![14 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice
Defining ‘brand’ and
‘nation-brand’
Before looking in detail at the concept of treating a nation as a brand, it is
worthwhile to look at some definitions of what is meant by a ‘brand’. Such
definitions tend to fall into two camps. On the one hand are definitions
that focus upon the visual manifestation of a brand. On the other hand,
there are deeper definitions that go beyond the visual aspects of a brand
and attempt to capture the essence of a brand.
A succinct and often quoted definition of a positive or successful brand
is given by Doyle [1], who suggests that ‘a successful brand is a name,
symbol, design, or some combination, which identifies the ‘product’ of
a particular organisation as having a sustainable differential advantage’.
The American Marketing Association offers a similar definition of a brand
as a ‘name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a combination of them
intended to identify the goods and services of one seller or group of
sellers and to differentiate them from those of competition’. A slightly
richer definition of a brand, in that it incorporates a consumer rather
than mainly producer perspective, is given by Macrae, Parkinson and
Sheerman [2], who posit that a brand represents a unique combination
of characteristics and added values, both functional and non-functional,
which have taken on a relevant meaning that is inextricably linked to
the brand, awareness of which might be conscious or intuitive. A similar
perspective is taken by Lynch and de Chernatony [3], who define brands
as clusters of functional and emotional values that promise a unique and
welcome experience between a buyer and a seller.
Brands of course do not exist in a vacuum, and to be successful,
they must co-exist effectively with the prevailing zeitgeist. Popular cul-
ture and trends in society drive and influence strong brands [4]. This
theme is amplified and theorized by Holt [5], who analyses how brands
become icons through creative interaction with their environment in
a process that he terms ‘cultural branding’, a process that he consid-
ers particularly suitable for applying to nations. A similar culturally
aware vision of brands is proposed by one of the UK’s most creative
and innovative thinkers on branding, who suggests that a brand is ‘a
cluster of strategic cultural ideas’ [6]. Through the foundations of their
national identity, nation-brands possess far richer and deeper cultural
resources than any other type of brand, be it product, service, corporate
or any other brandable entity. These cultural resources are explored in
Chapter 5.
The practice of branding has been defined as the process by which
companies distinguish their product offerings from those of the com-
petition [7]. In an increasingly globalized economy, the challenge
of distinguishing their product offerings from those of the competi-
tion has assumed critical importance for nations competing for both](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-43-320.jpg)
![The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 15
domestic and foreign consumers. Keller [8] suggests that the strategic
brand management process involves the design and implementation
of marketing programmes and activities to build, measure and man-
age brand equity. The concept of brand equity is explored in detail in
Chapter 3.
A clarification regarding the role of branding is provided by de
Chernatony and McDonald [9], who warn that it is imperative to
recognize that while marketers instigate the branding process (brand-
ing as an input), it is the buyer or the user who forms a mental vision
of the brand (branding as an output), which may be different from
the intended marketing thrust. This point is particularly relevant to
the branding of nations, where pre-existing national stereotypes may
be entrenched in consumers’ minds and therefore difficult to change.
The notion that a brand is something that resides in the minds of con-
sumers has been noted by some of the major writers on branding [10,11].
The brand-building process requires long-term commitment over a
period of several years and in the short term only a small payoff may
occur [12]. Nations need to acknowledge this reality and adopt a long-
term strategic view when building their nation-brand, rather than aiming
for a quick fix short-term advertising campaign whose effects may be
ephemeral.
When applying the concept of a brand to nations rather than to mere
products, there is an ethical obligation to do so in an honest, respectful
manner and to acknowledge the limits of how appropriate it is to treat
nations as brands. Nations do not belong to brand managers or corpo-
rations; indeed, if they ‘belong’ to anyone, it is to the nation’s entire
citizenry. Ethical considerations related to nation branding are examined
in detail in Chapter 7.
To avoid confusion over terms, it may be helpful to distinguish between
a national brand, defined as ‘a brand available nationally as distinct from
a regional or test-market brand’ [13] and a nation-brand, where the brand
is the country, state or nation in question. In this book, the nation-brand
is defined as the unique, multi-dimensional blend of elements that provide
the nation with culturally grounded differentiation and relevance for all of its
target audiences. This definition acknowledges the multi-faceted nature of
the nation-brand, together with the need to integrate national identity
dimensions as discussed in Chapter 5. Moreover, the proposed definition
of the nation-brand also recognizes the contention that brands exist in
consumers’ minds rather than being a totally controllable creation of the
marketing function. The definition therefore incorporates reference to
perceptual attributes and target markets.
In this chapter’s academic insight, Prof. Leslie de Chernatony considers
the adaptation of brand theory to the context of nation branding. The
issues addressed by de Chernatony are discussed further in Chapter 8,
focusing specifically on which stakeholders need to be involved in nation-
brand development.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-44-320.jpg)
![The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 17
each stakeholder group begins to articulate how they conceive the
nation brand. Meetings would ensue between the diverse stakeholders
to exchange information about each stakeholder’s brand objectives, the
tasks they need to achieve their objectives and their assumptions about
the values and experience they are seeking to support.
At these meetings, there would be reinforcing objectives. However,
divergent objectives are also likely. Through a senior, impartial and
respected chairperson, a process of dialogue would ensue to identify
common ground about the way that stakeholders have supporting objec-
tives for the nation brand. By getting each of the key stakeholders to
surface their assumptions about the values and promised experience they
are striving to support, each group can begin to appreciate how they can
better work together to build a more coherent nation brand.
∗∗∗∗∗
Why countries engage in nation
branding
The application of branding techniques to nations is a relatively new
phenomenon, but one which is growing in frequency given the increas-
ingly global competition that nations now face in both their domestic
and external markets. Nations are making increasingly conscious efforts
to hone their country branding in recognition of the need to fulfil three
major objectives: to attract tourists, to stimulate inward investment and
to boost exports. A further objective for many nations is talent attrac-
tion, whereby countries compete to attract higher education students,
and skilled workers. A wider set of potential rewards to be gained
through nation branding has been proposed by Temporal [14], who
suggests that in addition to the key goals of attracting tourists, stim-
ulating inward investment and boosting exports, nation branding can
also increase currency stability; help restore international credibility and
investor confidence; reverse international ratings downgrades; increase
international political influence; stimulate stronger international partner-
ships and enhance nation building (by nourishing confidence, pride, har-
mony, ambition, national resolve). A further objective that may be aspired
to by transitional countries such as those in Central and Eastern Europe
may be to distance the countries from the old economic and political
system that existed before transition [15]. In this chapter’s country case
insight, Yvonne Johnston, CEO of the International Marketing Council of
South Africa, describes how the South African brand has been developed
in order to position the country in terms of its investment potential, credit
worthiness, export opportunities, tourism potential and international
relations.
The achievement of such goals requires countries to adopt conscious
branding if they are to compete effectively on the global stage [16], a](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-46-320.jpg)
![18 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice
view also expressed by Olins [17], who asserts that within a few years,
identity management will be seen as a key way of contributing to the
nation’s brand. It has also been suggested [18] that the unbranded state
has a difficult time attracting economic and political attention, and that
image and reputation are becoming essential parts of the state’s strate-
gic equity. A powerful and positive nation-brand can provide crucial
competitive advantage in today’s globalized economy (see country case
insight on Egypt, Chapter 2). In his landmark text, The Competitive Advan-
tage of Nations [19], Michael Porter emphasizes that nations and national
character remain of prime importance, even in the age of globalization:
My theory highlights and reinforces the importance of differences in
nations and of differences in national character. Many contemporary
discussions of international competition stress global homogenization
and a diminished role for nations. But, in truth, national differences are
at the heart of competitive success.
The realm of competitive advantage encompasses many sectors, includ-
ing attracting tourists, investors, entrepreneurs, and foreign consumers
of a country’s products and services (see country case insight on Iceland,
Chapter 8). Nation branding can also help erase misconceptions about
a country and allow the country to reposition itself more favourably
Table 1.1 Key issues in treating nations as brands
Author Themes and issues
Aldersey-Williams [20] The branding or rebranding of a nation is a controversial and highly
politicized activity
Wolff Olins [21] Although historically brands are associated with products and
corporations, the techniques of branding are applicable to every area of
mass communications; political leaders, for example to inspire, need to
become brand managers of their parties and preferably of the nation
O’Shaughnessy and
Jackson [22]
The image of a nation is so complex and fluid as to deny the clarity
implicit in a term such as brand image; different parts of a nation’s
identity come into focus on the international stage at different times,
affected by current political events and even by the latest movie or news
bulletin
Gilmore [23] The importance of truthfulness when constructing the nation-brand;
what is required is amplification of the existing values of the national
culture rather than the fabrication of a false promise
Mihailovich [24] The simplistic strapline approach to nation branding could be
counter-productive; altruistic goals such as sustainable long-term
employment and prosperity are objectives that may be met through
emphasizing all forms of cluster and kinship alliances
Anholt [25] The vocabulary of branding can appear cynical and arrogant; therefore,
to some extent, politicians need to avoid the explicit use of such
terminology](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-47-320.jpg)
![The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 19
with regard to targeted audiences (see country case insight on France,
Chapter 10), whilst the development of a strong nation-brand by Estonia
was driven by key objectives including attracting FDI, expanding the
country’s tourist base beyond Sweden and Finland, and broadening
European markets for its exports (see country case insight on Estonia,
Chapter 9). In his academic perspective on the application of CRM to
nation branding, Prof. Francis Buttle outlines how meeting different
needs cost-effectively with the support of IT applies to the full range
of a nation’s ‘customer portfolio’, based on clear relationship manage-
ment objectives and relevant customer insight (see academic perspective,
Chapter 3).
Some central themes and issues in treating the nation as a brand are
summarized in Table 1.1.
It has also been argued that thoughtful brand positioning gives a coun-
try a competitive advantage over other nations [26,27] and that active
repositioning of a country through branding can be done successfully and
holds great potential for countries, particularly in cases where a country’s
stereotype lags behind reality. In such cases, there exists great scope for
country branding.
A further incentive for countries to embrace branding lies in the capac-
ity of branding techniques to create meaningful differentiation. In the
tourism sector, for instance, most destinations make almost identical
claims regarding the beauty of their scenery, the purity of their beaches,
the hospitable nature of the locals and so on, and therefore, the need for
destinations to create a unique identity, to find a niche and differentiate
themselves from their competitors, is more critical than ever [28]. This
needs to be done on a long-term strategic basis and not as an ad hoc event
if positive outcomes are to be sustained and not ephemeral. A note of
caution is struck in this regard by Lodge [29], who cites the so-called
‘Dallas experiment’, where what was then called the New Zealand Mar-
ket Development Board saturated the city of Dallas with New Zealand
events, promotions and trade fairs. This intensive burst of marketing
activity was sustained for 6 months during which sales increased sharply,
but 1 year after the experiment had ended, the levels of awareness
and purchase returned to the same levels as they had been before the
experiment started. This kind of activity must be seen as a promo-
tional exercise and not as a substitute for a long-term strategic branding
campaign.
Nation branding, however, extends beyond the familiar realm of
tourism marketing and encompasses a range of further objectives.
Vanossi [30] states that it has never been clearer that in today’s globalized
world, countries and regions and cities suddenly have to compete with
each other for tourism, for inward investment, for aid, for membership
of supranational groups such as the European Union, for buyers of their
products and services, and for talented people. Most places are, according
to Vanossi, in need of clear and realistic strategies for communicating and
promoting themselves, which leads to the question of which consultants
or agencies will ultimately lead the field in managing and promoting](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-48-320.jpg)
![20 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice
these complex and often contradictory megabrands. Vanossi rhetorically
asks whether promoting a country is more about policy, management
consultancy, public relations, customer relationship management, adver-
tising or brand strategy, or whether it is a combination of everything
that working with companies has taught us in the last 50 years. This
fascinating complexity is addressed in Chapters 8 and 9.
The evolution of nation branding
The evolution of nation branding is traced in Figure 1.1, in which the
academic fields of national identity and country-of-origin are shown to
interact within the context of economic globalization, whose contradictory
effects consist of homogenization of markets and at the same time an
increasing sense of national identity. The streams of knowledge embodied
within the national identity literature on the one hand and within the
country-of-origin literature on the other, have only recently converged.
