MODULE VEVS for Engineere you can find.pdf

MODULE V
PRINCIPLES OF 3D PRINTING
3D printing is a modern technique used to create three-dimensional objects. In this technique,
a 3D digital model of the object to be created is designed in a computer using computer-aided
design (CAD) software. Then the 3D digital model is sliced into thin cross-sectional layers
using slicing software. Each layer represents a virtual “slice” of the final object. A set of
instructions required to print each layer is provided for the 3D printer. The 3D printer follows
the instructions from the slicer software to print the object layer by layer. Each layer adheres
to the one below it. Finally, after printing of all layers, required three-dimensional object is
obtained. Depending on the technology and material used, each layer may need time to cool
and solidify before the next layer is added. Some objects require support structures to be printed
alongside them. These temporary structures prevent overhanging parts from collapsing during
the printing process. Support structures are removed after printing is complete. The printed
object is subjected to additional post-processing steps, such as cleaning, polishing, painting, or
assembly.
In 3D printing, object is obtained by adding material layer by layer. Therefore, this technique
is also commonly called as additive manufacturing technique.
Successful printing of a 3D object depends upon:
a) Selection of suitable starting materials required for printing 3D object.
b) Selection of suitable printer for printing 3D object.
c) Selection of suitable printing method for printing 3D object.
• Materials used in 3D printing
It is important to choose the right material based on the desired properties of the final object
and the capabilities of the 3D printer These materials are used in various forms, such as
filaments, powders, pellets, and liquids. Some of the common types of materials used in 3D
printing are:
1. Plastics, Polymers and resins like Nylon,ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene), PETG
(Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol), Polyurethane and biodegradable polymer,
Polylactic Acid.
2. Metals like Stainless Steel, Titanium, Aluminium, Cobalt. Chromium etc.
3. Ceramics like Alumna, Zirconia and Porcelain.
4. Composite Materials like Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers and Metal Matrix
Composites.
5. Biological and Food Materials are used in bio-printing.

3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGIES
There are many different 3D printing technologies available to create a 3D object. Each method
has its own advantages and disadvantages. Some of the most common 3D printing technologies
are:
a) Fused deposition modelling (FDM): In this method, printer heats a plastic into molten form
Melted plastic filament is extruded through the printer's nozzle which can move in the x, y, and
z directions. The material solidifies as it is deposited layer by layer. Each layer of material
deposited. fuses with the layer beneath it. This layer-by-layer deposition process creates a
three-dimensional object.
b) Selective laser sintering (SLS): This technology uses a high-powered laser to melt
powdered material like plastic or metal. Then it is deposited layer by layer to create the final
object.
c) Stereolithography (SLA): This technology is used to produce highly detailed and accurate
parts with high resolution and smooth surface finishes. In this method, a liquid photopolymer
resin is used. This resin is sensitive to hight and can solidify when exposed to specific
wavelengths. The resin is deposited as per the pattern and a UV laser is directed onto the surface
of the resin, tracing the pattern. The laser's energy causes the resin to solidify and harden at the
desired locations.
There are many advantages with 3D printing techniques compared to other manufacturing
techniques. These can be used to create objects with complex geometries that would be difficult
impossible to create using traditional manufacturing methods. They can be used to create
prototypes quickly and easily. They can be do create custom made objects that are tailored to
the individual user's needs.
3D printing has wide range of applications are industries like manufacturing, aerospace,
healthcare (for creating medical implants and prosthetics). Automotive, Architecture, fashion
and art. Its ability to create complex shapes with intricate details and its potential for rapid
prototyping make it a versatile and transformative technology.
BIOPRINTING
Bioprinting is an innovative thing to fabricate 3D structures that mimic the architecture and
functionality of natural tissues organs. Functional and viable living tires and organs produced
by bio printing can be in medical and pharmaceutical fields. They can be used for organ
transplantation, disease modelling, drug testing, drug development and other areas of clinical
research.
3D bio-printing is an additive manufacturing technique in which compatible materials are
deposited by a 3D printer in a layer-by-layer fashion to fabricate 3D tissues and organs. Variety
of 3D his printing technologies and variety of raw materials are available for fabrication of 3D

