Motivation Theory – major background concepts and contributions

Table of Content
Contents
Table of Content ...................................................................................................................1
Abstract.................................................................................................................................2
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................2
2 Motivation Theory – major background concepts and contributions ............................... 2
2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs..................................................................................2
2.2 Two Factor theory (Herzberg) .................................................................................4
2.3 McGregor X and Y theory .......................................................................................5
2.4 Alderfer-ERG (Existence, Relatedness and Growth) Theory................................... 6
3 Latest ideas on motivation theory...................................................................................7
3.1 Four drive Theory....................................................................................................7
3.2 Self-determination Theory.......................................................................................8
3.3 ACHIEVEMENT Goal Theory .................................................................................8
Application of motivation theory to the construction project management.............................. 9
4 Conclusion...................................................................................................................10
5 References ..................................................................................................................11

Abstract
Motivation at work is often associated with money and prestige, however various theories
include many other factors which we were often overlooked by employers. . In this essay we
will discuss modern and old motivational which are still relevant and then we apply its
applications and relevance in the construction field from the manger’s perspective.
Keywords
Motivations theory, Old and modern motivations theories, Construction Manager
1 Introduction
It is common to do certain activities with different level of motivation, some tasks we do
faster and better and also enjoying doing it without any delay, however some tasks we
perform without any motivation or we do not enjoy doing it. Thus there is different levels of
motivation attached with different activities or tasks.
Motivation is often associated with personal and social factors. One the biggest motivator is
money however recognition or prestige, social status, satisfaction which are associated with
personal achievements and accomplishments also play their part. So the companies are
finding now new ways to stimulate and motivate their employees (Ariely, 2012).
2 Motivation Theory – major background concepts and
contributions
2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
About 70 years back Maslow theory of Human motivation was published in paper called
Theory of Human Motivation. Since then it continues to have strong influence over the
Business World (Kremer and Hammond, 2013). Maslow (1943, 1954) stated human are
inclined to motivated by different stages of motivation which is driven by fulfilling different
needs, once that level is fulfilled he is motivated to next level. He categorized five level of
hierarchy of needs. Figure No 1 depicts Maslow’s five level hierarchy of needs.

Fig No 1 (McLeod, 2017) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
1.0Biological and physiological needs
Physiological needs are at bottom of this triangle and also term a most crucial needs for
human satisfaction. First every human needs food that is priority number one for survival,
similarly warmth of house or accommodation, good sleep and need of sexual partner in adult
life.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom
from fear.
Next he lists Safety needs once we have enough food on table, a house or shelter, we need
security safety, stable environment and where human can work free from any danger. He
gave example of children in childhood where kids tends to feel calm and peaceful with their
parents and sense of safety comes with that in kids.
3. Love and belongingness needs
Relatedness to environment, friendship, level of acceptance in community, respect and being
respected and also part of community or having circle of family, friend and work. For
example love from parents.

4. Esteem needs
He categorized esteem needs in two further types. First is self-esteem For example being
allowed to take responsibility, self-respect, sense of achievement and second thing is being
recognized by others which may include Name, tiles, social status, or prestige.
5. Self-actualization needs
This is last stage of Maslow Hierarchy when worker realizes its fullest potential, it desire to
seek personal growth and it could be quenching the inner coursistoy such as creating work of
arts, or by plying sport or some prestigious settings.
Criticism
As no theory is perfect or less prone to criticism. Maslow theory was widely criticized for not
empirical data to support claims, pure assumptions that humans are all alike and even the
theory itself is not theory of motivation even to the point that it was called theory of
satisfaction of job (Kaur, 2013).
Likewise, McLeod (2017) also objected the methodology of Maslow theory especially his
analysis was based on studies of lives of 18 famous people , which he generalized as traits of
self-actualized humans however his group of people were widely chosen from one group of
specific race, also his sample cannot be adopted for females candidates as he has only studies
small number of influential females likes of Eleanor Roosevelt and Mother Teresa hence
findings cannot be taken as scientific facts or observations due to limitations of studies. Tay
and Deiner (2011) examined Maslow Theory by comparing with Gallup Survey of 123
countries of 60885 participants from every corner of the world results shows that people may
have same basic safety needs, but they may not appear to following a certain pattern or
hierarchy or they may be relatively independent of other needs as Maslow assumption of
achieving lower needs in order to proceed to self-actualization or having fullest potential of
human is not backed by any evidence.
2.2 Two Factor theory (Herzberg)
It was presented by Herzberg in 1950z based on his research on 203 engineers, accountants
and managers in United States. His interviews and surveys covered different aspect of job
satisfaction and based on the data collected he developed view that advocates job satisfaction
and job dissatisfaction act independent of each other or they don’t rely on each other.
Based on his observations and data he was able to identify two factors which according