An early manifestation of this convergence could be observed in 2002
with the publication of a special issue devoted to nation branding by the
Journal of Brand Management [31]. Although sporadic individual articles
on nation branding had appeared in other publications in previous years,
the JBM special issue for the first time provided a focused forum for the
topic and contained papers from leading international scholars including
Philip Kotler and David Gertner [16], Nicolas Papadopoulos and Louise
Heslop [32], as well as papers from leading consultants in the field such
as Wally Olins [33], Fiona Gilmore [27] and Creenagh Lodge [29]. Such
was the level of interest generated by the special issue that the journal
publishers went on to launch a new journal in November 2004 entitled
Place Branding, dedicated to the branding of nations, cities and regions.
Probably the most significant earlier work in what has now become
known as the emerging field of nation branding is the 1993 book
Marketing Places: Attracting Investment, Industry, and Tourism to Cities,
States And Nations [34]. Although this text takes a broad economic and
marketing perspective rather than an explicit brand perspective, it sets
the scene for much of the work that has followed in the field. To put
the evolution of nation branding into yet wider historical perspective, it
could be claimed that nations have always branded themselves – through
their symbols, currency, anthems, names and so on – and that it is just
the terminology of nation branding that is new, rather than the practice
itself [33].
For better or worse, the use of branding techniques is now highly per-
vasive in most societies. From the most basic physical product to the
most diverse nation, branding has steadily increased its scope of appli-
cation. It could be argued that corporate branding is the closest type of
branding to nation branding. The parallels between corporate branding
and nation branding lie in the complex, multidimensional nature of the
corporate/nation entity and also in the multiple stakeholder groups that](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-49-320.jpg)
![The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 21
Academic discipline:
Political geography;
international relations;
political science; cultural
anthropology; social
psychology; political
philosophy; international
law; sociology; history
Academic discipline:
Marketing
Sub-streams:
Consumer behaviour;
Advertising and promotional
management; Brand
management; Export
marketing
Economic globalization causing
contradictory effects of:
(a) homogenization of markets
(b) increasing sense of national identity
Lowering of trade barriers between nations
Emergence of nation branding as
countries turn to brand management
techniques in order to compete
effectively on the world stage
National
Identity
Country-of-
Origin
Figure 1.1
The evolution of
nation branding
must be acknowledged by both corporations and nations. Balmer and
Gray [35] note that there is an increasing realization at organizational
level that corporate brands serve as a powerful navigational tool to var-
ious stakeholders for a miscellany of purposes including employment,
investment and, most importantly, consumer behaviour. The scope of
branding has thus increased incrementally from its original application
to simple products through to services, companies and organizations,
and now nations. The product-nation brand continuum is depicted in
Figure 1.2.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-50-320.jpg)
![24 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice
develop nation-branding strategies. We will now provide an overview of
the issues impacting upon such countries and some of the initiatives they
have taken as they confront the challenges of branding their respective
nations.
Germany
Jaffe and Nebenzahl [36] recount how in 1999 ZDF, the German tele-
vision network, approached identity consultant Wolff Olins to create a
national brand for Germany. Although this was not an official campaign,
the brand strategy suggested for Germany generated much public inter-
est and debate within Germany. The campaign’s main objective was to
change consumer perceptions of Germany from what was found to be
a nation of ‘mechanical perfection’, which lacks creativity, to a country
that is also ‘exciting and surprising’. The perception of Germany as cold
and unemotional was attributed partly to German manufacturers such as
Audi, whose famous slogan ‘Vorsprung durch Technik’ extolled German
engineering prowess but lacked warmth and emotional depth.
The website of identity consultant Wolff Olins [37] gives details of the
approach taken to fashioning a brand for Germany. The basis of their
approach was founded upon the belief that Germany is the economic
dynamo of Europe, but for historical reasons, it is often perceived in
ways that are negative, even hostile. Wolff Olins suggested six practi-
cal steps to the German government and its agencies should they wish
to address the issue of branding Germany: (1) Set up a national brand-
steering committee under the leadership of the Chancellor or President
of the Republic; (2) Create a research and development team respon-
sible for reporting to the steering committee; (3) Begin a process of
national consultation involving representatives of all the Lander as well
as national figures in industry, commerce, education, media, culture and
the arts; (4) Commission extensive research into perceptions of Germany
overseas, benchmarking these studies against data on perceptions of
other nations; (5) Carry out a thorough review of how and where the
national brand could appropriately be utilized; (6) Draw up and submit
for Bundestag approval a programme of implementation for the brand
options adopted by the national steering committee.
Scotland
More and more countries around the world are consciously adopting
nation-branding strategies. In Scotland, the organisation Scotland the
Brand was set up in 1994 in order to promote Scottish tourism, culture
and trade. The organisation’s initial credo was as follows:
As more and more countries focus and promote their national strengths,
Scotland too must collectivise and synthesize its considerable virtues into
appropriate persuasive messages. With Devolution, the European Union
and the globalisation of world markets, now is a key time for Scotland to](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-53-320.jpg)
![The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 25
build its identity and to exploit its history and heritage and contemporary
values as a marketing tool to generate increased awareness of Scotland
and drive commercial benefits for Scottish trade [38].
A driving force behind the creation of the Scotland the Brand orga-
nization was the growing conviction, based on empirical research, that
Scotland has distinctive brand values that are recognized internationally.
However, there was also concern that as a nation Scotland had not har-
nessed these values in its marketing efforts as effectively as it could have
in order to derive commercial advantage. Consequently, Scotland the
Brand was established in 1994 to promote the distinctive brand values of
Scotland.
The organization aimed to provide a collective voice in the promo-
tion of Scottish excellence in both domestic and international markets
by combining the marketing efforts of Scottish business. Scotland the
Brand Chairman Nick Kuenssberg [39] summed up the organization’s
goals as including the promotion of Scotland as a place to visit, a place
to study, a place to invest in and a place to source knowledge from.
This echoed the views expressed by the Scottish Executive [40] in their
document ‘A Smart, Successful Scotland’, which emphasizes the need to
promote Scotland as a world class business location for the globalization
programmes of overseas and domestic companies.
To help achieve its objectives, Scotland the Brand commissioned a
large-scale piece of international research into the brand equity of ‘Scot-
tishness’. The study comprised a survey of opinion inside Scotland and
in the key export markets of England, France, Germany, Spain, Japan
and the United States, and a comprehensive review of existing data. The
outcome was used as the basis of efforts to construct a competitive posi-
tioning for Scotland, a persuasive proposition to buy Scottish products,
services and facilities, and a strategy to help Scotland achieve long-term
sustainable competitive advantage. An events/promotions plan cover-
ing the period 2002–2004 was drawn up, consisting of what the orga-
nizers termed an ambitious and expanding range of happenings in the
form of a series of creative, effective and targeted campaigns. The events
and promotions all had the common theme of identifying and foster-
ing the core values of spirit, tenacity, integrity and inventiveness that
had been elicited through the Scottish brand equity research referred to
above.
Scotland the Brand’s events/promotions plan 2002–2004 possessed
both an internal and an external focus. Within Scotland, the organization
intended to focus upon capitalizing on existing major events and calen-
dar dates including Saint Andrew’s Day, Burns Celebrations and regional
events, as well as sporting events such as established golf, rugby and foot-
ball occasions. An annual Scotland the Brand conference and awards din-
ner was also being developed as well as a series of monthly networking
events. Externally, the most high profile event engaged in by Scotland
the Brand was the Tartan Week celebrations held in Chicago, USA. The
Chicago celebrations included tourism events, the finale of an inter-
national fashion competition, a ministerial event and a tartan ball. In](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-54-320.jpg)
![Hatfield Oak.
[Queen Elizabeth is said to have been
seated beneath the shade of Hatfield
Oak when she received intelligence of
the death of her sister Mary.]
How dim and indistinct the silent scene!
O’er groves and valleys sleeping mists are spread,
Like a soft silvery mantle; while the stream,
Scarce heard to flow, steals on its pebbly bed;
Nor e’en a ripple wakes the silence round,
As if it flowed, perchance, through some enchanted ground.
But O, the gorgeous tint, the dazzling glow
In the clear west; for scarce the sun is gone!
That glowing tint doth yet a radiance throw
On the hill-top, while, aye, each old grey stone
Glitters like diamonds ’mid the mountain heath,
While fades, in deep’ning gloom, the sleeping vale beneath.
One lonely spot, which oft, in solemn mood,
Men have gazed on in ages long gone by,
Where stands that relic of the good green wood,
The aged oak, prompting a tear or sigh;
That lonely spot gleams o’er the misty scene,
Catching the splendour of the dazzling sheen.
And, aye, the lichens that have fixed deep
Their tiny roots within the furrowed bough;
And one small flower, which still her vigils keep,
The blue forget-me-not, are glowing now,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-63-320.jpg)
![In characters, methinks, of living flame,
Seeming to print the old oak’s massy frame.
It looks as if a bright and sudden beam,
Within that oak, broke forth with fervid ray,
Tinting its old boughs with a golden gleam,
Bright as the deep glow of the parting day;
Tempting the passer-by to linger still,
Amid the deep’ning gloom that broods o’er dale and hill.
Ah! linger still, nor fear the chill night-wind;
It comes not yet, for scarce the sun is gone!
Each living emblem, speaking to the mind,
May counsel well, and cheer, if reft and lone,
Thy sad thoughts, earthward bend, giving but little heed
To signs of mercy near, waiting each hour of need.
Men may learn from them, be it joy or pain,
That bids the heart its wonted calm forego,
Sunbeams, or showers, loud wind, or driving rain,
The morning hoar frost, or the dazzling snow,
The small bird, journeying through the pathless skies,
May win dull thought, from earthly care to rise.
It might be, that in such a glowing hour,
When shone the old oak, as with living flame,
While anxious thoughts within her breast had power,
Forth from yon aged hall[39] a lady came
To meet the freshness of the evening breeze,
Viewless, yet rustling still among the trees.
Oh! there were hearts within that stately hall,
Though ruined now, that beat with high alarm,
And champing steeds, and warders waiting all
To guard, if need might be, from gathering harm,
And cautious looks, and voices speaking low,](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-64-320.jpg)
![Who has not heard concerning the Duchess Dowager of Bedford,
how she left her high estate to wed a simple squire, and to dwell
with him in the beautiful solitude of her dower castle of Grafton, far
from the scene of her former greatness! The noble trees that
grouped around the castle wall, mingled with those of the wide
forest of Whittlebury, a royal chase, on the verge of which, and at no
great distance from the castle, stood this aged tree, then in all the
pride of sylvan majesty; and far as the eye could reach, extended
one vast sweep of woodland scenery, with breaks of lawn and
thicket. The inhabitants of Grafton Castle passed the first years of
their wedded life in comparative obscurity, exercising hospitality,
according to the manners of the age, yet keeping as much as
possible apart from the dangers and excitements of public life. At
length the necessity of providing for the elder branches of an
increasing family, rendered it desirable to strengthen their
connexions, and the Duchess of Bedford, whose rank was more
exalted than her fortune, resolved to introduce them at the court of
her friend, Queen Margaret, to whom her eldest daughter, the
beautiful Elizabeth Woodville, was appointed maid of honour.[40]
Years passed on, and Elizabeth was united to John Gray, son and
heir to Lord Ferrars of Groby, possessor of the ancient domain of
Bradgate,[41] by reason of his descent from Petronilla, daughter of
Grantmesnil, one of the proudest of our Norman nobility. Withdrawn
from her quiet home by the stirring incidents that attended the fierce
contest between the rival houses of York and Lancaster, Elizabeth
accompanied her husband during the campaign, and shared with
him in many of its perils. It was even said that Queen Margaret
persuaded her to visit king-making Warwick in his camp, under the
pretence of requesting some little favour, for the stout earl was ever
kind to her; but in reality to make observations relative to the
number and condition of his troops. This was on the eve of the great
battle of St. Albans, which took place at a short distance from the
abbey. The abbey stood, in peaceable times, like a vast granary,
which continually received and gave out its produce, into which was
gathered both corn, and wine, and oil, barley, and the fruits of the](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-85-320.jpg)
![earth, and to which not fewer than twelve cells and hospitals were
appended. And scarcely was there a forest, chase, or wood
throughout the greatest part of England, which did not in some
measure contribute a supply to the abbey of its timber or venison.