tissues and organs. This selection of raw material and printing technique for bio-printing
process is based on the type of organ being printed and its application.
BIOPRINTING PROCESS
The printing is an advanced technology that combines bio-printing with biology to create
complex structures made of living evils. The following steps are involved in a bio-printing
process:
1. In the first step, a digital 3D model of the tissue or organ to be printed in a computer.
Advanced computer-aided design (CAD) is used to design the structure. It is designed
carefully taking into account the desired shape, size and internal architecture of the
organ.
2. Then the 3D digital model is sliced into thin cross-sectional layers using software. Each
layer represents a l loves virtual “slice” of the final object. A set of instructions required
to print each layer is provide for the 3D printer.
3. The printer is loaded with bio ink containing cells, biomaterials and bioactive factors
required for the printing.
4. The 3D printer follows the instructions from the slicer software to print the object layer
by layer.
5. The bioink is precisely placed to create the desired 3D structure. Each layer is deposited
with precision, and the printed structure gradually takes the shape of desired tissue or
organ.
6. After bioprinting, the printed structure is typically cultural under controlled conditions
to allow the cells to mature differentiate, and organize into actional tissue-like
structures. This maturation press helps cells to get adjusted to the host environment and
to improve overall compatibility and functionality of tissues.
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MATERIALS USED IN BIO-PRINTING
Bio printers use a special type of "ink" in the bio printing process called as bio ink. Bio-ink is
a printable medium containing variety of materials like living cells, nutrients, growth factors
and bioactive molecules. Bio-inks provide natural environment for the living cells and facilitate
their survival, growth and differentiation. The composition of bio-ink depends on the type of
tissue being printed.
Some of the common materials used in his printing ink are briefly described below:
1. Hydrogels: Hydrogel is a soft, flexible jelly-like substance that can retain high amount of
water. Hydrogels can be synthesized from natural polymers like agar cellulose, collagen and
synthetic polymers like polyacrylamide polyvinyl alcohol and polyethylene glycol. Hydrogels
provides a 3D structure and environment for living cells to arrive and grow. They also provide
extracellular matrix (ECM) and mechanical support to 3D printed organs and tissues ECM
mimics the natural environment of cells in tissues and organs and enhances cell attachment,

differentiation, and overall tissue formation. Hence, hydrogel is used as the major component
used in bio-ink for bio-printing of organs and tissues.
2. Synthetic Polymers: Synthetic polymers are commonly used in bio ink to customise
properties. Various polymers used in bio-ink help in controlling mechanical strength,
degradation rate, and cell interaction in bio ink and printed organs. Common examples for the
polymers and in bio ink for this purpose are polyethylene glycol (PEG), polycaprolactone
(PCL), and poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA).
3. Cells: Cells are the building blocks of tissues and organs. The primary living component
used in bio ink is living cells. Living cells required for printing of organ and are taken from the
patient or from the compatible donor. These cells are chosen hand on their compatibility with
the target organ and their ability to proliferate and differentiate. Cells are mixed into the
hydrogel to create a functional bio-ink.
4. Bioactive Molecules: Other bio-active molecules like cytokines, growth factors are also
added to bio ink. These molecules are critical for guiding the development of the printed tissue.
Cytokine molecules regulate various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation,
inflammation, and immune response. They can enhance the development and functionality of
printed tissues by providing important biological cues to the cells. Growth factors are proteins
that help cells to grow and multiply. They are essential for the bio-printed structure to develop
and mature.
5. Cross Linking Agents: Cross-linking agents are used to solidify the bio-ink and maintain
the desired shape after printing is completed. These agents undergo cross-linking chemical
reactions with the hydrogel and create a stable solid structure.
6. Nanoparticles: Nanoparticles can be incorporated into bio-inks for various purpose, such as
enhancing all when delivering drugs, or improving the mechanical properties of the printed
organs. Examples include nanoparticles of metals, ceramics, or polymers.
BIOPRINTING TECHNIQUES
There are several bio printing techniques that have been developed to create 3D bio materials.
Few of these techniques are briefly described below:
1. Fused deposition modelling (FDM): This is one of the oldest techniques is 3D
printing. In this method, printer heats thermoplastic into molten form. Melted plastic
filament is extruded through the printer's nozzle which can move in the x, y and z
directions. The material solidifies as it is deposited layer by layer. Each layer of material
deposited, fuses with the layer beneath it. This layer-by-layer deposition process creates
a 3D object. Main drawback of this method is it requires heat and living cells are not
compatible with the heat generated in the process.
2. Stereo-lithography (SLA): This technology is used to produce highly detailed and
accurate parts with high resolution and smooth surface finishes. In this method a liquid
photopolymer ream is used. The main is photo-curable resin which is sensitive to UV

light and can solidify when exposed to heat of specific wavelengths. The resin is
deposited as per the pattern and a UV laser is directed on the surface of the resin, tracing
the pattern. The laser's energy causes the resin se solidify and harden at the desired
locations. The main disadvantage of this method is UV light
3. Inkjet Bio-printing: This technique is similar to the way inlet printers work, but
instead of ink, it deposits tiny droplets of bio ink (cell-containing material) onto a
substrate in precise pattern. The bio-ink is composed of living cells suspended in a
supportive hydrogel. These droplets form layers that finally build up to 3D structure.
The main advantages of this method are acceptable cost, compatibility with living
materials and the high speed of construction of bio-ink droplets.
4. Extrusion-Based Bio-printing: In this method, bio ink is extruded through a fine
nozzle or syringe to create complex tissue like structures. The nozzle moves in a
programmed path to deposit the bio ink layer by layer, forming the desired 3D structure.
3D PRINTING OF EAR
Making new ears or correcting damaged car through plastic surgery by surgeon is very difficult.
Because, they need to use a person's own cartilage for this which can be absorbed by the body
and the place where they take it from can also have issues. Use of Artificial Implants made of
silicone or polyethylene for ears is also risky. They may cause infections or rejection by body.
By 3D printing, very detailed ear shapes can be bio-printed. The printed ear tissue must have
cells, a scaffold (support structure), and an environment that's similar to natural ear cartilage in
the body. Bio ink used in 3D printing of ear mainly consists of:
1. Hydrogels: Hydrogels 3D network of natural or synthetic polymers which can hold water
and provide medium for cells. Hydrogels act as carriers for cells and provides temporary matrix
(structure) outside cells, called the extracellular matrix (ECM), which helps in making different
tissues.
Cells required for generation of ear are called as Chondrocytes. These cells grow and
proliferate best in a highly aqueous hydrogel made of natural polymers like gelatin. collagen,
chitosan, alginate agarose nano-fibrillated cellulose, silk fibroin. Hydrogels from natural
polymers do not possess sufficient mechanical strength. Therefore, to provide mechanically
strong extracellular matrix synthetic polymers such as poly caprolactone (PCL), poly glycolic
acid (PGA), poly L-lactic acid (PLA) and methacrylate are also used in the ear cartilage hoe-
printing process.
2. Living Cells: The cell sources commonly preferred for 3D ear printing are primary
chondrocytes and stem cells Primary chondrocytes a provide natural extracellular matrix
(ECM). But they can be obtained only in a small amount frum doner sites and have low
proliferation rate. Stem cells are available easily and can proliferate easily. But they should be
carefully directed to differentiate into chondrocytes in the hydrogel.