to him determine the motivation of employee on workplace. The first of the two is called
hygiene-factors. He made use of “Hygiene” to explain certain characteristics, elements or
factors which can demoralise workers. Out of which, most common are pay, job security,
employees standing or significance to company , vacations, personal working conditions of
factory or workplace, organisational culture and relationship between employees and
management and within organisations. Second factor or characteristic was named as
“Motivater” that emerges from essence of work or from nature of the job it includes
recognition, achievement or accomplishments, acknowledgment of services, promotion and
self-development (Hartzell, 2017).
Damij et al (2015) studied and tested Herzberg dual factor theory in Slovenia in highly
educated employees of school. Their study result and finding support Herzberg motivation
theory for example top motivating factors among employees were achievement, engaging
work and better relationship among colleagues, In addition, it was found worse detractors on
jobs were unpleasant relationships with superiors and non-supporting co-workers or
colleagues or bad relationship with colleagues. Lundberg, Gudmundson and Andersson,
(2009) research on Swedish Ski Workers also support the findings of Dual Factor Theory.
Criticism
Main criticism was this theory was methodologically bound for example the results were
drawn from certain type of data, only certain number of employee were investigated , its
methodology was criticised for containing inaccuracies and inconsistency with past data for
motivation and job satisfaction (HOUSE and WIGDOR, 1967). It also does not link any
connection between fulfilment and motivation nor it consider the personal traits of
employees.
2.3 McGregor X and Y theory
This theory was presented by Douglas McGregor in 1960. X and Y are two opposing
concepts about the motivation of workers which management adopts. In theory X, Managers
believes that an ordinary workers has not inherent desire or motivation for work, he rather
shies away or reluctant to take responsibility. Thus, Managers believe they should be
controlled and driven by set strategy to achieve goals of the company and should be done by
way such that all actions can be traced and there could be punishment or reward based on the
performance (McGregor, 1960)

On the other hand, in theory Y Managers tend to believe employees find work easy and tend
to enjoy their work in company without any additional greed of reward or incentives.
Workers enjoy responsibility and they do not need any monitoring. They are have creativity,
effectiveness and strengths that they utilized for firm. McGregor believed in significance of
Theory (Russ, 2013).
Criticism
It came under criticism for presenting two extremes behaviours in workers for example
theory X seems valid in low paid or minor jobs but workers might be motivated to move
towards Y conditions if they are encouraged to such.
Talathi (2018) highlighted usual criticism of Theory as he pointed out these two extremes of
human motivation assumption by managers could not be permanent set of behaviour
exhibited by employees. Employees could not be generalised to be adhering one specific set
of behaviour on work place. As Human behaviour can be variable and can be strictly
restricted to one particular set of habits or attitude at work place.
2.4 Alderfer-ERG (Existence, Relatedness and Growth) Theory
Clayton Alderfer of Yale who was physiologist developed The ERG theory on basic concepts
of Maslow’s hierarchic of needs theory. Thus adding Existence, Relatedness and Growth
(ERG) to the Hierarchy of needs presented by Maslow. However ERG focus on Human
motivation level is triggered by different set of needs at same time, unlike of Maslow which
advocates human tends to fulfil one set of needs before entering or meeting another set of
needs starting from physiological to self-actualization needs as outlined in first part of this
assignment. Adlerfer included items that were part of Physiological and safety needs from
Maslow Matrix, Second part is relatedness being part of some environment, desire of having
interpersonal relationships, and He also outlines growth needs of human which is natural
desire for personal development. Which was included in self-actualization and self-esteem in
matrix of Maslow (Ricky and Gregory, 2012). Figure 2 shows the comparison between the
two theories. So it can be seen although bases are same but in Alderfer

Fig No. 2 comparison of the two theories by Judith et al (1990)
Criticism
It was also reconsidered by modern researcher’s common objection as reported by Pallabi
(2016) it lacks definitive rules, like Maslow theory of Hierarchy of Needs, it also attracted
similar sort of criticism. It also stats once lower needs are satisfied then upper needs are met,
however Alderfer believed human may different needs at the same time. Also Relatedness
can be fully adjusted, and bit ambiguous. Thus application in company is relevant when all
there elements are equally given importance for the motivation of employees (Szilagyi et al,
1990)
3 Latest ideas on motivation theory
3.1 Four drive Theory.
Paul Lawrence and Nitin Nohria Professors of Harvard University developed Four Drive
theory. The four drive theory was developed by Paul Lawrence and Nitin Nohria who are
professors at Harvard business school. This theory supports view that every employee has
inherent ability of acquire, bond, learn and defend while keeping intact rationality and
emotions.
First drive is not only getting fundamental needs for human survival such water and food but
also self-recognition. Second drive is relationship building within organization or
environment with people or group of same mutual understanding. Such bonding keeps their
motivation and loyalty to companies intact. Third drive is to satisfy the curiosity of