Successive monarchs banquetted within its walls, and while the
abbots were distinguished for their extensive hospitality, the poor
were not forgotten. Thus stood St. Albans, often in stormy times a
place of refuge, into which the peasants drove their cattle and were
secure, and while the storm of war raged furiously without, there
was safety and abundance within. But it was not always so, and St.
Albans was sacked more than once. The infuriated followers of Wat
Tyler set fire to the papers and written records of the abbey, and in
after times it was exposed to all the horrors of civil war, when the
rival houses of York and Lancaster battled close beside its walls, and
beneath the floor of our Lady’s chapel rest the remains of many who
fought and fell in those murderous conflicts. Showers and warm
sunbeams contribute their aid ofttimes to repair the ravages which
war has made in the aspect of nature. The trodden fields were again
covered with corn; dwellings which had been set on fire, were
speedily rebuilt, and all went on as before. Tributes of corn, and
wine, and oil, were brought into the abbey, and the poor and
destitute received their daily doles. But men had not yet learned that
war and misery are synonymous. The second battle of St. Albans, at
which the forces of Queen Margaret were, for a brief space,
triumphant, was deeply felt within the abbey. Wounded men, borne
by their companions from the fray, were continually brought in; and
when the battle ceased, it was fearful to hear the continual tolling of
the bell, sounding daily from morning till night, while the dead were
being interred; if holding rank among the living, within the precincts
of the monastery, if otherwise, in an adjoining field.[42] The husband
of Elizabeth Woodville, Gray Lord Ferrars, was then in the twenty-
fifth year of his age. Handsome, valorous, and intrepid, and
devotedly attached to the cause of Henry VI.; he was appointed
commander of the Red-rose cavalry, and, while leading on the
memorable onset by which the field was won, he received a mortal
wound, of which he died a few days after, at the village of Colney, on](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-86-320.jpg)
![the twenty-eighth of February 1461.[43] Henry VI. visited and
endeavoured to console the dying youth, and sought, with the usual
kindliness of his nature, to reconcile him to the thought of death, by
pointing to the only Refuge, on whom his own hopes rested. Some
chroniclers relate, that, according to the fashion of the age, he
conferred the honour of knighthood on the wounded earl, for the
sake of his sons, for although his father, Lord Ferrars, had died two
months before, the distracted condition of the country had
prevented the young nobleman from taking his place in the house of
peers. A deep and rancorous feeling seems to have existed against
the memory of this brave and devoted adherent of King Henry; his
harmless children, the eldest of whom was not more than four years
of age, were deprived of their inheritance, and his widow was not
permitted to remain on the family estate; the fine old mansion, with
its broad lands, was confiscated; it became the property of another,
who repaired thither to take possession, and with him his family and
dependents, who filled all the offices and places of trust and profit
which the adherents of the house of Gray had hitherto enjoyed.
Elizabeth, therefore, sought again the paternal roof. Sad was the day
of her return, yet she only was changed. The avenue of noble trees
waved in the breeze, fresh and shady as when last she passed; the
fields, too, looked as green and lovely, and through them lay the
pathway, fringed with wild flowers, where she had often gathered,
with her young companions, fresh garlands of sweet flowers, with
which to bedeck themselves. The mansion had not been altered,
since the family returned from court, at the accession of Edward IV.
There was the open door, down the steps of which the train of
sisters had followed their stately mother, when they set forth a few
years before, at the invitation of Queen Margaret, to visit her court;
the eldest, appointed to be her maid of honour;[44] the others, with
promises of favour and promotion. They had now returned, for there
was neither favour nor promotion for adherents of the Red-rose, and
Catherine, and Anne, and Mary, were waiting to receive Elizabeth
with blended feelings of joy and sorrow; joy, to welcome back their
sister; sorrow, to see her widow’s weeds and orphan children. Time
had not changed them, nor were the faithful servants, who had](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/920100-250617113824-db176d51/85/Nation-Branding-Concepts-Issues-Practice-Keith-Dinnie-87-320.jpg)
Nation Branding Concepts Issues Practice Keith Dinnie
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- 8. Nation Branding Concepts, Issues, Practice Keith Dinnie Amsterdam • Boston • Heidelberg • London • New York • Oxford Paris • San Diego • San Francisco • Singapore • Sydney • Tokyo Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
- 9. Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA First edition 2008 Copyright © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com. Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-7506-8349-4 For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at books.elsevier.com Printed and bound in Great Britain 08 09 10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Working together to grow libraries in developing countries www.elsevier.com | www.bookaid.org | www.sabre.org
- 10. . . Contents . . Preface ix Acknowledgements xi About the author xiii About the contributors xv PART 1 SCOPE AND SCALE OF NATION BRANDING 1 Chapter 1 The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 3 Country Case Insight – South Africa (Yvonne Johnston) 5 Introduction 13 Defining ‘brand’ and ‘nation-brand’ 14 Academic Perspective: Adapting brand theory to the context of nation branding (Leslie de Chernatony) 16 Why countries engage in nation branding 17 The evolution of nation branding 20 Practitioner Insight: From nation branding to competitive identity – the role of brand management as a component of national policy (Simon Anholt) 22 Nation-branding issues and initiatives 23 Summary 31 References 31 Chapter 2 Nation-brand identity, image and positioning 35 Country Case Insight – Egypt (ZAD Group) 37 Introduction 41 Identity versus image 41 The facets of nation-brand identity 45 Deconstructing nation-brand image 46 Conceptual model of nation-brand identity and image 49 Academic Perspective: Re-positioning Nepal in global public opinion and markets: Place- branding for sustainable economic development (Dipak R. Pant) 50 Positioning the nation-brand 51
- 11. vi Contents Liberation through modularity 53 Summary 54 References 54 Chapter 3 Nation-brand equity 57 Country Case Insight – Chile (Christian Felzensztein) 59 Introduction 61 Alternative perspectives on brand equity 62 Academic Perspective: A CRM perspective on nation branding (Francis Buttle) 66 Sources and dimensions of NBEQ 67 Summary 73 References 73 PART 2 CONCEPTUAL ROOTS OF NATION BRANDING 75 Chapter 4 Nation branding and the country-of-origin effect 77 Country Case Insight – Switzerland (Martial Pasquier) 79 Introduction 84 Overview of COO research 84 COO and brands 85 COO and services 87 COO and the product life cycle 89 COO and demographics 90 COO and ethnocentrism 91 Practitioner Insight: Inverting the COO effect: How Portuguese firm Ecoterra leverages ‘country-of-sell’ effect (João R. Freire) 91 COO and social identity 93 COO and semiotic theory 93 COO perceptions in flux over time 94 Combating a negative COO bias 96 Country Case Insight – Nevis (Elsa Wilkin- Armbrister) 97 Summary 101 References 101 Chapter 5 Nation branding and national identity 105 Country Case Insight – Russia (Vladimir Lebedenko) 107 Introduction 111 Fundamental features of national identity 112 The nation as an imagined community 116 Invented tradition 117 Cultural elements of national identity 118 Practitioner Insight: Sonic branding – Capturing the essence of a nation’s identity (Daniel M. Jackson) 124 Attitudes and national stereotypes 126
- 12. Contents vii Summary 127 References 127 Chapter 6 From country-of-origin and national identity to nation branding 131 Country Case Insight – Brazil (Renata Sanches and Flavia Sekles) 133 Introduction 136 National identity and country-of-origin: Areas of commonality 136 Branding’s differentiating power 139 Practitioner Insight: Greek olive oil – The paradox of a product and a national icon (Anthony Gortzis) 140 Nation branding conceptual framework 141 Country Case Insight – Germany (Gianfranco Walsh and Klaus-Peter Wiedmann) 154 Summary 158 References 159 PART 3 ETHICAL AND PRAGMATIC ISSUES IN NATION BRANDING 161 Chapter 7 Ethical imperatives in nation branding 163 Country Case Insight – Bolivia (Ximena Alvarez Aguirre and Ximena Siles Renjel) 165 Introduction 169 The legitimacy of nation-brand management 169 Practitioner Insight: Smaller nations enter the global dialogue through nation branding (Jack Yan) 170 Identification and selection of nation-brand values 172 Is ‘brand’ acceptable? 173 Sustainability and nation branding 173 Summary 178 References 179 Chapter 8 Pragmatic challenges to the nation-branding concept 181 Country Case Insight – Iceland (Inga Hlín Pálsdóttir) 183 Introduction 187 Who needs to be involved? 187 Coordinating nation-brand touchpoints 192 Academic Perspective: Corporate brand differentiation in the financial services industry – Applying the highest central common factor concept to nation branding (Olutayo B. Otubanjo and T.C. Melewar) 194
- 13. viii Contents Nation-brand architecture 197 A highly politicized activity 200 Country Case Insight – Hungary (Gyorgy Szondi) 201 Summary 204 References 205 PART 4 CURRENT PRACTICE AND FUTURE HORIZONS FOR NATION BRANDING 207 Chapter 9 Elements of nation-branding strategy 209 Country Case Insight – Japan (Satoshi Akutsu) 211 Introduction 219 Principles of strategy 220 Nation-brand advertising 224 Customer and citizen relationship management 227 Nation-brand ambassadors 227 Diaspora mobilization 228 Nation days 229 The naming of nation-brands 229 Nation-brand tracking studies 230 Country Case Insight – Estonia (Interbrand) 230 Summary 235 References 235 Chapter 10 Future horizons for nation branding 237 Country Case Insight – France (Philippe Favre) 239 Introduction 242 A shift away from anglocentric paradigms 242 Improved coordination of nation-branding strategy 243 Growing adoption of brand management techniques 243 Practitioner Insight: The coming crisis in the geography-chained market of nations (Chris Macrae) 245 Online nation branding 246 Increasing impact of consumer-generated media 247 Internal nation branding 248 Sonic nation branding 248 Academic Perspective: True North (Stephen Brown) 249 An alternative lexicon for nation branding? 251 Soft power and public diplomacy 251 Nation branding as a driver of sustainable development and competitive parity 252 Summary 252 References 252 Glossary 255 Index 259
- 14. . . Preface . . This book has been written to make a contribution to the small but rapidly growing literature on nation branding. It is designed to show not only the ways in which conventional brand management techniques can be applied to nations but also to provide some background depth on the context and nature of nation branding. Therefore, the scope of the book encompasses wider issues related to national identity, sustainable devel- opment and political awareness, in addition to the more familiar branding themes of brand identity, brand image, brand positioning, brand equity and so on. This approach is intended to ensure that the theory and prac- tice of nation branding is covered in a rich, multi-dimensional manner. The book is written for a number of audiences, each of whom will come to the field of nation branding with their own specific interests and agenda: • MBA, Masters and upper level undergraduate students studying marketing, branding, international business, public diplomacy and tourism • Government and policy-makers worldwide, particularly in economic development agencies, export promotion agencies and tourism organizations • Individuals with an interest in how their country is perceived and the ways in which their country is (or is not) attempting to enhance its reputation A key feature of the book is the provision of multiple perspectives on nation branding through the inclusion of over 20 contributions from a wide range of academics and practitioners. These contributions illuminate vividly the theories, concepts and frameworks that form the basis of the book. Country case insights are offered on the nation-branding activities and challenges of countries as diverse as France, Japan, South Africa, Egypt, Brazil and many more. It is a key contention of this book that the principles of nation branding can be applied successfully by any nation whether small or large, rich or poor, developed or emerging. The country case insights are designed to demonstrate this point. Many people have contributed in different ways to this book. I hope that you will find it stimulating and thought-provoking to read. It is designed to act as a starting point for discussion and action, rather than as a final statement on the topic of nation branding. Enjoy the book! Keith Dinnie Edinburgh www.brandhorizons.com
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- 16. . . Acknowledgements . . First and foremost, my thanks go to Anna Fabrizio, Commissioning Editor at Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, whose enthusiasm for this book was key to making it happen. Thanks also to Tim Goodfellow and Liz Burton, and all the other people at publishers Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann for their hard work in bringing this book to fruition. I express many thanks to all the individuals and organizations who contributed to this book in the form of country case insights, academic perspectives and practitioner insights. Your contributions have immea- surably enriched this book. Many thanks also to colleagues and students at Edinburgh University, Glasgow Caledonian University, and Strathclyde University for numer- ous interesting discussions and insights into the theory and practice of nation branding. Finally, my thanks go to my parents and my wife for their unending support during the writing of this book.
