Motivation ss

Editor's Notes

• #5: A motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it toward a goal. The perspectives useful for studying motivated behavior include (1) instinct/evolutionary perspective, (2) drive-reduction theory, (3) arousal theory, and (4) Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
• #6: Under Darwin’s influence, early theorists viewed behavior as being controlled by instincts, com- plex behaviors that are rigidly patterned throughout a species and are unlearned. When it became clear that people were naming, not explaining, various behaviors by calling them instincts, this approach fell into disfavor. The idea that genes predispose species-typical behavior is still influen- tial in evolutionary psychology.
• #7: Drive-reduction theory proposes that most physiological needs create aroused psychological states that drive us to reduce or satisfy those needs. The aim of drive reduction is internal stability, or homeostasis B- Behavioral (Classical Conditioning)
• #8: . Furthermore, we are not only pushed by internal drives but are also pulled by external incentives. When there is both a need (hunger) and an incentive (smell of freshly baked bread), we feel strongly driven. B- B.F. Skinner
• #9: Arousal theory states that rather than reducing a physiological need or minimizing tension, some motivated behaviors increase arousal. Curiosity-driven behaviors, for example, suggest that too little or too much stimulation can motivate people to seek an optimum level of arousal.
• #10: Arousal theory states that rather than reducing a physiological need or minimizing tension, some motivated behaviors increase arousal. Curiosity-driven behaviors, for example, suggest that too little or too much stimulation can motivate people to seek an optimum level of arousal.
• #11: An effective way of introducing the nature and diversity of human motivation is to ask students, “Why do you think people go to college?” Answers will cover the full range of human motives, from “Eventually they have to get a job” through “Some come for a new community of friends” to “They simply want to know, to increase their competence.” The discussion provides an excellent opportunity to illustrate that motivation has both energizing and directional aspects. The diversity of answers also provides a good lead-in to Maslow’s hierarchy of motives.
• #13: Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs expresses the idea that, until satisfied, some motives are more compelling than others. At the base of the hierarchy are our physiological needs, such as for food and water. Only if these are met are we prompted to meet our need for safety, and then to meet the uniquely human needs to give and receive love, to belong and be accepted, and to enjoy self-esteem. Beyond this lies the need to actualize one’s full potential. Near the end of his life, Maslow suggested that some people reach a level of self-transcendence in which they strive for meaning and purpose that is beyond the self, that is, transpersonal.
• #16: False True True False False
• #17: Although the stomach’s pangs contribute to hunger, variations in body chemistry are more important
• #18: Increases in the hormone insulin diminish blood glucose, partly by converting it to body fat. Hyper-blood sugar is to high-diabetes Hypo-two low- dizziness, weakness
• #19: Rather, our body’s internal state is monitored by the hypothalamus, which regulates the body’s weight as it influences our feelings of hunger and fullness.
• #21: Surgical Destruction of the Rat’s Ventromedial Hypothalamus
• #23: Some researchers have abandoned the idea that the body has a precise set point—a biologically fixed tendency to maintain an optimum weight—preferring the term settling point to indicate an envi- ronmentally and biologically influenced level at which weight settles in response to caloric input and expenditure.
• #24: Part of knowing when to eat is our memory of our last meal. As time passes, we anticipate eating again and feel hungry. Our preferences for sweet and salty tastes are genetic and universal. Other taste preferences are conditioned. Culture also affects taste. For example, Bedouins enjoy eating the eye of a camel, which most North Americans would find repulsive. Most North Americans also shun dog, rat, and horse meat, all of which are prized elsewhere. With repeated exposure, our appreciation for a new taste typically increases, and exposure to one set of novel foods increases willingness to try anoth- er. Some of our taste preferences, such as the avoidance of foods that have made us ill, have sur- vival value.
• #31: Explain how the eating disorders demonstrate the influence of psychological forces on physiologically motivated behavior. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent female) diets to become significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet feels fat and is obsessed with losing weight. Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by private, binge-purge episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise. Binge-eating disorder is marked by significant binge-eating episodes followed by remorse but not by purging, fasting, or excessive exercise. In these disorders, challenging family settings and weight-obsessed societal pressures overwhelm the homeostatic drive to maintain a balanced internal state. Those most vulnerable to eating disorders are also those (usually women) who most idealize thinness and have the greatest body dissatisfaction. Low self-esteem and negative emotions that interact with stressful life experiences are additional contributing factors. Twin studies suggest that eating disorders may also have a genetic component. Question: How do we know that culture and media play a major role in eating disorders? Answer: Eating disorders are more prevalent in America and Western Europe
• #34: Human bodies regulate weight through the control of food intake, energy output, and basal metabolic rate—the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure. Obesity affects both how you are treated and how you feel about yourself. Obese people, especial- ly obese women, experience weight discrimination in job hiring, placement, promotion, compensa- tion, and discharge. Similarly, they experience bias in searching for a romantic relationship and experience lower psychological well-being. Although genes influence body weight, they do not determine it. Some people are genetically pre- disposed to have more and larger fat cells than others, but in an obese person, the original fat cells double or triple in size and then divide or trigger nearby immature fat cells to divide—resulting in up to 75 billion fat cells. Once the number of fat cells increases, it never decreases. People also differ in their resting metabolic rates, and once someone gains fat tissue, less energy is needed to maintain that tissue than is needed to maintain other tissue. Unquestionably, environmental factors such as sleep loss, social influence, often eating high-calorie foods, and living a sedentary life- style also matter, as comparisons of similar people from different generations or different locations indicate. Research indicates that most people who succeed on a weight-loss program eventually regain most of the weight. Those who wish to diet should set realistic goals, minimize exposure to food cues, boost energy expenditure through exercise, eat healthy foods spaced throughout the day, beware of the binge, and make a lifelong change in eating patterns.