individual, questions about the surrounding and environment where employee is in. which is
same as self-actualization in Maslow heierchcy of needs. Last drive is inherent quality of
defence from any dangers, defence in this perspective is to guard reputation, prestige or
relationships formed at the organization (McShane et al, 2010).
Criticism
Like all theories generalisation of employee behaviour was biggest objection as we have seen
in all assumptions in other theories which French, et al. (2011) mentioned it is difficult to
meet the criteria of all four drives of employees as they do not reinforce each other and are
applicable regardless of each other’s influence.
3.2 Self-determination Theory
This theory advocates the concept of having their inherent qualities of workers which are
needs of Autonomy, Competence and Relatedness. With each individual has need to choose
behavior freely, competence is being better in performing jobs and relatedness is sense of
satisfaction and accomplishment involvement with social world. Thus on whole self-
determination theory or model all workers or employees tend to involve in activities which
can meet needs of feeling autonomous, competent and being related with work place.
Self-determination theory also indicates the extent to which individual needs can be met by
gauged by describing the individual motivational state and the most desired level of
motivation is intrinsic motivation which forces humans to do activity for the sake of activity
for enjoyment, fun or physical challenge such motivation are insuring because of lack of
external benefit and incentives (Kilpatrick, Hebert and Jacobsen, 2002)
Criticism
Assisting the people in the desired level of activity is challenging task with the activity level
which individual enjoy, this theory is generic which advocates motivation comes from sense
of autonomy, competence and relatedness and tend to achieve goal if organizational culture is
supportive enough (Kilpatrick, Hebert and Jacobsen, 2002)
3.3 ACHIEVEMENT Goal Theory
In our normal observation we are directed by set targets and gaols. They set our destinations
we arrange our tasks or our daily lives accordingly or try to at least adopt a lifestyle to reach

our goals. They may range from short term to long term. Goal orientation theory is
theoretical framework in the academic motivation developed in late 1980s. The basic theme
of theory is individuals want to showcase their competence and achievement as Nicholls
(1989) states People have two varying goal orientations which define their success in
achievement settings. And Ego orientation is comparison of himself with others to measure
performance. These two measures play significant role influencing and shaping behaviour of
the individual in the organisation. This achievement goal theory outlines motivation derives
from the sense of acknowledgement or achievement and second is ego-orientation where he
tends to compare himself others in order to measure his performance.
Criticism
Achievement Goal theory has limitations especially it does not take account the social need
as part of motivation character. Wolters (2004) who investigated the academic performances
of schools students found achievement goal of students and their actual performance found
achievement is not straightforward connected and thus have a very complex relationship and
thus simple generalisation and assumption between goal setting and accomplishments is not
easy task
Application of motivation theory to the construction project
management
Construction methods have improved over the years and also the technology however they
workers role and their significance in the productivity have not been effected, as they are still
crucial part of projects. Their contribution paves the route for success or can lead to project
failure. Motivation is often ignored in industry due to temporary nature of construction
projects there could be some other factors too (Jin et al., 2018)
In construction industry it is crucial to motivate employees and it is fundamental important
for Managers to know the factors which can encourage workers to increase their productivity.
If number of employees is high, it would be extremely difficult to reach each of employee to
enquire about their contributing factors which motivates them. Employing financial or non-
financial incentive are totally dependent upon the experience of manager. We have found
based on previous studies organisations use different motivation techniques in construction
industry to increase efficiency (Aina, 2014)

To keep workers motivated, their needs must be noticed as goals of projects are achieved,
companies have targets or gaols and employees have needs, both collaboration in achieving
their perspective target will boost performance. Needs were first recognized by Maslow they
are starting point for workers motivation. While with varying point of requirements it’s still
seems to be valid till day. While Jin et al., (2018) admits financial incentives are the most
common used in construction site based on study of contractor’s performance , he disagree it
can work for all the employee same way as we discussed previously we have varying amount
of motivation factors in different concepts or theories of motivation. So he advocates
incentives could be only be more cost effective if they address the need of individual
employee. Another surprising factors found in study was some workers were motivated by
themselves as they have set goal (Goal Achievement theory), clear goals and making them
collective target or objective may make goal or task easier and keep them motivated.
Likewise certain type of contractual clauses play important in motivating sub-contractors on
site, some clause will motivate him to work more effectively that can increase productivity.
Similar to keep workers motivated, it’s very important to have job security and great
respected environment, sense of belongingness, relatedness as we can apply ERG theory and
Maslow theory while there could be many other factors, some of the most physiological
needs which were discussed in both of these theories are valid and crucial for the optimum
performance of the workers.
4 Conclusion
What motivates employee or whether driving forces are same in different set of people and
can we use same techniques for motivating workers, answer is not clear, , out of many
theories we discussed we have seen some of them have common grounds, we found Maslow
theory is most common and widely recognised among scholars Although it does put lights on
basic human needs, but there is no singular solution for motivation for employee nor we were
able to identify standard motivation factors for all. At the same time, basic needs of human,
good accommodation, prestige respect and other traits were discussed many times. In
addition, we have also found sense of achievement, curoristy to know more can also be
contributing factors for achievements. Company welcoming culture can also retain people
and also sense of belongingness. Combination of such traits make it increasing difficult to
make a standard choice of all. Hence debate or research on this topic would continue to

explore more areas of motivation unless we come to standard solution. Based on wide variety
of data and analysis it is very unlikely to have common solution in the future too.
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