Monetary Systems

THE MEANING OF MONEY Money is the set of assets in an economy that people regularly use to buy goods and services from other people. Money has three functions in the economy: Medium of exchange Unit of account Store of value Medium of Exchange A medium of exchange is an item that buyers give to sellers when they want to purchase goods and services. A medium of exchange is anything that is readily acceptable as payment.

The Functions of Money Unit of Account A unit of account is the yardstick people use to post prices and record debts. Store of Value A store of value is an item that people can use to transfer purchasing power from the present to the future. Liquidity Liquidity is the ease with which an asset can be converted into the economy’s medium of exchange .

The Kinds of Money Commodity money takes the form of a commodity with intrinsic value. Examples: Gold, silver, cigarettes. Fiat money is used as money because of government decree. It does not have intrinsic value. Examples: Coins, currency, check deposits. Banks can influence the quantity of demand deposits in the economy and the money supply .

BANKS AND THE MONEY SUPPLY Reserves are deposits that banks have received but have not loaned out. In a fractional-reserve banking system, banks hold a fraction of the money deposited as reserves and lend out the rest. Reserve Ratio The reserve ratio is the fraction of deposits that banks hold as reserves.

Money Creation with Fractional-Reserve Banking When a bank makes a loan from its reserves, the money supply increases. The money supply is affected by the amount deposited in banks and the amount that banks lent out. Deposits into a bank are recorded as both assets and liabilities. The fraction of total deposits that a bank has to keep as reserves is called the reserve ratio . Loans become an asset to the bank.

Money Creation with Fractional-Reserve Banking This T-Account shows a bank that … accepts deposits, keeps a portion as reserves, and lends out the rest. It assumes a reserve ratio of 10%. Assets Liabilities First National Bank Reserves $10.00 Loans $90.00 Deposits $100.00 Total Assets $100.00 Total Liabilities $100.00

Money Creation with Fractional-Reserve Banking When one bank loans money, that money is generally deposited into another bank. This creates more deposits and more reserves to be lent out. When a bank makes a loan from its reserves, the money supply increases. How much money is eventually created in this economy? The money multiplier is the amount of money the banking system generates with each dollar of reserves.

The Money Multiplier Assets Liabilities Second National Bank Reserves $9.00 Loans $81.00 Deposits $90.00 Total Assets $90.00 Total Liabilities $90.00 Money Supply = $190.00! Assets Liabilities First National Bank Reserves $10.00 Loans $90.00 Deposits $100.00 Total Assets $100.00 Total Liabilities $100.00

The Money Multiplier The money multiplier is the reciprocal of the reserve ratio: M = 1/R With a reserve requirement, R = 20% or 1/5, The multiplier is 5. The Federal bank has three tools in its monetary toolbox: Open-market operations Changing the reserve requirement Changing the discount rate

The Fed’s Tools of Monetary Control Open-Market Operations The Fed conducts open-market operations when it buys government bonds from or sells government bonds to the public: When the Fed buys government bonds, the money supply increases. The money supply decreases when the Fed sells government bonds. Reserve Requirements The Fed also influences the money supply with reserve requirements . Reserve requirements are regulations on the minimum amount of reserves that banks must hold against deposits.

The Fed’s Tools of Monetary Control Changing the Reserve Requirement The reserve requirement is the amount (%) of a bank’s total reserves that may not be loaned out. Increasing the reserve requirement decreases the money supply. Decreasing the reserve requirement increases the money supply. Changing the Discount Rate The discount rate is the interest rate the Fed charges banks for loans. Increasing the discount rate decreases the money supply. Decreasing the discount rate increases the money supply.

MONEY GROWTH and INFLATION Chapter -30

The Meaning of Money Money is the set of assets in an economy that people regularly use to buy goods and services from other people. Inflation is an increase in the overall level of prices. Hyperinflation is an extraordinarily high rate of inflation. People hold money because it is the medium of exchange. The amount of money people choose to hold depends on the prices of goods and services.

THE CLASSICAL THEORY OF INFLATION The quantity theory of money is used to explain the long-run determinants of the price level and the inflation rate . Inflation is an economy-wide phenomenon that concerns the value of the economy’s medium of exchange. When the overall price level rises, the value of money falls.