3. Bio-active molecules: These molecules play an important role during the period of cells
growing into functional tissues. They provide guidance and bioactive cues to chondrocytes and
stem cells to differentiate and proliferate. Chrondroitin sulfate and hyaluronic acid are 2
examples of bioactive molecules.
Inkjet bio-printing method is also used to fabricate tissue with strong mechanical properties.
3D PRINTING OF BONE
When the human bone is slightly damaged, it has the ability to self-repair and regenerate. But,
when the damage is severe, it requires artificial repair. Ideally, the damaged bone can be
transplanted by bones taken from other parts of the patient. But there is practical difficulty for
this due to limited availability of transplantable bones at the donor site of patients and also the
possible complications at the donor site after transplantation.
3D printing of bone offers a solution for these problems 3D printing techniques can be used to
fabricate bone structures required in medical field for bone reconstruction, regeneration, and
customization. Main significance and applications of 3D printing of bone are:
1. Bone defects caused by trauma, disease, or congenital conditions often require patient
specific bone grafts for repair. By 3D printing, custom-made bone grafts that match the
patient's needs can be created. The intricate strictures of the graft can be created similar to
natural bone, promoting bone regeneration and integration.
2. By 3D printing patient specific implants can be fabricated. The design and fabrication of
implants can be tailored to an individual patient's anatomy, ensuring a better fit and
reducing the risk of implant failure.
3. 3D printing of bone can be used in fracture treatment in complex cases. For example, when
the reconstruction of highly precise facial bones with restoration of both function and
aesthetics is needed, 3D printing of bone is employed.
Materials and methods used in 3D printing of bones
Human bone is a composite material with 60% inorganic components, 30% organic materials,
mainly hydroxyapatite and collagen, 5-10% water and 3% lipid. Therefore, in the fabrication
of bones by 3D printing technology, composite materials are commonly used. Main materials
used in 3D printing of bone are given below:
1. Inorganic Materials
a) Metals: Titanium and its alloys which exhibit high strength, low density, low modulus of
elasticity, non-biodegradability, and bio inertness. Magnesium and its alloys which exhibit high
strength, low density, good rigidity, good degradability but poor corrosion resistance.
b) Inorganic biomaterials and bio-ceramics like hydroxyapatite and β-tricalcium phosphate
which are biocompatible.
2. Organic materials

a) Natural polymers like Gelatin, Collagen, Hyaluronic acid Chitosan, Poly (lactic-co-glycolic
acid) (PLGA) and Polycaprolactone (PCI which are biocompatible, non-immunogenic and
biodegradable).
3D Printing methods commonly employed for fabrication of bones are fun deposition
modelling stereo lithography, and selective laser sintering.
In laser methods like stereo lithography and selective laser sintering, the laser is used to locally
melt the material powder and the three-dimensional parts were formed o through layer-by-layer
stocking Post-printing 3D material is processed to obtain implantable bone graft. These
methods can print parts with complicated shapes. The surface quality of the parts is good with
high mechanical properties However, the equipment is large in size, high in energy
consumption, requires a special environment and is high in cost
In the fusion deposition modelling method, the material is melted by heating t the spray head.
The spray head moves along three directions and extrudes the melted material at the same time,
stacking layer by layer. In this method the equipment volume is relatively small sample to use,
low in cost and does not need a special environment. However, the surface of the printed
product is relatively high, and the printing speed is slow.
3D PRINTING OF SKIN
Having healthy skin is really important for a healthy life. When skin is damaged due burns,
accidents, new healing us and deep wounds, it need treatment. Conventional treatment of skin
injuries is through transplantation of the skin taken from other part of patient or from donor.
3D printing is new technology by which skin required for transplant a created easily in lesser
time and cost. It is used to reconstruct the injured skin layer by layer taking inputs from
computer aided design (CAD) model. Different biomaterials and cells are used as starting
materials for 3D his printing of skin.
Human skin is one of the largest organs which can sense pressure, temperature and pain. It is
made up of several types of cells and has multiple layers with a well-defined structure There
are three layers in the skin:
a) Epidermis: This is the outermost layer of the skin which provide barrier and makes our skin
tone.
b) Dermis: It contains connective tissue, sweat glands and hair follicles.
c) Hypodermis: This is a deeper subcutaneous tissue that is made of fat and connective tissues.
A skin like part by 3D bio-printing, a bio-ink is carefully using specific biomaterials and
multiple cells types. Bio-ink used is a mixture of hydrogels of naturals polymers like fibrin,
collagen and alginate. It also contains perfect mixture of proteins, cells and other biological
components.