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- 18. . . About the author . . Dr Keith Dinnie teaches at Temple University Japan (TUJ), Tokyo. He has delivered Masters and Honours level courses in various aspects of mar- keting and branding at the University of Edinburgh. He has also taught on the world class Strathclyde MBA programme, delivering seminars on marketing management and brand management & strategy in the UK as well as in international centres such as Athens, Hong Kong and Shang- hai. He has lectured on a visiting basis at the University of Hanover and the University of Koblenz, Germany, as well as conducting research and consultancy in several countries worldwide. He has published in various journals including the Journal of Customer Behaviour, The Marketing Review, Journal of Brand Management, Journal of General Management and Corporate Communications: An International Review. As Book Review Editor for the Journal of Brand Management, he has reviewed over 25 books on branding over the past 6 years. He was invited to act as Guest Editor for the Journal of Brand Management spe- cial editions on Global Branding (2005) and Nordic Brands (2008). His research and consultancy work includes projects conducted on behalf of market-leading consultancies Landor Associates and Burson-Marsteller, as well as innovative research conducted into the emerging field of nation branding amongst senior decision-makers and brand consultants on a worldwide basis. He is the founder of Brand Horizons consultancy. Email: keithdinnie@brandhorizons.com
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- 20. . . About the . . contributors Ximena Alvarez Aguirre Ximena Alvarez Aguirre is former Vice-President of CABOTUR – Cámara Boliviana de Turismo (Bolivian Tourism Chamber 2002–2004) and former Vice-Minister of Tourism in Bolivia (2004–2005). Wide experience in the tourism sector of the country. Teaching experience in the Tourism area in the CEMLA – Centro Empresarial Latino Americano (Latin American Entrepreneurial Center) in Cochabamba, Bolivia. Currently, she is the General Director and owner of Discover the World Marketing in Bolivia, which represents several airlines from different parts of the world. First degree in Economic Science from the Bolivian Catholic University. Diploma in Tourism from CETT – Centro de Estudios Técnicos Turísticos (Technical Tourism Study Center) in Barcelona, Spain. Satoshi Akutsu Satoshi Akutsu is an Associate Professor at Graduate School of Interna- tional Corporate Strategy, Hitotsubashi University in Tokyo. He received his Ph.D. from the Haas School of Business at the University of California, Berkeley. He has published more than a dozen books/articles on mar- keting and brand management in Japanese. He is the co-author of ‘A Mentality Theory of Knowledge Creation and Transfer’ in Man- aging Industrial Knowledge (Nonaka and Teece, eds.) and ‘Branding Capability’ in Hitotsubashi on Knowledge Management (Takeuchi and Nonaka, eds.). Professor Akutsu is an advisor to a number of companies and has been a speaker at management conferences, seminars and work- shops throughout the world. He is a member of the Task Force on Contents in the Intellectual Property Policy Headquarters and a judge of Japan PR Award by the Japan PR Association. Simon Anholt Simon Anholt is the leading authority on managing and measur- ing national identity and reputation. He is a member of the British Government’s Public Diplomacy Board and has advised the govern- ments of the Netherlands, Jamaica, Tanzania, Iceland, Latvia, Sweden, Botswana, Germany, South Korea, Romania, Scotland, Croatia, Mongolia, the Baltic Sea Region, Bhutan, Ecuador, New Zealand, Switzerland and Slovenia, as well as organizations including the United Nations, the World Economic Forum and the World Bank. He is Founding Editor of the quarterly journal, Place Branding and Public Diplomacy. His books include
- 21. xvi About the contributors Brand New Justice, Brand America and Competitive Identity – The New Brand Management for Nations, Cities and Regions. He publishes three major global surveys, the Anholt Nation Brands Index, City Brands Index and State Brands Index. For further information, please see www.earthspeak.com. Stephen Brown Stephen Brown is Professor of Marketing Research at the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland. Best known for Postmodern Marketing, he has written numerous books ranging from The Marketing Code and Free Gift Inside to Wizard: Harry Potter’s Brand Magic. He is currently working on Agents & Dealers, a prequel to The Marketing Code. Francis Buttle Dr Francis Buttle is Director of two Australian-based organizations – Francis Buttle & Associates (www.buttleassociates.com) and Listening Post (www.listeningpost.com.au). He was formerly full Professor of Mar- keting and Customer Relationship Management at three of the world’s top 40 graduate schools of management. He is author of the book Cus- tomer Relationship Management: Concepts and Tools and over 300 other publications. He can be reached at francis@buttleassociates.com. Leslie de Chernatony Leslie de Chernatony is Professor of Brand Marketing and Director of the Centre for Research in Brand Marketing at Birmingham University Business School. With a doctorate in brand marketing, he has a substantial number of publications in American and European journals and is a regular presenter at international conferences. He has several books on brand marketing, the two most recent being Creating Powerful Brands and From Brand Vision to Brand Evaluation. A winner of several research grants, his two most recent grants have supported research into factors associated with high-performance brands and research into services branding. He was Visiting Professor at Madrid Business School and is currently Visiting Professor at Thammasat University, Bangkok, and University of Lugano, Switzerland. Leslie is a Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Marketing and Fellow of the Market Research Society. He acts as an international consultant to organizations seeking more effective brand strategies and has run acclaimed branding seminars throughout Europe, Asia, America and the Far East. He is an experienced expert witness in legal cases involving branding issues in commercial and competition cases. Philippe Favre Philippe Favre was appointed French Ambassador for international investment, Chairman and CEO of Invest in France Agency on August 24, 2006. Before this nomination, Philippe Favre, 45, was Chief of Staff to the French Trade Minister and Deputy Chief of Staff to the Finance Minister. He also worked as Director of Human Resources, Budget and Information Technology at the Ministry of Trade. From 1993 to 2001,
- 22. About the contributors xvii Mr Favre was the French Trade Commissioner in Hong Kong, and later in Taipei, Taiwan. Between these postings, he was a personal adviser for international affairs at the finance and trade ministries in Paris. Mr Favre was a counselor at the French Embassy in Washington, D.C., from 1990 to 1993. Earlier in his career, he worked at the Ministry of Finance in Paris in charge of economic relations with the former USSR and East- ern Europe. Mr Favre has degrees from the Institut d’Etudes Politiques de Paris and Paris University. He is also a graduate of L’Ecole Nationale d’Administration (ENA). In April 2007, he was appointed ‘Chevalier’ of the Legion of Honour. Christian Felzensztein Dr Christian Felzensztein, B.Com. (Honors), M.B.A., Universidad Aus- tral de Chile. Post-graduate diploma on Local Economic Development, Weitz Center for Development Studies, Rehovot, Israel. M.Sc. and Ph.D. in International Marketing, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland. He is founder and Managing Director of STEIN Business Center, spe- cialized solutions in International Marketing Strategy and Professor of International Marketing in the Faculty of Management and Economics at Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile. He has researched and published in the subjects of country of origin effect in agricultural and aquaculture products as well as regional clusters and innovation. Cur- rently, he is leading a major international research project on natural resource-based clusters. Email: cfelzens@uach.cl João R. Freire João R. Freire is a Brand Consultant for MMG Worldwide (mmgworld- wide.com), a global marketing communications firm specializing in the travel, hospitality and entertainment industry. João has recently com- pleted his Ph.D. in Place Branding at London Metropolitan University, where he is also a guest lecturer in Marketing. His Ph.D. focused on the analysis of the interaction between place-brands and consumers. The main objective of his investigation was to provide a deeper understand- ing of the different dimensions that compose a place-brand. He is also the founder of Ecoterra (ecoterra.co.uk), a company specializing in the branding and marketing of natural food products. João is an economist by trade, who has worked in the fields of finance and marketing for several multinational companies in Brazil, Portugal and the UK. João is a fre- quent speaker and author on Branding topics. His articles have appeared in well-respected international publications such as Place Branding and Journal of Brand Management. Anthony E. Gortzis Anthony E. Gortzis was born in Athens, where he studied Economics and Law in the University of Athens. He completed his postgraduate studies in England, concentrating in Business Administration (M.B.A.), Marketing and Econometrics. He also attended a crash course M.B.A. in
- 23. xviii About the contributors Harvard University. In 1973, he was hired in the Marketing Department of Unilever. He worked in the Marketing Department of Unilever in London, as Marketing Specialist on detergents for Europe and North America. In 1982, he became Marketing Director for Unilever detergents in Greece. In 1986, he became Marketing Director of Elais-Unilever Foods Division, and in 1998, he became Public Affairs, Media and Research Director for all Unilever companies in Greece. He has also been President of the Greek Institute of Marketing. Since 1994, he has been a member of the Board of the Greek Advertisers Association, and since March 1996, he has held the presidency. In 2000, he was elected President of the World Federation of Advertisers (WFA). In 2003, he was elected as the General Secretary of the Board of the Chambers of Commerce for Piraeus. Since the beginning of 2003, he has been active as a consultant in the area of Media, Marketing and Public Relations, Public Affairs, CSR, Crisis Management, and he is the Chairman of One-Team, a CSR, marketing and communication company. In April 2005, he was elected as Vice-President of the Hellenic Management Association and also as a member of the board of the Action-Aid. Since May 2005, he has acted as the President of the EBEN.GR (Business Ethics Institute). Interbrand Interbrand are a leading international branding consultancy. Interbrand’s brand professionals serve clients globally with over 30 offices in over 20 countries. Working in partnership with its clients, Interbrand combine rigorous strategy and analysis with world-class design and creativity. Interbrand’s services include brand analytics, brand valuation, strategy, naming and verbal identity, corporate identity, packaging design, retail design, integrated brand communications and digital branding tools. Daniel M. Jackson Daniel M. Jackson has worked in film and music theatre produc- tion, media planning, advertising and commercial radio. He is the author of the groundbreaking book, Sonic Branding (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). Yvonne Johnston Yvonne Johnston is the Chief Executive Officer of the International Mar- keting Council of South Africa (IMC), an organization that aims to create a positive, united image for South Africa to give the country a strate- gic advantage in an increasingly competitive marketplace. This, it does through the promotion of Brand South Africa. Its mission – to articu- late a brand for South Africa, which positions the country in order to attract tourism, trade and investment, as well as realize international relations objectives; to establish an integrated approach within govern- ment and the private sector towards the international marketing of South Africa and to build national support for Brand South Africa. Pivotal to the success of the work of the IMC is the realization of its mission as
- 24. About the contributors xix this will help the country deal with its socio-economic issues. The IMC has been in existence since 2000, and in her 4 years at the helm of the organization, Yvonne is credited with raising the profile of Brand South Africa to the point where it was voted amongst the Top 5 Hot Brands for 2004 by Intelligence Total Business (formerly Business 2.0), an author- itative publication that offers information on next generation business trends, processes and insights. Another highlight was being selected as one of five finalists for the 2005 Business Woman of the Year. She is widely respected as a leading communications strategist and has played a major role in the training and teaching of strategic media skills in the industry and is a much sought-after public speaker locally and abroad on Brands, as well as the current mood of our nation. Previously, she has worked in the Advertising and Marketing industry in a career spanning over 20 years as a Media Director of leading ad agencies. For 5 years, she was Group Media Director of Ogilvy and Mather. This was followed by a stint in marketing, including running her own marketing consul- tancy, refreshing marketing, specializing in experiential marketing and marketing to women. She currently sits on the boards of SA Tourism, The African Hall of Fame and The Valued Citizens. Vladimir Lebedenko Vladimir Lebedenko is Deputy Director of Department for Relations with the Subjects of the Federation, the Parliament, Public and Political Organi- zations, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. Graduated from the Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO – University). Occupied diplomatic positions in Russian missions to Togo (Africa), France (Marseilles and Paris). In Russian Permanent Represen- tation to the Council of Europe (Strasbourg). The author of a number of articles in periodicals, as well as in International Life magazine, published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia. Participated in international conferences and seminars. Chris Macrae Chris Macrae (chris.macrae@yahoo.co.uk) has, over a 30-year career, researched intangibles of marketing and organizational systems in ways inspired by his father’s Entrepreneurial Revolution trilogy published in The Economist and Offensive Marketing Principles of Thedore Levitt and Hugh Davidson. His work includes • projects in 30 countries and hundreds of markets directed at database modelling of what innovation societies wanted next • working in Japan, which provided insights into corporate branding of founders built to last visions • articles (since 1980s) on nation brands as a new arena of world class brands • innovating genre of living and learning how to charter brand architecture
- 25. xx About the contributors • senior consultant on value of branding at coopers & lybrand • hosting brandknowledge.com for corporate identity enterprises of WPP Chris concludes that media and global markets have lost exponential sustainability and the transparency needed to integrate societies into globalization. Mathematically, sustainability investment is missing a hi-trust audit of flows and goodwill. Open-sourcing communal maps of empowerment economics is his passion at leadership portals: http://economistclub.tv and http://www.valuetrue.com. T.C. Melewar T.C. Melewar is a Professor of Marketing and Strategy at Brunel University London. He has previous experience at Warwick Busi- ness School, University of Warwick, MARA Institute of Technology in Malaysia, Loughborough University, UK, and De Montfort Univer- sity, UK. T.C. teaches Marketing Management, Marketing Communica- tions and International Marketing on a range of undergraduate, M.B.A. and executive courses with companies such as Nestlè, Safeway, Corus and Sony. He is a Visiting Professor at Groupe ECS Grenoble, France and Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany. His research interests are global corporate identity, corporate branding, corporate reputation, marketing communications and international marketing strategy. Olutayo B. Otubanjo Olutayo B. Otubanjo is a Marketing Communications and Consumer Behaviour tutor at Brunel University, London, where he is completing a Ph.D. focusing on ‘Organisational Construction of Corporate Identity’. He has given a number of papers on corporate identity and corporate rep- utation at international conferences in England and was for a few years an Account Executive at CMC Connect Lagos (Nigeria) where he carried out numerous corporate identity and corporate branding assignments for leading multinational brands such as Coca-Cola, Microsoft, UPS, Peugeot, Shell, Peugeot, Accenture and many more. He holds an M.Sc. in Market- ing (with emphasis on corporate identity communications), a postgrad- uate diploma in Marketing, another postgraduate diploma in Journalism and a B.Sc. in Accounting. Inga Hlín Pálsdóttir Inga Hlín Pálsdóttir is a Project Manager in consultancy and training with the Trade Council of Iceland. She obtained her M.Sc. in International Marketing in 2005 from the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow. Before that, she graduated with a B.Sc. in Business Administration in 2003 from Bifröst School of Business in Iceland, completing part of her studies in Fachochschule Nordostniedersachsen in Lüneburg, Germany. Before she started working for the Trade Council of Iceland, she worked as a Project Manager for Educate – Iceland and Atlantik Tours (DMS).