• #36: Answer: B
• #37: Start with reading Gender Differences in Sexual Activity w/Discussion Questions
• #38: 58%-Higher 18%-Lower 6-Lower 3%-lower 50%-Higher
• #44: The human sexual response cycle normally follows a pattern of excitement, plateau, orgasm (which seems to involve similar feelings and brain activity in males and females), and resolution, followed in males by a refractory period, during which renewed arousal and orgasm are not possible. The sex hormones direct the physical development of male and female sex characteristics and, especially in nonhuman animals, activate sexual behavior. Although testosterone and the estrogens (such as estradiol) are present in both sexes, males have a higher level of testosterone and females a higher level of estrogen. In humans, the hormones influence sexual behaviors more loosely, especially once sufficient hormone levels are present. In later life, as sex hormones decline, the frequency of sexual fantasies and intercourse also declines.
• #45: Watch Kinsey Trailer
• #46: Watch Kinsey Trailer
• #47: External stimuli, such as sexually explicit materials, can trigger arousal in both men and women, although the activated brain areas differ somewhat. Because men have a more active amygdala when viewing sexual images and are more likely to see more images of women enjoying forcible sex, men tend to accept the backwards notion that women enjoy rape. Sexually coercive material tends to increase viewers’ acceptance of rape and violence toward women. Images of sexually attractive men and women may lead people to devalue their own partners and relationships. Our imaginations also influence sexual motivation. About 95 percent of both men and women say they have had sexual fantasies. Fantasizing about sex does not indicate a sexual problem or dissatisfaction. If anything, sexually active people have more sexual fantasies.
• #49: Sexual orientation is our enduring sexual attraction toward members of either our own sex (homo- sexual) or the other sex (heterosexual). Studies in both Europe and the United States suggest that about 3 or 4 percent of men and 1 or 2 percent of women are homosexual. Estimates derived from the sex of unmarried partners reported in the 2000 U.S. Census suggest that 2.5 percent of the population is gay or lesbian. Such studies also tell us that sexual orientation is enduring. Women’s sexual orientation tends to be less strongly felt and potentially more fluid and changing than men’s. Women are somewhat more likely than men to feel and act on bisexual attractions.
• #50: There is no evidence that environmental influences determine sexual orientation. No links have been found between homosexuality and a child’s relationships with parents, father-absent homes, fear or hatred of people of the other gender, levels of sex hormones currently in the blood, or childhood sexual experience. On the other hand, biological influences are evident in studies of same-sex relations in several hundred species, straight-gay differences in body and brain character- istics, genetic studies of family members and twins, and the effect of exposure to certain hormones during critical periods of prenatal development
• #53: Fraternal Birth Order Effect Fraternal Birth Order Effect Men who have older brothers are also somewhat more likely to be gay, about one-third more likely for each additional older brother. The reason for this phenomenon—called the fraternal birth-order effect—is unclear. Because the physiological evidence is preliminary and controversial, some scientists remain skeptical. Rather than specifying sexual orientation, they suggest, biological factors may predispose a temperament that influences sexuality “in the context of individual learning and experience.”
• #54: The anterior commissure works with the posterior commissure to link the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain and also interconnects the amygdalas and temporal lobes, contributing to the role of memory, emotion, speech and hearing. It also is involved in olfaction, instinct, and sexual behavior.
• #58: Resolution Unrepresentantive study (mostly whites), volunteer bias Programs to change people from gay to straight are largely uncessful
• #61: Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rate. Adults who formed attachments were more like- ly to come together to reproduce and to stay together to nurture their offspring to maturity. Cooperation in groups also enhanced survival. People who feel supported by close relationships live with better health and at lower risk for psychological disorder and premature death. When relationships form, we often feel joy. Most people mention—before anything else—close relation- ships as making life meaningful. Even our self-esteem is a gauge of how valued and accepted we feel.
• #62: Attachments can keep people in abusive relationships as the fear of being alone may seem worse than the pain of emotional or physical abuse. When something threatens our social ties, negative emotions overwhelm us. When ostracized, people may engage in self-defeating or antisocial behaviors and underperform on aptitude tests. Ostracism elicits increased activity in the brain’s anterior cingulate cortex, which is also activated by physical pain.
• #64: QUESTION: What does “discipline out performs talent” mean? AFTER THE VIDEO (MARSHMALLOW TEST): Why do you think kids who wait have higher achievement later in life?
• #68: VIDEOS: Scary Video (start emotions) Lie Detection & Body Language Fake Smile vs. Real Smile (Ekman) 60 Minutes of Happiness