Inkjet 3D printing and laser assist 3D printing methods are commonly used for skin printing
Steps involved in in situ bio-printing of skin is given below:
a) In the first step, markers are placed around the skin damaged area as reference points and
then imaging of skin damaged area is created using different scanning technologies like CT,
MRI and 3D scanners.
b) This data is converted into 3D digital model using different software like mimics. 3D slicers
etc and create an accurate 3D model of the damaged skin.
c) Then bio-ink is prepared using required biomaterials and cells.
d) Output code is then provided from the computer to the custom bio printer to print skin.
e) Printed skin is post processed, which involves tissue maturation in a bioreactor and is finally
tested.
f) This tested skin is easily implanted in the patient body.
3D PRINTED FOOD
3D printed food refers to the edible items created using 3D printing technology. Pizza vending
machines that entered into market in the year 2015 can be considered as a primitive 3D food
printing process. In this machine, the dough is prepared, extruded. topped with tomato sauce
and cheese, and finally sent to the oven-all within the same machine.
Now, several 3D food printers are available in the market and in future every household kitchen
will be equipped with its own food 3D printer:
In 3D printing of food items, 3D printers and food safe materials are used to create intricate
and customized food items layer by layer. There are many advantages and potentials of this 3D
technology:
a) In 3D printing, shape, texture, and composition of food can be precisely controlled This
enables chefs and food manufacturers to create unique customized and personalized dishes. For
example, chocolates can be created with intricate and detailed shapes, such as flowers, animals,
and even people 3D printed desserts can be made with different types of cakes, cookies, and
ice cream, 3D printed candy can be made with different types of sugar, chocolate and nuts.
b) The nutritional content of foods can be adjusted to meet specific dietary requirements.
c) Chefs and culinary artists can use 3D printers to craft visually stunning and intricate food
designs which are not possible with traditional cooking methods.
d) Food can be produced as per the required quantity and hence, food waste can be reduced.
e) Alternative Ingredients: 3D printing could facilitate the use of alternative and sustainable
ingredients, such as insect-based proteins or algae, which might be less palatable in their
original forms.

The most commonly used process for 3D printing food material is extrusion method like fused
deposition modelling This method requires inputs in the form of paste and viscous liquids. The
raw material is fed into a printer container with syringe-like nozzle. The viscous material is
deposited onto a surface layer to create a final 3D food item.
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Main applications of 3D printing of food are:
a) 3D printed foods like chocolates, pastries, pasta, candies, and even more complex items like
pizzas or burgers can be designed in varieties of design, shape, and structure.
b) It is used for gourmet dining and in fancy bakeries. Gourmet dining is a type of dining that
emphasizes high quality ingredients, creative dishes, and impeccable service. The dishes are
often presented in an artiste and visually appealing way.
c) It is used to design plant-based meat called meat analogues, mimicking the texture of the
real meat.
Technology of 3D printed food is still in its early stages and faces several challenges. With
active research and development in future technology will be more accessible.
ELECTRONIC TONGUE (e- TONGUE) AND ELECTRONIC NOSE (e-
NOSE) IN FOOD SCIENCE
Electronic tongue and electronic nose are electronic sensing devices used to taste and smell the
food items respectively. They mimic the taste and smell functions of human tongue and use
These devices use number of seniors to detect and identify various compounds in food and
beverages.
The human nose can identify many odours. Each type of odour can be due to individual
chemical components present: An electronic none is a system designed to mimic the human
sense of smell. It consists of an array of sensors that respond to volatile organic compounds
(VOC) released by foods, beverages, or other substances Each sensor has a detector, which
interacts selectively with chemical component and produces an electrical signal. Produced
signal is processed by a signal processor. By analysing the patterns of sensor responses au
electric use can identity and classify different odours.
An electronic tongue consists of an array of sensors and can detect chemical compounds related
to taste such as sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. In principle electron tongues function in a similar
way to the “electronic nose”. When a food or beverage sample is introduced to the electronic
tongue, the sensers generate specific responses based on the taste compounds present. These
responses are then processed to create a “taste profile” that can be used to assess the quality,
authenticity and composition of the sample.
There are many advantages with electronic tongue and nose. They are non-destructive, which
means that they do not damage the food being analysed. They are also small in size, rapid and