- 26. About the contributors xxi Dipak R. Pant Dipak R. Pant, B.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., is Professor of Anthropology and Economics, founder and head of the Interdisciplinary Unit for Sustainable Economy, Università Carlo Cattaneo, Italy. Field surveyor and sustain- able development-planning advisor in Italy and abroad. Visiting profes- sor in various European, Asian, South American and US universities. Senior Fellow, Society for Applied Anthropology, USA. Member, edito- rial board of Place Branding, London (UK). Born and schooled in Nepal; military training and higher education in India; post-graduate studies in Europe. Formerly: Associate Professor of Human Ecology and Anthropology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu (Nepal); Professor of International Studies, University of Trieste (Italy) and Professor of Development Studies, University of Padua (Italy). International Research Associate, Environmental Health and Social Policy Center, Seattle (USA). Martial Pasquier Martial Pasquier is Professor for Public Management and Marketing at the Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration IDHEAP in Lausanne. Studies at the Universities of Fribourg/CH, Berne and Berkeley. From 1998 to 2003, Director of a consulting firm and lecturer at diverse Univer- sities. Since 2003, Full Professor at the IDHEAP. Guest Professor at the Universities of Berne, Lugano, Strasbourg, Nancy II and Paris II. Mem- ber of the Board of the Swiss Marketing Association GFM. Member of the Swiss Competition Commission. Research interests: Nation’s image, Marketing and Communication of Public Organizations, Transparency of the Public Organizations. Email: martial.pasquier@idheap.unil.ch Ximena Siles Renjel Ximena Siles Renjel has 5 years experience in the banking industry in Bolivia and Ecuador, acting as a risk analyst and relationship manager for different industries and sectors. M.Sc. in International Marketing with Distinction from the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland. First degree in Business Administration from the Bolivian Catholic University, graduated with honors. Renata Sanches Renata Sanches has worked for 21 years in International Affairs, hav- ing held several positions in the Brazilian government and worked on several projects for the European Union and the United Nations, in Brazil and abroad. For the last 7 years, Sanches has served as a senior- consultant and project unit coordinator of APEX-Brasil, Brazil’s export agency. Sanches is a graduate of the University of Brasilia in International Affairs and has a masters in International Corporations and Globalization from the Université Libre de Bruxelles-ULB, where her thesis received the ‘Grand Distinction – 1991’ prize. Sanches has an MBA in Marketing and
- 27. xxii About the contributors E-Commerce from ESPM, teaches graduate and post-graduate classes in International Marketing and International Negotiations at Universidade Católica de Brasília since 1999. Flavia Sekles Flavia Sekles is the executive director of the Brazil Information Cen- ter, a non-profit trade association that promotes Brazil and Brazilian private sector interests in the USA, since 2000. With a BA in Journal- ism from Boston University, Sekles previously worked for 15 years as Washington Correspondent for Veja magazine, Brazil’s largest circulation news-weekly, and Jornal do Brasil. György Szondi György Szondi is a Senior Lecturer in Public Relations at Leeds Business School, Leeds Metropolitan University. His Ph.D. at the University of Salzburg, Austria involves researching the concepts of Public Relations and Public Diplomacy for the European Union. His interest and publi- cations include international public relations, public diplomacy, country branding, risk and crises communication. He has been a regular con- ference speaker and PR trainer throughout Eastern Europe, including Hungary, Poland, Estonia, Latvia. He has written on country branding in Eastern Europe for Place Branding and Public Diplomacy and also con- tributed to The Public Diplomacy Handbook. György worked for Hill and Knowlton, the international PR agency in Budapest, Hungary and in its international headquarters in London. He holds a Bachelor degree in Eco- nomics, a MA in Public Relations from the University of Stirling and an MSc in Physics. Besides his native Hungarian, he speaks English, Italian, German, French, Polish and Estonian. Gianfranco Walsh Dr Gianfranco Walsh was a Senior Lecturer in Marketing with a British university before joining the University of Koblenz-Landau in 2006 as a Professor of Marketing and Electronic Retailing. He is also a Visiting Professor in the University of Strathclyde Business School’s Depart- ment of Marketing. From 2002 to 2004, Gianfranco Walsh was an Assistant Professor of Marketing at the University of Hanover’s Depart- ment of Marketing. After graduating with a B.B.A. in marketing from the University of Applied Science, Lueneburg (now University of Lueneburg) in autumn 1996, Gianfranco Walsh earned an M.Phil. from Manchester School of Management, now Manchester Business School, in 1998. He received his Ph.D. in marketing from the University of Hanover in 2001 and his Habilitation degree in 2004. His Ph.D. thesis won two awards for academic excellence given by the Berufsverband Deutscher Markt- und Sozialforscher and Freundeskreis der Universität Hannover. In addition, Gianfranco Walsh actively consults companies in the fields of market research, customer marketing and E-Commerce.
- 28. About the contributors xxiii Klaus-Peter Wiedmann Dr. Klaus-Peter Wiedmann is Professor of Marketing at the Department of Marketing and Management, Leibniz University of Hanover. He is the Reputation Institute Country Director for Germany. Professor Klaus- Peter Wiedmann, Ph.D., studied business, psychology and sociology at the University of Stuttgart and the University of Mannheim (he received his MBA from the University of Mannheim). Following this he was an assistant to Professor Hans Raffée (Chair for General Business Economics and Marketing II) as well as a member of the Institute for Market- ing at the University of Mannheim. After receiving his Ph.D. in 1992, Klaus-Peter Wiedmann did his post-doctorate studies at the University of Mannheim’s school of business. He has been a full professor at the University of Hanover, Institute for Business Research, Chair for General Business Economics and Marketing II (M 2) since August 1, 1994. Elsa G. Wilkin-Armbrister Elsa G. Wilkin-Armbrister is currently a Ph.D. candidate and Graduate Teaching Assistant at the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow. Her area of study is nation branding, with a sub-focus in E-Branding. She has an M.Sc. in International Marketing from the University of Strathclyde and a B.A. degree in Psychology from Alabama A&M University. Elsa’s interest in nation branding stems from an innate belief that her native country Nevis can be successfully repositioned from a global perspective through this process. She is founder and director of Cellisvae Trust and Corporate Services Limited. Jack Yan Jack Yan, L.L.B., B.C.A. (Hons.), M.C.A., is CEO of Jack Yan & Asso- ciates (jya.net) and a director of the Medinge Group (medinge.org), a branding think-tank in Sweden. He is the co-author of Beyond Branding: How the New Values of Transparency and Integrity Are Changing the World of Brands (Kogan Page, 2003) and the author of Typography and Branding (Natcoll Publishing, 2004). He may be reached through his personal site at jackyan.com. ZAD Group ZAD Group is a group of service companies specialized in a long-term development for industries and organizations. ZAD offers high-quality alternative to both in-house and outsource resources for Business Devel- opment, Sales & Market Development, Recruitment and Export Man- agement implementation. ZAD headquarters is based in Cairo, Egypt, owned by its principal investors. Another store for exporting Egyptian goods is based in Siralion – West Africa. ZAD’s challenge is establish- ing itself as a Leading Service Firm that partners with its clients for a full integrated solutions starting from recruitment on the seniors’ levels, capacity building through a high-quality facilitation workshops, passing by human resources and management consultation and till achieving
- 29. xxiv About the contributors maximum results in increasing the market share till exporting overseas through its export division. ZAD’s goal is to become a development partner for its clients on a long-term basis. The company’s founders are experts in the pharmaceutical, engineering, exporting and telecommu- nication fields, all in multinational companies in the Middle East. They are founding ZAD to formalize the various services they offer. ZAD is managed by those working partners. See the website www.zadgroup.org
- 30. PA RT 1 Scope and scale of nation branding
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- 32. C HA PT E R 1 The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding
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- 34. Country Case Insight – South Africa Developing Brand South Africa Yvonne Johnston CEO, International Marketing Council of South Africa 1. Background The International Marketing Council of South Africa (IMC) was brought into being in August 2000 upon the realization that it was absolutely imperative to create a positive and compelling brand image for South Africa. At the time, there was a gap between the perception of the country and the reality of the country in the global marketplace. To exacerbate matters, there were many messages entering the international arena, and these messages were as varied as the sources and did very little to change the perceptions. They added to the confusion. For a democracy as young as ours, whose history was rooted in social injustice, there needed to be something that accelerated the world’s correct understanding of South Africa that is so important for the much needed attraction of Trade, Tourism, and Investment. It was against this background that the IMC was established. Its mandate is to establish a compelling brand image for South Africa, which correctly positions the country in terms of its investment potential, credit worthiness, export opportunities, tourism potential and international relations. 2. First steps Because there were no strong country brands with major marketing drives behind them at the time, the IMC had to be quite innovative in approach in terms of putting together a process that ensured a very strong foun- dation for Brand South Africa. This process was broken down as follows: Phase 1: Developing a compelling brand proposition for South Africa (mother-brand) Phase 2: Defining a Brand Architecture that defines the relationship between the mother-brand and the various sub-brands (Tourism and Business)
- 35. 6 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice Phase 3: Defining the Strategy that the IMC will follow in realizing its objectives Phase 4: Monitoring and Reviewing progress. So, the IMC would become the custodian of the nation brand and other stakeholders will represent sub-brands. Phase 1 – Developing a compelling brand proposition for South Africa As can be imagined, this phase was the most research intensive, as it was important that we get the basics right. It was also important that whatever the outcome was, it was credible, believable and also differentiating. Step 1 – Interrogation of all existing research on South Africa: Over 25 000 people were interviewed in South Africa and all around the world as part of this research. In South Africa, the interviews and interactions took place in all 11 languages, involving all levels of society. Step 2 – Consultation with local and international stakeholders: A series of specialist focus groups and ‘generator’ workshops was conducted involving communities, targeted groups of stakeholders across the social, political, economic, media and business spectra. Step 3 – Testing phase: During the testing process, a number of positioning statements were tested for validation amongst influencers, the South African popula- tion, stakeholders and departing tourists. The end result of this phase was essentially the development of the Brand South Africa essence: ‘South Africa, Alive with Possibility’. The various elements supporting this essence are attached in the Brand key (Figure CS1.1). When this was adopted by all, South Africans from all sectors of its society were engaged to live up to the brand Promise: ‘Alive with Possibil- ity’. To this end, IMC continuously seeks the cooperation of government departments, public entities, the private sector non-government entities and the media.
