,000 3,876,000 397,000 6,173,000
Additions - - 2,000,000 - 2,000,000
At 31st December 1,850,000 50,000 5,876,000 397,000 8,173,000
Depreciation:
At 1st January (832,500) (15,000) (761,600) (100,500) (1,709,600)
Charge for the year (277,500) (5,000) (280,800) (33,500) (596,800)
At 31st December (1,110,000) (20,000) (1,042,400) (134,000) (2,306,400)
Net Book Value At 31st December:
2014 740,000 30,000 4,833,600 263,000 5,866,600

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2013 1,017,500 35,000 3,114,400 296,500 4,463,400
NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS - 31 DECEMBER 2014 (Continued)
2014 2013
=N= =N=
2 DEBTORS AND PREPAYMENTS
Trade debtors 778,070 890,020
Others - -
778,070 890,020
3 CREDITORS AND ACCRUALS
Trade creditors 4,742,364 3,658,250
Accruals/others 42,000 42,000
4,784,364 3,700,250
4 TAXATION
Balance at start 78,801 83,722
Charge for the year 93,132 52,183
Paid (78,801) (57,104)
Balance at end 93,132 78,801
NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS - 31 DECEMBER 2014
(Continued)
2014 2013
=N= =N=
5 GENERAL & ADMINISTRATIVE EXPENSES:
Clerk Wages 360,000 360,000
Postage & Telephone 120,000 114,000

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Transport & traveling 157,500 141,450
Printing & Stationaries 51,670 42,000
Professional licence/subscription 50,000 50,000
Marketing expenses 190,135 -
Glazing 147,050 22,900
Internet subscription 81,550 -
Electricity & Power 60,000 50,000
Newspapers & Periodicals 47,050 34,950
Water & Cleaning 35,000 60,050
Motor Vehicle Running 77,500 70,000
Motor Vehicle Insurance 56,700 60,000
AEPB Bill - 88,000
Clinic Rent 445,760 445,760
Service Charges 44,576 44,576
Generator repairs & maintenance 67,800 14,500
Maintenance of Computer & Equipment 75,400 -
Bank Charges 16,133 12,155
Audit Fees 140,000 140,000
Audit Expenses 2,000 2,000
Depreciation 596,800 596,800
2,822,624 2,349,141
OTHER MATTERS TO CONSIDER IN BUSINESS BOOKKEEPING AND ACCOUNTING

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Types of Business Organization: one other decision that a person(s) needs to
make is how the company should be structured. The four basic legal forms of
ownership for small businesses are a Sole Proprietorship, Partnership,
Corporation, and Limited Liability Company. There are advantages and
disadvantages as well as income tax ramifications associated with each type of
organization. We aren't going to delve in to this area but a brief description of the
different types of organization and what they are is needed.
 Sole Proprietorship
Most small businesses start out as sole proprietorships. These firms are
owned by one person who is normally active in running and managing the
business.
 Partnership
A partnership is two or more people who share the ownership of a single
business. In order to avoid misunderstandings about how profits/losses are
shared, who's responsible for what, and other management, ownership,
and operating decisions, the partners normally have a formal legal
partnership agreement.
 Public Quoted Corporation
A corporation is an organization that is made up of many owners who
normally are not active in the decision making and operations of the
business. These owners are called shareholders or stockholders. Their
ownership interest is represented by certificates of ownership (stock)
issued by the corporation. Earnings are taxed to the corporation.
Shareholders not personally liable for income taxes unless dividends are
paid.
 Limited Liability Company (LLC)
The LLC is a relatively new type of business structure that combines the
benefits of a partnership and corporation. It has fewer shareholders and
small capital.
Factors to Consider
Some Factors and a brief description of what to consider when choosing a type of
organization:

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 Tax Consequences - Federal and State
What tax do you have to pay to the federal and state taxing authorities?
 Ease and cost of formation and recurring registration fees
What documents do you need to file and what are the initial and recurring
costs for the type of organization?
 Degree of control
Do you want to call all the "shots"?
As a sole owner, you call the shots alone.
 Liability (personal)
Do your personal assets need protection from legal liability ?
Are you willing to be liable for others (partners)?
 Ability to get money (capital)
Do you need other investors to get your business "off the ground"?
 Type of Business
If your type of profession requires a special license, is it limited to what
type of organization that can be selected?
All the different types of organizations listed above have some unique methods
and rules for accounting for their transactions associated with their equity
(ownership) accounts. This tutorial in order to keep it simple and since many small
businesses start out organized as sole proprietorships, partnership and LLC will
focus on bookkeeping for such businesses.
Types of Business Activity: our society is made up of different types of businesses.
Some sell products directly to the consumer and are known as retailers. Other
businesses called wholesalers warehouse and sell large quantities of products to
the retailers who in turn sell it to us (consumer). Businesses like mine provide and
sell services to other businesses and individuals. Some businesses even tackle the
task of actually producing (make) the products and are called manufacturers.
Many of these businesses are required to maintain and account for inventories of
the products that they stock or have on hand. Again this being an introductory
tutorial we are not going to cover the practices and procedures used in