sensitive, which makes them ideal for real-time monitoring of food quality. And also, they can
be used to analyse a wide variety of food products.
Due to these sensing abilities electronic tongue and nose find applications in the food industry
for the food quality control food safety assessment, and in the development of new food
products. The main applications of electronic tongue and nose are given below:
1. Assessment of quality of food products, such as milk, wine, and meat based on taste and
aroma profiles.
2. Detection of adulteration in food products.
3. Detection of spoilage or contamination in perishable products.
4. Monitoring the ripeness or spoilage of fruits and vegetables.
5. Monitoring the freshness of packaged goods.
6. Determining the authenticity and origin of food products.
7. Optimizing flavour formulations in the food and beverage industry.
8. They can be used to detect the presence of foodborne pathogens which helps to prevent food
poisoning outbreaks.
9. They can be used to develop new food products with specific flavour profiles. This
information can be used to create more appealing and nutritious food products.
10. They can be used in analysis and quality control for determining the nature and extent of
food adulteration.
Both electronic tongues and noses are still under development, but they have the potential to
revolutionize food science in future.
DNA ORIGAMI
"Origami" refers to a traditional Japanese art form in which various shapes and designs are
created just by folding paper without using cuts or glue. The word "origami" comes from the
Japan words "or" meaning "fold" and "kami," meaning "paper" By origami technique range of
materials from simple animals and objects to intricate and complex designs can be created.
Origami is also used as a way to study geometry and spatial relationships Origami has a rich
history and cultural significance in Japan, and it has gained popularity worldwide as a
recreational activity, educational tool and even a source of inspiration for various fields,
including science and engineering.
In recent years, the concept of origami has been extended beyond paper to other materials and
scales. This has led to the development of new field like “DNA origami”.
DNA origami is a modern application of the origami concept. In this technique. similar to
folding of paper. DNA strands are folded to create different nanostructures.

Majority of biological materials present in living cells are nanoscale materials They are
synthesized by a well guided self-assembly of smaller atoms and molecules This process of
building a nanoscale material by self-assembly of atoms and molecules is called as bottom-up
synthesis. There is a well-defined order and precision in the self-assembly. However, in the
synthetic methods used to prepare nanoscale materials, such a precision and controllability is
not possible.
DNA origami technology is an effective DNA nanotechnology technique used in bottom-up
fabrication of well-defined nanostructures. In this technique. DNA strands are self-assembled
at nanoscale to create complex and precise 2D and 3D nanostructures.
In DNA origami a ling DNA strand and hundreds of short DNA strands are folded to create
nanostructures. A long DNA strand contains and 7000 nucleotides and is called as scaffold.
Short DNA strands are called as staples. Scaffold is folded into specific shapes by attaching
staple strands at specific positions along the scaffold. Staple strands guide the folding process.
Each staple has multiple binding sites that bind and bring together distant regions of the
scaffold. This causes the scaffold to bend and twist into the desired shape.
A typical planar DNA origami structure with approximately 200 staples with unique sequences
and positions, can exhibit surface areas of 8000-10000 nm2
. Various types materials can be
placed on this high surface area. DNA origami structural frameworks at specific locations.
Materials like metal particles, silica, lipids, polymer coatings, and nano systems for nano-
photonic and nano-electronic devices can be placed over DNA origami structures. The
engineered dynamic DNA origami structures find various innovative applications. Few of their
application are given below:
1. Nanofabrication: DNA Origami structure here well-defined geometry at nano-scale.
The have been used as templates or frameworks for the assembly of diverse
nanomaterials.
2. Nano-photonics and nano-electronics: DNA origami templated structures exhibit
tuneable optical or electronic properties. Hence, they find applications is nano-
photonics and nano-electronics.
3. Bio-catalysis: DNA origami nanostructures provide an excellent platform for spatially
organizing enzymes which can catalyse many bio-chemical reactions
4. Computing: DNA is an information carrying molecule. Hence, DNA origami
structures are used for creating molecular computation and signalling networks.
DNA BIOCOMPUTING
In the present-day electronic computing digital circuits composed of transistors which are made
of silicon semiconducting materials are used. Information is processed and stored in binary
states (0s and 1s) using electrical voltage. Computation and data storing is based on the
movement of charge carriers (electrons) from one state to other state under the influence of
external field. The size of the transistors used in electronic computing is very close to minimum
level and further size reduction is not possible Therefore, practically it is not possible to further
reduce size of the computer and increase its processing speed. Hence, a new way of computing