- 36. The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 7 Figure CS1.1 South Africa Desired Country Key
- 37. 8 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice Phase 2 – Defining a brand architecture that defines the relationship between the mother-brand and the various sub-brands (tourism and business) The IMC needed to ensure that all messages about South Africa interna- tionally are consistent. Constant alignment and checking then becomes the key. The aligning of messaging was very challenging as some of the brands had already established their own brand platforms. But, because all involved understood the value of this type of collaboration from an impact and scale benefit perspectives, there was commitment to get this done as efficiently as possible: Step 1 – Understanding of the mother-brand and how it was arrived at: This step was about the various stakeholders understanding the rich- ness and depth of the mother-brand. It was also about them buying into the various elements of the brand key so that they could start articulating at their level. Because of the extensive research that was done up-front, there was good stakeholder buy in. Step 2 – Understanding what the sub-brand’s mandate is: The IMC brand team also needed to understand the business of the other stakeholders involved so that they could also understand how all of these potentially impacted on the mother-brand and how to exploit potential areas of synergy. Step 3 – Understanding what the sub-brands could borrow from the mother-brand: The teams then looked at all this information and decided that because the mother-brand is so rich and could not communicate everything, it could focus on certain aspects that would then make soil fertile for all stakeholders. These areas were agreed to because they also took certain responsibilities away from the sub-brands so that they could focus on their core competencies. Step 4 – Understanding how the sub-brands could support the mother-brand: The same was done during this stage, ensuring that certain elements pertinent to the core brand can be carried at sub-brand level. At the end of this process, the following was in place: • All stakeholders understood their focus areas. • Whenever there was crossover into each other’s area of responsi- bility, the messaging was consistent. • All stakeholders cooperated for the bigger benefit. This stage was important for IMC because we realized that this was not something we could achieve on our own. This is an ongoing process because of the complexity of South Africa as a country, especially as the brand gears itself up for the FIFA Soccer
- 38. The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 9 World Cup in 2010. The messaging needs to be continuously monitored to ensure that everyone is aligned. Phase 3 – Defining the strategy that the IMC will follow to realize its objectives: In taking responsibility for the mother-brand, the IMC then decided there will be two basic components to their operations: 1. International portfolio Develop campaigns and activities aimed at changing perceptions in the international arena: a. Niche media advertising to influential people b. Public relations – Thought leaders and journalists c. Outbound missions d. E-Marketing e. Support material f. Surveys and documentaries g. Web portal 2. Domestic portfolio Develop campaigns ensuring that South Africans live up to the brand promise. An extensive campaign was undertaken to ensure South Africans not only feel proud to be South Africans but live up to the brand promise through: a. Mass media advertising b. Public relations – Thought and community Leader engagements c. Brand ambassadors Phase 4 – Monitoring and reviewing Brand SA progress Because we are accountable for the mother-brand, we also monitor progress on how well we are doing on both the domestic and the interna- tional fronts. It is important to note that this work does not just exclusively measure progress made by the IMC but measures progress by the total effort in the country. We mainly conduct two studies: 1. National perception audit This study measures important attributes of the brand and how well South Africans are delivering on those. It also measures how entrenched ‘SA Alive with Possibility’ is amongst South Africans (see Figure CS1.2 below). 2. International brand equity study Because of the lack of comparable studies around the world about country branding and how South African compares to other markets, we commission our own study to measure the brand’s health (see Figure CS1.3).
- 39. 10 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice 70 37 39 19 33 60 55 81 82 8 17 22 6 23 8 8 4 8 4 5 3 8 8 3 4 1 2 83 5 3 10 77 8 4 11 18 66 14 5 15 42 36 67 36 29 32 14 8 Enthusiast 2004 Enthusiasts 2006 Solid citizens 2004 Solid citizens 2006 Influentials 2004 Influentials 2006 Econom ic participants 2004 Econom ic participants 2006 N ew believers 2004 N ew believers 2006 Footsoldiers 2004 Footsoldiers 2006 Black Coloured Indian White Figure CS1.2 National perception audit
- 40. The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 11 SA’s brand health benchmarked against the competitive set - Equity scores What are the top three countries investors are doing business with? • The equity score represents the share of mind each country has in the minds of investors n = 448 • The sum of the equity scores for all potential investment countries is 100 • It is a one-number reflection of each country’s brand health as calculated using CMTM USA USA (n = 150) % Germany 16 - 23 44 49 UK 24 7 24 26 38 38 16 16 13 14 China - 43 45 18 19 USA 39 3 3 7 2 Canada - 7 23 45 19 France 1 11 5 26 14 Spain 3 3 16 27 9 Italy 8 31 10 1 7 Belgium - 9 24 15 7 Japan - - 1 26 5 Mexico UK (n = 61) % Germany (n = 38*) % Netherlands (n = 100) % France (n = 97) % UK Germany Netherlands France Source: CMTM. Source: Research Surveys 2006. Best score China China Poland Poland Poland Poland Brazil Chile China Czech India Poland SA 7.2 5.1 14.7 3.5 6.0 4.1 4.8 5.5 3.7 10.7 9.2 7.8 10.7 9.6 6.9 3.5 11.1 11.2 5.2 12.8 6.1 4.4 3.0 8.8 8.6 4.8 11.5 4.9 6.6 3.5 10.1 11.2 6.2 12.2 5.9 SA ranking 5th 3rd 5th 4th 6th Figure CS1.3 International brand equity study
- 41. 12 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice South Africa positive attribute score card – Total In order of Jaccard importance South Africa negative attribute score card – Total In order of Jaccard importance Growing economy China China China China China China China China China China n = 448 n = 448 China/Poland/Czech Poland Czech Czech Czech Czech Czech Most NB Most NB High assoc. Different- iated Winner High assoc. Differe- ntiated Loser Sizeable market for your goods/services Availability of suitable qualified labour High productivity levels Low input costs Regional hub Ease of doing business Stable currency Innovation Good infrastructure Good corporate governance Well-run country Abundance of raw materials Reliable energy supply Time zone compatibility Sophisticated financial systems Favourable tax incentives for investment Unstable political environment Note: High association is South Africa’s association with the attributes indexed to South Africa’s average attribute association. Indices of 1.3 or greater are ticked. Note: Differentiated is ticked when South Africa is differentiated on a particular attribute. Note: Winner is the country that has the highest association with a particular positive attribute. Note: Loser is the country that has the highest association with a particular negative attribute. Source: Research Surveys 2006. Brazil Brazil Brazil China China China China High crime rate Rigid labour market High inflation High levels of corruption Poor human rights record Difficult to protect © and intellectual property Source: Research Surveys 2006. Figure CS1.3 (Contiuned)
- 42. The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 13 3. Conclusion So far, anecdotal evidence and hard research suggest that our activities (albeit on a small scale) are breaking through, although more work still needs to be done. Although our activities seem to be making a contribution towards alter- ing South Africa’s perceptual position, the brand, however, still suffers from limited familiarity and weak associations. We will continue with efforts to sell South Africa to South Africans; the 2010 event makes the need to mobilize national support for the brand even more imperative. Involving various government departments, public entities and the private sector will continue, as coordination of activities and messaging is a key success factor for our 2010 positioning effort. ∗∗∗∗∗ Introduction Nation branding is an exciting, complex and controversial phenomenon. It is exciting, as it represents an area in which there is little exist- ing theory but a huge amount of real world activity; complex, because it encompasses multiple disciplines beyond the limited realm of conventional brand strategy; and controversial, in that it is a highly politicized activity that generates passionately held and fre- quently conflicting viewpoints and opinions. Furthermore, nation brand- ing is steadily gaining prominence, with more and more countries around the world committing resources to the development of their nation-brand. This chapter investigates the relevance of nation brand- ing in terms of what value a nation-brand strategy can deliver to a country, as well as tracing the evolution of nation brand- ing and outlining the prominence, which it has achieved in recent years. The country case insight in this chapter illustrates how South Africa has set about developing its nation-brand through the activities of the Inter- national Marketing Council of South Africa, whose strategic objective is to establish a compelling brand image for the country and to position it favourably in order to attract trade, tourism and investment. In his academic perspective, Prof. Leslie de Chernatony discusses the ways in which brand theory needs to be adapted to the context of nation brand- ing, whilst Simon Anholt offers a practitioner insight into the nature and essence of nation branding, suggesting that the term ‘competitive iden- tity’ is more appropriate than ‘nation branding’ to describe much of the current activity in the field.
- 43. 14 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice Defining ‘brand’ and ‘nation-brand’ Before looking in detail at the concept of treating a nation as a brand, it is worthwhile to look at some definitions of what is meant by a ‘brand’. Such definitions tend to fall into two camps. On the one hand are definitions that focus upon the visual manifestation of a brand. On the other hand, there are deeper definitions that go beyond the visual aspects of a brand and attempt to capture the essence of a brand. A succinct and often quoted definition of a positive or successful brand is given by Doyle [1], who suggests that ‘a successful brand is a name, symbol, design, or some combination, which identifies the ‘product’ of a particular organisation as having a sustainable differential advantage’. The American Marketing Association offers a similar definition of a brand as a ‘name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a combination of them intended to identify the goods and services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competition’. A slightly richer definition of a brand, in that it incorporates a consumer rather than mainly producer perspective, is given by Macrae, Parkinson and Sheerman [2], who posit that a brand represents a unique combination of characteristics and added values, both functional and non-functional, which have taken on a relevant meaning that is inextricably linked to the brand, awareness of which might be conscious or intuitive. A similar perspective is taken by Lynch and de Chernatony [3], who define brands as clusters of functional and emotional values that promise a unique and welcome experience between a buyer and a seller. Brands of course do not exist in a vacuum, and to be successful, they must co-exist effectively with the prevailing zeitgeist. Popular cul- ture and trends in society drive and influence strong brands [4]. This theme is amplified and theorized by Holt [5], who analyses how brands become icons through creative interaction with their environment in a process that he terms ‘cultural branding’, a process that he consid- ers particularly suitable for applying to nations. A similar culturally aware vision of brands is proposed by one of the UK’s most creative and innovative thinkers on branding, who suggests that a brand is ‘a cluster of strategic cultural ideas’ [6]. Through the foundations of their national identity, nation-brands possess far richer and deeper cultural resources than any other type of brand, be it product, service, corporate or any other brandable entity. These cultural resources are explored in Chapter 5. The practice of branding has been defined as the process by which companies distinguish their product offerings from those of the com- petition [7]. In an increasingly globalized economy, the challenge of distinguishing their product offerings from those of the competi- tion has assumed critical importance for nations competing for both
- 44. The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 15 domestic and foreign consumers. Keller [8] suggests that the strategic brand management process involves the design and implementation of marketing programmes and activities to build, measure and man- age brand equity. The concept of brand equity is explored in detail in Chapter 3. A clarification regarding the role of branding is provided by de Chernatony and McDonald [9], who warn that it is imperative to recognize that while marketers instigate the branding process (brand- ing as an input), it is the buyer or the user who forms a mental vision of the brand (branding as an output), which may be different from the intended marketing thrust. This point is particularly relevant to the branding of nations, where pre-existing national stereotypes may be entrenched in consumers’ minds and therefore difficult to change. The notion that a brand is something that resides in the minds of con- sumers has been noted by some of the major writers on branding [10,11]. The brand-building process requires long-term commitment over a period of several years and in the short term only a small payoff may occur [12]. Nations need to acknowledge this reality and adopt a long- term strategic view when building their nation-brand, rather than aiming for a quick fix short-term advertising campaign whose effects may be ephemeral. When applying the concept of a brand to nations rather than to mere products, there is an ethical obligation to do so in an honest, respectful manner and to acknowledge the limits of how appropriate it is to treat nations as brands. Nations do not belong to brand managers or corpo- rations; indeed, if they ‘belong’ to anyone, it is to the nation’s entire citizenry. Ethical considerations related to nation branding are examined in detail in Chapter 7. To avoid confusion over terms, it may be helpful to distinguish between a national brand, defined as ‘a brand available nationally as distinct from a regional or test-market brand’ [13] and a nation-brand, where the brand is the country, state or nation in question. In this book, the nation-brand is defined as the unique, multi-dimensional blend of elements that provide the nation with culturally grounded differentiation and relevance for all of its target audiences. This definition acknowledges the multi-faceted nature of the nation-brand, together with the need to integrate national identity dimensions as discussed in Chapter 5. Moreover, the proposed definition of the nation-brand also recognizes the contention that brands exist in consumers’ minds rather than being a totally controllable creation of the marketing function. The definition therefore incorporates reference to perceptual attributes and target markets. In this chapter’s academic insight, Prof. Leslie de Chernatony considers the adaptation of brand theory to the context of nation branding. The issues addressed by de Chernatony are discussed further in Chapter 8, focusing specifically on which stakeholders need to be involved in nation- brand development.