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accounting for inventories. Those wanting to learn about inventories need to
refer to my Inventory Tutorial. That being the case, the examples in this tutorial
will deal with a service type of business.
Accounting Period: Believe it or not, a business needs to select an annual tax year.
Your two main choices are a calendar or fiscal tax year. A Calendar Tax Year is 12
consecutive months beginning January 1 and ending December 31. A Fiscal Tax
Year is 12 consecutive months ending on the last day of any month except
December 31. The calendar tax year is used by most businesses.
The reason a business might choose a fiscal tax year is that they could select an
ending month for their fiscal year when business activity is low. This makes the
process of what is called closing the books a little easier. Also if a business has
inventories, there would be less to count.
Federal Internal Revenue Service (FIRS) has guidelines for what accounting
periods can be used based on the types of business organizations such as a
corporation, sole proprietorship, partnership, etc. Normally, choosing a calendar
year is a safe choice.
Rules of Accounting: In addition to the revenue realization and matching
principles or concepts discussed earlier, accounting and bookkeeping is guided by
some additional underlying rules.
All games such as football, baseball, basketball, etc. have rules. Why? So that
everyone plays the game the same way. Playing the Accounting "Game" is no
different. What if owners and managers could prepare their business's financial
statements the way they felt like?
If a business wanted a loan or credit, they would have a tendency to overstate the
value of their assets and the value of their business. If it came to taxes we don't
like to have to pay them so, we expense and write off everything. As for
measuring performance (profitability) and comparing businesses in the same
industry, you'd have no idea as to who was actually doing well and who wasn't.
You couldn't even compare your own business from year to year. As to coming up
with a reasonable value for what a business was worth, your guess would be as
good as mine.

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So, to put all businesses on the same playing field, the accounting profession has
established some rules and guidelines.
Two notable accounting rule making and standards setting organizations are the
Nigerian Accounting Standards Board (NASB) now Financial Reporting Council of
Nigeria and the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). The current
accounting rules and standards are continually reviewed, studied, changed, and
added to in order to make financial presentations more consistent, comparable,
meaningful, and informative.
The following are some of the rules used in Accounting:-
 Accrual Concept (discussed earlier)
Supports the idea that income and expenses should be measured and
recorded at the time major efforts or accomplishments occur rather than
when cash is received or paid.
 Revenue Realization Concept (discussed earlier)
The revenue recognition principle requires companies to record revenue
when it is realized or realizable and actually earned. In other words, at the
time the goods are actually sold or the services are rendered.
 Matching Concept (discussed earlier)
The Matching Principle goes hand in hand with the Revenue Realization
Principle. The matching principle is recording the revenues earned during a
period using the revenue realization principle and matching (offsetting) the
revenues with the expenses incurred in generating this revenue.
 Accounting Period Concept
This assumes that business operations can be recorded and separated into
different time periods such as months, quarters, and years. This is required
in order to provide timely information that is used to compare present and
past performance.
 Money Measurement Concept
This assumption assumes accounting measures transactions and events in
money and only transactions that can be monetized (stated in a monetary
unit such as the dollar) are recorded and presented in financial statements.

28 | P a g e
Simply stated, money is the common denominator (measurement unit)
used for reporting financial information.
 Business Entity Concept
This assumption requires every business to be accounted for separately
from the owner. Personal and business-related transactions are kept apart
from each other. In other words, the separate personal transactions of
owners and others are not commingled with the reporting of the economic
activity of the business. One of the first recommendations almost all
accountants tell a client is to at least establish a business checking account
and to use it to only record their business transactions.
 Going Concern Concept
This assumption assumes that a business will continue operating and will
not close or be sold. It assumes that a business will be in operation for a
long time. Based on this assumption, actual costs instead of liquidation
values are used for presenting financial information. This assumption is
abandoned in the event that a business is actually going out of business.
 Cost Concept
This principle requires that most assets are recorded at their original
acquisition cost and except for a relatively few exceptions (marketable
securities) no adjustment is made for increases in market value. In other
words, the value of an asset is never "written up" even though the asset
may actually be worth more than its cost. On the other hand, the cost is
sometimes "written down" for example marketable securities and
inventory. See Conservatism Concept.
 Conservatism Concept
Revenues and gains are recognized slower and expenses and losses are
recognized quicker. Accountants have a tendency to stray away from
painting too rosy a picture. In other words, if in doubt, err to the side of
caution. While accountants don't want to misinform users of financial
information, they also don't want to be sued.
 Consistency Concept
The same accounting methods should be applied from period to period and
all changes to more acceptable methods should be well explained and

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justified. Deviations in measured outcomes from period to period should be
the result of deviations in performance not changes in methods.
 Comparability
Information must be measured and reported in a similar manner by all
types of businesses. This allows comparison of the financial statements of
different entities (businesses) or comparisons for the same entity (business)
over different periods.
 Materiality Concept
The significance and importance of an item should be considered in order
to determine what is reported. Insignificant events need not be measured
and recorded.
 Cost-Benefit Convention
The benefit of providing the financial information should also be weighed
against the cost of providing it.
 Industry Practices Convention
Ensure that when customary industry practices exist they should be
followed and used for financial reporting.
Payroll (salaries) and deductions from staff pay: Payroll is essentially, a table of
staff list showing gross salaries for each person on it, deductions like tax (PAYE),
pension, repaid staff loan etc and net pay. The net pay is amount the staff collects
usually monthly through bank or cash. The deducted tax and pension are remitted
as required by their relevant laws.
Tax deductions at source: withholding taxes (WHT) and value added taxes (VAT):
When you do business, WHT and/or VAT may be deducted by the organisations
you supplied goods and services like Government MDA’s and organised
companies. The WHT is an advance payment of tax to be used by you when
making your annual tax returns using the credit note issued by the tax office. The
VAT is a consumption tax you charge to your customers. It is not your income.
Company income tax/proprietor’s tax: At end of a business year, the government
requires every company to pay tax based on its returns in line with the tax laws of

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Nigeria. Sole proprietors and partners individually make their own annual tax
returns to the State government also based on the relevant laws.
Value added tax and revenue/sales: Every business is required to add 5% of sales
value to be charged to its customers in their invoices/receipts. This amount is
required to be remitted to Federal Inland Revenue Service within 21 days of the
following month of revenue collection.

Module 7

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Module 7