is required to further reduce site of the computer and improve its speed. One very promising
approach is the bin computing device using deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) The actual DNA
computing work started with the storing of date on strands of DNA in 1990s with Leonard
Adelman presented the first prototype of a DNA computer, called the Testtube-100 (TT 100)
In 2019, researchers from Microsoft and the University of Washington demonstrated the first
fully automated system to store and retrieve data in manufactured DNA. They have managed
to store one gigabyte in DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the biomolecule which carries genetic information In DNA,
genetic coding is represented by four nucleotide bases: adenine (A) thymine (T), cytosine (C),
and guanine (G). When chained together, these four bits can hold an incredible amount of data.
The entire human genome is encoded in a very small space and packed into a single nucleus of
a cell. Hence, DNA can be utilized for computation due to its ability to store and process
information.
In DNA Bio-computing the complementary base pairing of nucleotides (adenine with thymine,
cytosine with guanine) is used to represent binary information (0s and 1s) Operations in DNA
computing involve encoding and manipulating information using DNA strands and
biochemical reactions DNA strands are used to encode the input, output, and intermediate data
for the computational process. The sequences of nucleotide bases in the DNA strands represent
specific pieces of information. The basic mechanism of DNA bio-computing is the strand
displacement reaction. In a strand displacement reaction, a single stranded DNA molecule (the
"input strand") hinds to a double stranded DNA molecule (the "target strand"). The input strand
then displaces one of the strands of the target strand, forming a new double-stranded DNA
molecule This process is similar to the base pairing of AT and C-G in DNA replication and
transcription. This strand displacement reaction can be used to perform a variety of logic
operations. For example, if the input strand has a sequence that matches a specific sequence on
the target strand, then the input strand will only be able to displace that strand. This can be used
to create a NOT gate, which inverts the input signal.
The main advantages of DNA computing are:
1. It is cheaper technology because DNA required for computing will be inexpensive to create.
2. DNA is easy to synthesize DNA naturally wants to reproduce, by harnessing this natural
tendency in an artificial environment, DNA required for bio computing can be produced easily.
3. DNA can perform countless calculations in parallel. DNA can perform numerous operations
simultaneously due to the parallel nature of biochemical reactions.
While, number of parallel computations that can be made by electronic computing in limited
DNA computing has almost no limit. This makes it ultrafast and incredibly powerful for
scenarios like machine learning.
4. DNA molecules can store vast amounts of information in a small space. Hence, they have
very high data storage density: Hence, size of the computer and data storage devices can be
reduced 6. DNA reactions occur at the molecular level, requiring minimal energy. Hence they
are highly energy efficient.

6. DNA computing has the potential to solve for complex problems compared to traditional
computers.
BIOIMAGING AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE FOR DISEASE
DIAGNOSIS
Bio imaging techniques are used to diagnose disease by visually examining biological
structures and processes within living organisms. These techniques provide detailed insights
into the anatomical and functional aspects of tissues and organs. These are used by doctors to
identify abnormalities, conditions, and diseases. Various imaging modalities are employed to
capture detailed information about tissues, organs unit cells. Few of the commonly used
bioimaging technique and their applications are briefly given below:
1. X-ray Imaging: This technique uses X-rays to create images of the internal structures
of the body, commonly used for detecting one fractures and lung issues.
2. Angiography: Angiography is utilized to discover heart artery blockages, new vessel
development, and arrangement of catheters and stents.
3. Dual X-beam Absorptiometry (DEXA): It is also called as bone densitometry which is
utilized for osteoporosis tests.
4. Computed Tomography (CT): CT scale involves the use of X-rays to create creational
image of the bods, providing detailed insights into various delicate and hard tissues.
5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): MRI utilizes strong magnetic fields and radio
waves to generate detailed images of soft tissues, such as the brain muscles, and organs.
6. Ultrasound: Ultrasound imaging us high frequency sound waves to create images of
internal body structures. It is often used for visualizing pregnancies and abdominal
organs.
7. Positron Emission Tomography (PET): PET scans involve the injection of radiative
tracer to visualize metabolic process within the body helping cancer detection and
neurological studies.
Doctors use imaging techniques to diagnose diseases. After image acquisition, the doctor
interprets the images to identify any abnormalities. This process involves careful observation
of the structures and tissue depicted in the images. The doctor uses their expertise to recognize
patterns, anomalies, and any indications of disease. They compare the images to their
knowledge of normal anatomy and known pathological conditions. They back for specific
patterns, such as the appearance of tumors, inflammation, blockages, or structural
abnormalities. Based on the observed patterns and findings, doctors create a list of possible
disease. This is known as a "differential diagnosis where multiple potential conditions are
considered. Doctors combine the imaging results with the patient's clinical history, symptoms
and laboratory test results to narrow down the list of possible diagnoses. In complex cases or
when a definitive diagnosis is challenging doctors may consult with other medical specialists
or radiologists to gain additional insights and expertise. Once a diagnosis is made or strongly
suspected, the doctor develops a treatment plan. This plan may involve further tests,
procedures, or treatments tailored to the specific disease or condition.