- 45. 16 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice Academic Perspective Adapting brand theory to the context of nation branding Leslie de Chernatony Professor of Brand Marketing Birmingham University Business School When considering the daunting challenge of nation branding, existing brand frameworks are available, but there needs to be some adaptation. There are various reasons for this. For example not one but numerous, powerful stakeholders seeking to influence the nature of the nation brand that has to appeal to diverse stakeholders. The concept of ‘brand’ remains invariant, i.e. a cluster of values that enables a nation to make a promise about a unique and welcomed experi- ence. Successful brands thrive because the people delivering the brand act in a manner that reflects the promised values. In nation branding, there would likewise be dominant values that define the behavioural charac- teristics of a population. The type of constitution governing the country, religions and social mores would enable the population to appreciate the boundary points defining the cluster of values. Through the social and economic interactions, individuals become more aware of the nation’s core values. Making explicit the values and promised experience of the nation brand should entail the collective involvement of the key stakeholders. This could start by first getting the key stakeholders to surface their vision for the nation brand. Various visions could emerge, but by using the Delphic brand-visioning technique, a process could be followed to arrive at a consensus vision. The process necessitates identifying key stakeholders interested in shaping the nation brand. They might include representatives from gov- ernment, commerce, not-for-profit organizations, tourism and the media. They would individually be sent a document explaining that a nation brand’s vision is characterized by three components, i.e. desired long- term future, purpose and its values. They would be asked to write their vision for the nation brand. This would be sent to an impartial, objective co-ordinator who would identify the most common themes in the three components of the resulting visions. Each person would be sent back their vision, along with the most common themes. The individual is asked to reflect on their vision compared with the aggregate comments and to consider revising their original statement. The procedure is iterated until a consensus is reached, in broad terms. The next stage entails the key stakeholders setting objectives to enable their group to work towards the nation brand vision. As this progresses,
- 46. The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 17 each stakeholder group begins to articulate how they conceive the nation brand. Meetings would ensue between the diverse stakeholders to exchange information about each stakeholder’s brand objectives, the tasks they need to achieve their objectives and their assumptions about the values and experience they are seeking to support. At these meetings, there would be reinforcing objectives. However, divergent objectives are also likely. Through a senior, impartial and respected chairperson, a process of dialogue would ensue to identify common ground about the way that stakeholders have supporting objec- tives for the nation brand. By getting each of the key stakeholders to surface their assumptions about the values and promised experience they are striving to support, each group can begin to appreciate how they can better work together to build a more coherent nation brand. ∗∗∗∗∗ Why countries engage in nation branding The application of branding techniques to nations is a relatively new phenomenon, but one which is growing in frequency given the increas- ingly global competition that nations now face in both their domestic and external markets. Nations are making increasingly conscious efforts to hone their country branding in recognition of the need to fulfil three major objectives: to attract tourists, to stimulate inward investment and to boost exports. A further objective for many nations is talent attrac- tion, whereby countries compete to attract higher education students, and skilled workers. A wider set of potential rewards to be gained through nation branding has been proposed by Temporal [14], who suggests that in addition to the key goals of attracting tourists, stim- ulating inward investment and boosting exports, nation branding can also increase currency stability; help restore international credibility and investor confidence; reverse international ratings downgrades; increase international political influence; stimulate stronger international partner- ships and enhance nation building (by nourishing confidence, pride, har- mony, ambition, national resolve). A further objective that may be aspired to by transitional countries such as those in Central and Eastern Europe may be to distance the countries from the old economic and political system that existed before transition [15]. In this chapter’s country case insight, Yvonne Johnston, CEO of the International Marketing Council of South Africa, describes how the South African brand has been developed in order to position the country in terms of its investment potential, credit worthiness, export opportunities, tourism potential and international relations. The achievement of such goals requires countries to adopt conscious branding if they are to compete effectively on the global stage [16], a
- 47. 18 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice view also expressed by Olins [17], who asserts that within a few years, identity management will be seen as a key way of contributing to the nation’s brand. It has also been suggested [18] that the unbranded state has a difficult time attracting economic and political attention, and that image and reputation are becoming essential parts of the state’s strate- gic equity. A powerful and positive nation-brand can provide crucial competitive advantage in today’s globalized economy (see country case insight on Egypt, Chapter 2). In his landmark text, The Competitive Advan- tage of Nations [19], Michael Porter emphasizes that nations and national character remain of prime importance, even in the age of globalization: My theory highlights and reinforces the importance of differences in nations and of differences in national character. Many contemporary discussions of international competition stress global homogenization and a diminished role for nations. But, in truth, national differences are at the heart of competitive success. The realm of competitive advantage encompasses many sectors, includ- ing attracting tourists, investors, entrepreneurs, and foreign consumers of a country’s products and services (see country case insight on Iceland, Chapter 8). Nation branding can also help erase misconceptions about a country and allow the country to reposition itself more favourably Table 1.1 Key issues in treating nations as brands Author Themes and issues Aldersey-Williams [20] The branding or rebranding of a nation is a controversial and highly politicized activity Wolff Olins [21] Although historically brands are associated with products and corporations, the techniques of branding are applicable to every area of mass communications; political leaders, for example to inspire, need to become brand managers of their parties and preferably of the nation O’Shaughnessy and Jackson [22] The image of a nation is so complex and fluid as to deny the clarity implicit in a term such as brand image; different parts of a nation’s identity come into focus on the international stage at different times, affected by current political events and even by the latest movie or news bulletin Gilmore [23] The importance of truthfulness when constructing the nation-brand; what is required is amplification of the existing values of the national culture rather than the fabrication of a false promise Mihailovich [24] The simplistic strapline approach to nation branding could be counter-productive; altruistic goals such as sustainable long-term employment and prosperity are objectives that may be met through emphasizing all forms of cluster and kinship alliances Anholt [25] The vocabulary of branding can appear cynical and arrogant; therefore, to some extent, politicians need to avoid the explicit use of such terminology
- 48. The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 19 with regard to targeted audiences (see country case insight on France, Chapter 10), whilst the development of a strong nation-brand by Estonia was driven by key objectives including attracting FDI, expanding the country’s tourist base beyond Sweden and Finland, and broadening European markets for its exports (see country case insight on Estonia, Chapter 9). In his academic perspective on the application of CRM to nation branding, Prof. Francis Buttle outlines how meeting different needs cost-effectively with the support of IT applies to the full range of a nation’s ‘customer portfolio’, based on clear relationship manage- ment objectives and relevant customer insight (see academic perspective, Chapter 3). Some central themes and issues in treating the nation as a brand are summarized in Table 1.1. It has also been argued that thoughtful brand positioning gives a coun- try a competitive advantage over other nations [26,27] and that active repositioning of a country through branding can be done successfully and holds great potential for countries, particularly in cases where a country’s stereotype lags behind reality. In such cases, there exists great scope for country branding. A further incentive for countries to embrace branding lies in the capac- ity of branding techniques to create meaningful differentiation. In the tourism sector, for instance, most destinations make almost identical claims regarding the beauty of their scenery, the purity of their beaches, the hospitable nature of the locals and so on, and therefore, the need for destinations to create a unique identity, to find a niche and differentiate themselves from their competitors, is more critical than ever [28]. This needs to be done on a long-term strategic basis and not as an ad hoc event if positive outcomes are to be sustained and not ephemeral. A note of caution is struck in this regard by Lodge [29], who cites the so-called ‘Dallas experiment’, where what was then called the New Zealand Mar- ket Development Board saturated the city of Dallas with New Zealand events, promotions and trade fairs. This intensive burst of marketing activity was sustained for 6 months during which sales increased sharply, but 1 year after the experiment had ended, the levels of awareness and purchase returned to the same levels as they had been before the experiment started. This kind of activity must be seen as a promo- tional exercise and not as a substitute for a long-term strategic branding campaign. Nation branding, however, extends beyond the familiar realm of tourism marketing and encompasses a range of further objectives. Vanossi [30] states that it has never been clearer that in today’s globalized world, countries and regions and cities suddenly have to compete with each other for tourism, for inward investment, for aid, for membership of supranational groups such as the European Union, for buyers of their products and services, and for talented people. Most places are, according to Vanossi, in need of clear and realistic strategies for communicating and promoting themselves, which leads to the question of which consultants or agencies will ultimately lead the field in managing and promoting
- 49. 20 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice these complex and often contradictory megabrands. Vanossi rhetorically asks whether promoting a country is more about policy, management consultancy, public relations, customer relationship management, adver- tising or brand strategy, or whether it is a combination of everything that working with companies has taught us in the last 50 years. This fascinating complexity is addressed in Chapters 8 and 9. The evolution of nation branding The evolution of nation branding is traced in Figure 1.1, in which the academic fields of national identity and country-of-origin are shown to interact within the context of economic globalization, whose contradictory effects consist of homogenization of markets and at the same time an increasing sense of national identity. The streams of knowledge embodied within the national identity literature on the one hand and within the country-of-origin literature on the other, have only recently converged. An early manifestation of this convergence could be observed in 2002 with the publication of a special issue devoted to nation branding by the Journal of Brand Management [31]. Although sporadic individual articles on nation branding had appeared in other publications in previous years, the JBM special issue for the first time provided a focused forum for the topic and contained papers from leading international scholars including Philip Kotler and David Gertner [16], Nicolas Papadopoulos and Louise Heslop [32], as well as papers from leading consultants in the field such as Wally Olins [33], Fiona Gilmore [27] and Creenagh Lodge [29]. Such was the level of interest generated by the special issue that the journal publishers went on to launch a new journal in November 2004 entitled Place Branding, dedicated to the branding of nations, cities and regions. Probably the most significant earlier work in what has now become known as the emerging field of nation branding is the 1993 book Marketing Places: Attracting Investment, Industry, and Tourism to Cities, States And Nations [34]. Although this text takes a broad economic and marketing perspective rather than an explicit brand perspective, it sets the scene for much of the work that has followed in the field. To put the evolution of nation branding into yet wider historical perspective, it could be claimed that nations have always branded themselves – through their symbols, currency, anthems, names and so on – and that it is just the terminology of nation branding that is new, rather than the practice itself [33]. For better or worse, the use of branding techniques is now highly per- vasive in most societies. From the most basic physical product to the most diverse nation, branding has steadily increased its scope of appli- cation. It could be argued that corporate branding is the closest type of branding to nation branding. The parallels between corporate branding and nation branding lie in the complex, multidimensional nature of the corporate/nation entity and also in the multiple stakeholder groups that
- 50. The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 21 Academic discipline: Political geography; international relations; political science; cultural anthropology; social psychology; political philosophy; international law; sociology; history Academic discipline: Marketing Sub-streams: Consumer behaviour; Advertising and promotional management; Brand management; Export marketing Economic globalization causing contradictory effects of: (a) homogenization of markets (b) increasing sense of national identity Lowering of trade barriers between nations Emergence of nation branding as countries turn to brand management techniques in order to compete effectively on the world stage National Identity Country-of- Origin Figure 1.1 The evolution of nation branding must be acknowledged by both corporations and nations. Balmer and Gray [35] note that there is an increasing realization at organizational level that corporate brands serve as a powerful navigational tool to var- ious stakeholders for a miscellany of purposes including employment, investment and, most importantly, consumer behaviour. The scope of branding has thus increased incrementally from its original application to simple products through to services, companies and organizations, and now nations. The product-nation brand continuum is depicted in Figure 1.2.