Figure 1 Money Supply, Money Demand, and the Equilibrium Price Level Copyright © 2004 South-Western Quantity of Money Value of Money, 1 / P Price Level, P 0 1 (Low) (High) (High) (Low) 1 / 2 1 / 4 3 / 4 1 1.33 2 4 Quantity fixed by the Fed Money supply Equilibrium value of money Equilibrium price level Money demand A

Figure 2 The Effects of Monetary Injection Copyright © 2004 South-Western Quantity of Money Value of Money, 1 / P Price Level, P 0 1 (Low) (High) (High) (Low) 1 / 2 1 / 4 3 / 4 1 1.33 2 4 Money demand M 1 MS 1 M 2 MS 2 2. . . . decreases the value of money y . . . 3. . . . and increases the price level. 1. An increase in the money supply . . . A B

THE CLASSICAL THEORY OF INFLATION The Quantity Theory of Money How the price level is determined and why it might change over time is called the quantity theory of money. The quantity of money available in the economy determines the value of money. The primary cause of inflation is the growth in the quantity of money .

The Classical Dichotomy and Monetary Neutrality Nominal variables are variables measured in monetary units. Real variables are variables measured in physical units. According to some economists, real economic variables do not change with changes in the money supply. According to the classical dichotomy , different forces influence real and nominal variables. Changes in the money supply affect nominal variables but not real variables .

The Classical Dichotomy and Monetary Neutrality The irrelevance of monetary changes for real variables is called monetary neutrality . The velocity of money refers to the speed at which the typical currency unit travels around the economy from wallet to wallet . V = (P  Y)/M Where: V = velocity P = the price level Y = the quantity of output M = the quantity of money

Velocity and the Quantity Equation Rewriting the equation gives the quantity equation: M  V = P  Y The quantity equation relates the quantity of money ( M ) to the nominal value of output ( P  Y ). The quantity equation shows that an increase in the quantity of money in an economy must be reflected in one of three other variables: the price level must rise, the quantity of output must rise, or the velocity of money must fall.

Figure 3 Nominal GDP, the Quantity of Money, and the Velocity of Money Copyright © 2004 South-Western Indexes (1960 = 100) 2,000 1,000 500 0 1,500 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Nominal GDP Velocity M2

Velocity and the Quantity Equation The Equilibrium Price Level, Inflation Rate, and the Quantity Theory of Money The velocity of money is relatively stable over time. When the Fed changes the quantity of money, it causes proportionate changes in the nominal value of output (P  Y). Because money is neutral, money does not affect output.

The Inflation Tax When the government raises revenue by printing money , it is said to levy an inflation tax. An inflation tax is like a tax on everyone who holds money. The inflation ends when the government institutes fiscal reforms such as cuts in government spending.

The Fisher Effect & Cost of Inflation The Fisher effect refers to a one-to-one adjustment of the nominal interest rate to the inflation rate. According to the Fisher effect, when the rate of inflation rises, the nominal interest rate rises by the same amount. The real interest rate stays the same. A Fall in Purchasing Power? Inflation does not in itself reduce people’s real purchasing power.

THE COSTS OF INFLATION Shoeleather costs … resources wasted ….inflation encourages people … reduce money holdings. Inflation reduces the real value of money, so people have an incentive to minimize their cash holdings. Less cash requires more frequent trips to the bank to withdraw money from interest-bearing accounts. The actual cost of reducing your money holdings is the time and convenience you must sacrifice to keep less money on hand. Also, extra trips to the bank take time away from productive activities.

Menu Costs Menu costs are the costs of adjusting prices. During inflationary times, it is necessary to update price lists and other posted prices. This is a resource-consuming process that takes away from other productive activities. Inflation distorts relative prices. Consumer decisions are distorted, and markets are less able to allocate resources to their best use.

Inflation-Induced Tax Distortion Inflation exaggerates the size of capital gains and increases the tax burden on this type of income. With progressive taxation, capital gains are taxed more heavily. The income tax treats the nominal interest earned on savings as income, even though part of the nominal interest rate merely compensates for inflation. The after-tax real interest rate falls, making saving less attractive.

Confusion and Inconvenience When the Fed increases the money supply and creates inflation, it erodes the real value of the unit of account. Inflation causes dollars at different times to have different real values. Therefore, with rising prices, it is more difficult to compare real revenues, costs, and profits over time.

A Special Cost of Unexpected Inflation: Arbitrary Redistribution of Wealth Unexpected inflation redistributes wealth among the population in a way that has nothing to do with either merit or need. These redistributions occur because many loans in the economy are specified in terms of the unit of account—money.

Monetary Systems

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Monetary Systems