Some of the examples of using of AI technology in disease diagnosis are:
1. AI powered algorithms are being used to identify breast cancer mammograms with a
higher degree of accuracy than human radiologists.
2. AI is being used to detect diabetic retinopathy using data of eye scan. This is the main
leading cause of blindness.
3. AI is being and to identify Alzheimer's disease in brain scans.
4. AI being used to predict the risk of heart attack and stroke. AI is being used to
personalize cancer treatment for individual patients.
Even though AI technology possess an many advantages, there are few drawbacks:
1. AI may struggle with complex cases that require a deep understanding of medical
context.
2. AI lacks the clinical judgment empathy, and understanding that doctors possess.
3. AI's performance heavily relies on the quality and diversity of the training data. Hence,
AI technology cannot be used as a replacement for doctors. However, it can
complement their expertise and helps them to enhance patient care Doctors and Al can
collaborate to enhance disease diagnosis using bio-imaging techniques. Al aida doctors
by providing efficient and accurate analyses of medical images, enabling mere timely
and precise treatment decisions.
BIOCONCRETE (BIOMINERALIZATION, SELF-HEALING
PROCESSES BASED ON BACILLUS SPORES, AND CALCIUM
LACTATE NUTRIENTS)
Concrete is common construction material used in the construction of buildings dams, storage
tanks seaports, roads, bridges, tunnels, subways and other infrastructures. It is prepared by
mixing appropriate amount of cement, water, and aggregates (coarse and fine). Cement binds
the aggregates and fills the voids between coarse and fine particles Concrete as a material is
known for its availability, simple preparation, low cost, high compressive strength, durability,
compatibility with aggregates and iron bar.
One of the major disadvantages of concrete is its high tendency to form cracks. Cracks are one
of the main causes of concrete deterioration and decrease in durability Cracks are formed in
hardened states due to weathering, drying shrinkage, thermal stress, error in design and
detailing chemical reaction, constant overload and external load.
Cracks formation can be a serious risk to concrete lifespan in the long term. The direct cost of
crack repair and maintenance has been estimated to be higher than that of concrete production.
Therefore, it is essential to prevent crack formation at early stage.
There are two types of treatments used to fill cracks:
1. Passive treatment: In this treatment, cracks are detected and sealants in the form of chemical
mixtures and polymers are either injected or sprayed into the cracks These can heal only the
surface cracks. These sealers usually comprise chemical materials such as epoxy resins,

chlorinated rubbers, waxes, polyurethane, acrylics and siloxane Chemical sealers suffer from
major limitations like poor weather resistance, moisture sensitivity and low heat resistance,
unsustainability.
2. Active treatment: Active treatment techniques are also known as self-healing techniques. In
this concept, certain microorganisms and nutrients are incorporated into the concrete mixture
during construction After the construction, over a period of time, when a crack is formed, self-
healing is activated immediately and the concrete material to repairs itself. This type of
concrete which is capable of self- healing itself through biological process is called as self-
healing bio-concrete. It is an innovative and sustainable solution in the field of construction
materials. It integrates biological processes into concrete to enhance its durability and
longevity.
Among all the techniques available for healing cracks in concrete, biological healing process
is the most promising way. Calcium carbonate is one of the most suitable fillers to seal cracks
in the concrete. It is similar to cement and hence has high compatibility with concrete. In bio-
mineralization process, bacteria consume calcium source and produces calcium carbonate as
the metabolic product. There are many biomineralization processes available to produce
calcium carbonate using different calcium sources, bacteria and conditions.
One common method is metabolic conversion of organic compound such as calcium lactate to
calcium carbonate using Bacillus bacteria. Bacillus bacteria, particularly Bacillus subtilis are
commonly used in self-healing bio-concrete. These bacteria are known for their ability to form
spores, which are highly resistant to harsh environmental conditions. These bacteria consume
organic compounds as a source of energy for their growth.
In self-healing bio-concrete, Calcium lactate and Bacillus subtilis spores are mixed with
concrete mixture. Over the period of time, the concrete may develop micro- cracks due to
factors such as shrinkage, thermal expansion, or external forces. Water enters the cracks and
reactivates the dormant Bacillus spores. These bacteria then start consuming the calcium lactate
nutrients and oxygen. Aerobic oxidation of calcium lactate leads to the production of calcium
carbonate and carbon dioxide as metabolic products. Metabolic conversion of calcium lactate
to calcium carbonate in the presence of oxygen is shown in the below equation:
Ca(C6H10O6) + 6O2 CaCO3 + 5CO2 + 5H2O
The produced calcium carbonate functions as a mineral binder. It starts to fill the cracks and
gaps within the concrete structure. This bio-mineralization process helps to repair the cracks
and restore the concrete's integrity. Water produced in the reaction can react with available
calcium oxide in the concrete matrix and can further contributes to the increase of autogenous
healing of concrete. The healing process can take time, depending on the size and extent of the
cracks. Smaller cracks can be healed relatively quickly, while larger cracks might take longer
to repair.
The main advantage of this method is consumption of oxygen by bacteria and production of
calcium carbonate without formation of ammonium, or chloride ions. Chemicals like oxygen,
ammonium, and chloride are capable of penetrating into concrete and can cause corrosion of

reinforcement iron bars. Thus, in this method, cracks in the concrete are healed by calcium
carbonate produced in higher concentration without causing corrosion of reinforcement iron
bars.
There are several benefits of using self-healing bio-concrete:
a) Self-healing concretes can improve the overall durability and longevity of concrete
structures.
b) Self-healing concrete reduce the cost of frequent repairs and maintenance.
c) Self-healing concretes repair the cracks automatically at an early stage, and prevent any
accidents due to sudden collapse of concrete structures.
BIOREMEDIATION via MICROBIAL SURFACE ADSORPTION
(REMOVAL OF HEAVY METALS LIKE LEAD, CADMIUM, MERCURY,
ARSENIC)
Heavy metals like lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic are known to be toxic to humans and
the environment. These metals have ability to accumulate in living organisms, and cause
adverse health effects even at low concentrations. They can cause neurological damage,
cardiovascular diseases, kidney dysfunction reproductive problems and cancer Human
activities, such as industrial processes, mining, and improper waste disposal, are responsible
for release of these metals into the air water and soil. From there, these pollutants can then
enter the food chain, affecting human health and ecosystems.
Efforts are being made to prevent the release and remove of heavy metals. Few of them are:
a) Imposition of strict regulations on emissions.
b) Development of proper waste disposal practices.
c) The development of technologies for removing heavy metals from contaminated sites.
Among the various technologies that have been developed to remove heavy metals from
contaminated sites, bio remediation is an important one. Bioremediation means clean-up of
polluted environment through transformation of toxic heavy metals into less toxic form using
microorganisms. Bio remediation is used to remove toxic heavy metals from contaminated soil,
groundwater, and surface water.
Microbial surface adsorption is one of the only techniques for bioremediation. In microbial
surface adsorption, certain microorganisms like bacteria, fungus or algae which exhibit specific
affinity towards heavy metal are chosen. Some of the microorganisms that have been shown to
be effective in removing heavy metals through microbial surface adsorption are:
a) Bacteria: Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli
b) Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans.
c) Fungi: Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenum.

The selected microorganisms are introduced to the contaminated site where they grow and
colonize. Then, they bind the heavy metals on to their cell surfaces. Binding between metal and
cell surface can be through a variety of mechanisms as described below:
1. The bio-sorption of heavy metals is mainly achieved through cell wall functional
groups. The cell wall is negatively charged as a result of functional groups such as
phosphate, carboxyl, carbonyl, sulfhydryl and hydroxyl groups. These can bind toxic
metals to form insoluble substances.
2. Cations such as Na+
and K+
present in cell walls of microorganisms can exchange toxic
heavy metals like Lead, Cadmium, Arsenic and Mercury on the outer layer.
3. The cell wall is composed of organic macromolecules, such as polysaccharides,
polypeptides and proteins which can adsorb heavy metals via electrostatic forces, Van
der Waals forces, and covalent bonds.
4. Heavy metals may get deposited on the micro-fibrous porous structure of the cell wall
and embedded in the cell wall before entering the cell.
Removal of heavy toxic metals from source by bioremediation occurs through combination of
more than one mechanism described above. The heavy metals adsorbed on the surface of
microorganisms are either removed along with the microorganisms or are stabilized on the
microorganism surfaces, reducing their mobility and potential for harm.
The microbial surface adsorption in particularly effective for heavy metal removal from soil
and water, as well as for treating industrial wastewater contaminated with various pollutants.
However, it might be limited by factors such as the availability of suitable microorganisms and
the concentration of contaminants in the environment.
BIO-MINING
In traditional mining, ores containing metals are physically extracted from the Earth's crust and
then metals are extracted from ores through various chemical processes. Traditional mining
procedures are not environmentally friendly. They result in deforestation, soil erosion, habitat
destruction, water pollution, and the release of greenhouse gases and other waste materials.
Bio-mining is a biotechnological process in which microorganisms such as acidophilic bacteria
or archaea are used to extract metals from their ores. These microorganisms are capable of
breaking down and solubilizing metal compounds in the ores. Examples for the acidophilic
bacteria are acidithiobacillus, acidiphilium spp. Examples for the archaea are ferroplasma
acidiphilum, acidiplasma cupricumulans, metallosphaers spp etc.
Bio-mining is also used to process electronic wastes, and to selectively recover metals from
waste water.
Bio-mining is used mainly to extract copper from their copper sulfide ores. It is also commonly
used in extraction and recovery of other base metals such as gold, silver cobalt, nickel and zinc.
About 15% of copper, Ms of gold and smaller amounts of nickel, silver, cobalt and zinc are

produced globally using bin mining technology Bio-mining is also used to extract metals from
low grade ores that would not be economically viable to mine using traditional methods
In contrast to traditional mining, his mining is much more environmentally benign (green)
approach. It operates at atmospheric pressure and at normal. temperatures (20-50°C) and hence
at lower cost. Microorganisms used in bio-mining processes are autotrophs is they fix carbon
dioxide, much in the same way as green plants.
Main steps involved in his mining process are:
1. In the first step, the mineral ore is crushed into smaller particles.
2. Specific microorganisms like acidophilic bacteria or archaea, are introduced to the
crushed ore.
3. These microorganisms grow and colonize in the medium. Then they adhere to the
surface of the mineral particles. They use their metabolic processes to oxidize the
minerals and generate acid as by product.
4. The acid generated by the micro-organisms dissolves ores and releasing metal ions into
the surrounding solution.
5. The metal-rich solution is known as a leachate. Various separation and purification
techniques are used to process and recover valuable metals from leachate.
The adhesion of microbes on to the mineral surface which is called as microbial surface
adsorption is the main step in bio mining. Microbial cells can form biofilms on the mineral
particles, creating a protective environment where they can efficiently carry out their metabolic
activities. Acids produced as metabolic by products of the microorganisms, aid in the
breakdown of minerals and subsequent release of metals in to solution increases its surface area
and makes it more accessible to microbial interactions.

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