- 51. 22 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice Figure 1.2 Evolution of the scope of branding: The product-nation brand continuum Product branding Service branding Corporate branding Nation branding The parallels between corporate branding and nation branding are explored further in the academic insight that appears in Chapter 8. Practitioner Insight From nation branding to competitive identity – the role of brand management as a component of national policy Simon Anholt Consultant and Author, Founding Editor of the quarterly journal, Place Branding I first began to write about an idea I called nation branding in 1996. My original observation was a simple one: that the reputations of countries function like the brand images of companies and that they are equally critical to the progress and prosperity of those countries. The notion of brand value is still an important part of my work, but I now call the approach Competitive Identity, because it has more to do with national identity and the politics and economics of competitiveness than with branding as it is usually understood in the commercial sector. Today, almost every country wants to manage its reputation. Yet, we are still far from a widespread understanding of what this really means and how far commercial approaches can really apply to government. Many governments, consultants and scholars persist in a naïve and super- ficial interpretation of ‘place branding’ that is nothing more than product promotion, where the product happens to be a country rather than a running shoe.
- 52. The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 23 Yet, what really seems to make a difference to the images of countries is when they become dedicated to developing new ideas, policies, laws, products, services, companies, buildings, art and science. When those innovations prove a few simple truths about the country they come from, reputation starts to move; the place produces a buzz, people pay attention and prepare to change their minds. Not only is innovation more effective for enhancing reputation, it is also a wiser way of spending money. Innovation is good for the organizations that carry it out, so the money invested is also an investment in the economy, not simply frittered away on design or marketing. Governments should never do things purely for brand-related reasons; no action should be dedicated to image management alone. But there should be something unmistakable about these innovations, the style of their conception and delivery and their alignment with each other, which will gradually drive the country from the image it has inherited towards the one it needs and deserves. Where competitive identity differs from traditional calls for innovation is the idea of aligning the innovation to a strategy for enhancing national reputation. This makes the innovation more focused and more appro- priate to the needs and resources of the country; and the improvement in image stimulates additional investment, creates new markets and increases interest in the changes taking place. Brand management should be treated as a component of national policy, never as a ‘campaign’ that is separate from planning, governance or economic development. This is why my work now involves building and training teams consisting of head of state or government, cabinet ministers and CEOs of key corporations, in the principles of competitive identity, and coaching them through the process of strategy development and implementation. If brand management is put into a silo of ‘communications’ or ‘pub- lic affairs’, there is little it can do. But when it informs policy-making and becomes implicit in the way the country is run, it can dramatically accelerate change. ∗∗∗∗∗ Nation-branding issues and initiatives Different countries have adopted different strategies in order to confront the specific challenges they face. More and more countries around the world are embracing nation branding in order to differentiate themselves on the world stage and to strengthen their economic performance, pri- marily in terms of exporting, inward investment and tourism. Countries as culturally and geographically diverse as Germany, South Korea, New Zealand, Scotland, Egypt, Britain and Spain have judged it worthwhile to
- 53. 24 Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practice develop nation-branding strategies. We will now provide an overview of the issues impacting upon such countries and some of the initiatives they have taken as they confront the challenges of branding their respective nations. Germany Jaffe and Nebenzahl [36] recount how in 1999 ZDF, the German tele- vision network, approached identity consultant Wolff Olins to create a national brand for Germany. Although this was not an official campaign, the brand strategy suggested for Germany generated much public inter- est and debate within Germany. The campaign’s main objective was to change consumer perceptions of Germany from what was found to be a nation of ‘mechanical perfection’, which lacks creativity, to a country that is also ‘exciting and surprising’. The perception of Germany as cold and unemotional was attributed partly to German manufacturers such as Audi, whose famous slogan ‘Vorsprung durch Technik’ extolled German engineering prowess but lacked warmth and emotional depth. The website of identity consultant Wolff Olins [37] gives details of the approach taken to fashioning a brand for Germany. The basis of their approach was founded upon the belief that Germany is the economic dynamo of Europe, but for historical reasons, it is often perceived in ways that are negative, even hostile. Wolff Olins suggested six practi- cal steps to the German government and its agencies should they wish to address the issue of branding Germany: (1) Set up a national brand- steering committee under the leadership of the Chancellor or President of the Republic; (2) Create a research and development team respon- sible for reporting to the steering committee; (3) Begin a process of national consultation involving representatives of all the Lander as well as national figures in industry, commerce, education, media, culture and the arts; (4) Commission extensive research into perceptions of Germany overseas, benchmarking these studies against data on perceptions of other nations; (5) Carry out a thorough review of how and where the national brand could appropriately be utilized; (6) Draw up and submit for Bundestag approval a programme of implementation for the brand options adopted by the national steering committee. Scotland More and more countries around the world are consciously adopting nation-branding strategies. In Scotland, the organisation Scotland the Brand was set up in 1994 in order to promote Scottish tourism, culture and trade. The organisation’s initial credo was as follows: As more and more countries focus and promote their national strengths, Scotland too must collectivise and synthesize its considerable virtues into appropriate persuasive messages. With Devolution, the European Union and the globalisation of world markets, now is a key time for Scotland to
- 54. The relevance, scope and evolution of nation branding 25 build its identity and to exploit its history and heritage and contemporary values as a marketing tool to generate increased awareness of Scotland and drive commercial benefits for Scottish trade [38]. A driving force behind the creation of the Scotland the Brand orga- nization was the growing conviction, based on empirical research, that Scotland has distinctive brand values that are recognized internationally. However, there was also concern that as a nation Scotland had not har- nessed these values in its marketing efforts as effectively as it could have in order to derive commercial advantage. Consequently, Scotland the Brand was established in 1994 to promote the distinctive brand values of Scotland. The organization aimed to provide a collective voice in the promo- tion of Scottish excellence in both domestic and international markets by combining the marketing efforts of Scottish business. Scotland the Brand Chairman Nick Kuenssberg [39] summed up the organization’s goals as including the promotion of Scotland as a place to visit, a place to study, a place to invest in and a place to source knowledge from. This echoed the views expressed by the Scottish Executive [40] in their document ‘A Smart, Successful Scotland’, which emphasizes the need to promote Scotland as a world class business location for the globalization programmes of overseas and domestic companies. To help achieve its objectives, Scotland the Brand commissioned a large-scale piece of international research into the brand equity of ‘Scot- tishness’. The study comprised a survey of opinion inside Scotland and in the key export markets of England, France, Germany, Spain, Japan and the United States, and a comprehensive review of existing data. The outcome was used as the basis of efforts to construct a competitive posi- tioning for Scotland, a persuasive proposition to buy Scottish products, services and facilities, and a strategy to help Scotland achieve long-term sustainable competitive advantage. An events/promotions plan cover- ing the period 2002–2004 was drawn up, consisting of what the orga- nizers termed an ambitious and expanding range of happenings in the form of a series of creative, effective and targeted campaigns. The events and promotions all had the common theme of identifying and foster- ing the core values of spirit, tenacity, integrity and inventiveness that had been elicited through the Scottish brand equity research referred to above. Scotland the Brand’s events/promotions plan 2002–2004 possessed both an internal and an external focus. Within Scotland, the organization intended to focus upon capitalizing on existing major events and calen- dar dates including Saint Andrew’s Day, Burns Celebrations and regional events, as well as sporting events such as established golf, rugby and foot- ball occasions. An annual Scotland the Brand conference and awards din- ner was also being developed as well as a series of monthly networking events. Externally, the most high profile event engaged in by Scotland the Brand was the Tartan Week celebrations held in Chicago, USA. The Chicago celebrations included tourism events, the finale of an inter- national fashion competition, a ministerial event and a tartan ball. In
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- 56. small beginnings, with the matchless grandeur of these once noble trees. How, at their prime age, the smooth bark, by which they were enveloped, contained within their girth, wood sufficient to plank the deck and sides of a large vessel; how their tortuous arms would have yielded many a load of timber, which, if drawn by oxen, might have wearied the ponderous creatures, long before they reached the place of destination, at even a short distance. But, in those ages, oaks were not hewn down as they now are. Still the trees grew on, till their moss-cushioned roots upheaved above the earth, and their smooth trunks, becoming rugged, were embossed with globose wens. Then decay began her noiseless work; one atom, and then another, were silently disjointed from the rest, till at length a labour was achieved in the breaking down of these firm trees, which, had it been done by the hand of man, would have made the wide forest ring. Nothing now remains of the once gigantic trees, not even the semblance of their ancient selves—nothing but shapeless trunks, heavy ponderous masses, with here and there a strip of rugged bark, in the interstices of which, tufts of moss and pendent ferns have struck their roots. There is nothing either in the trunks or branches to tempt the woodman’s hatchet, and therefore, the old trees still remain. Their roots are firmly interlaced in the earth, they clasp the blocks of stone that lie buried beneath the soil, with their stout spurs and knotted fangs, while here and there a projecting mass rises above the scanty herbage, dotted over with the yellow lichen and little nailwort which grows on dry walls and rocks. Crooked into every imaginable shape, they still hold their stems erect, memorials of past ages, revealers of what time has done;— yea, perhaps, also what the hand of man has achieved, though the old trees stand not, as many others, chroniclers connected with some of those memorable events, which give a date to history, and are waymarks, which identify the noiseless steps of time. The winds of many winters have reft off the giant branches which long since afforded a shelter from the blast; rovers of the forest—men, perhaps, with bow and shaft, have burnt them. Some have left, in breaking, a bleached and splintered stump, but concerning others there is no trace even of the branch on which they grew; rough bark
- 57. has grown most probably over it, and moss and tufted lichens have taken root in the interstices. Still, life lingers in the worn-out trees, and proofs are not wanting, that its secret and mighty power is yet working, though death preponderates. The passer-by sees with astonishment, young green leaves in the interstices of the quarried bark; he sees them, but can hardly believe that the shapeless thing which stands before him has life hidden where all seems to denote death; that her sweet force is equally available in the furrowed oak, as among the young green trees of the neighbouring coppice, which sprung, it may be, from out the earth, a thousand years later, in the lapse of time. The old trees are well qualified by age, to teach lessons of wisdom to hoary men. Had they a voice, they could discourse much concerning the mutability of things below; how nations have risen and waned, while they advanced to maturity, and of the gradual emerging of a mighty people from the darkness of past ages, to the highest pitch of intellectual culture. But this may not be, for the gifts of speech and reason, of voice and memory, are not for these ancient tenants of the soil. Leaning against their mossy trunks, with no prompter, and no hearer, except the time-worn trees and the calm still scene around me, let me be myself the oracle, and discourse to mine own ear, concerning the mutations of past ages. Here, then, in bye-gone days, stood one vast forest, with its dells and dingles, its clear prattling streams, and ceaseless murmur of wind among the branches. We know not that men dwelt within its precincts, or that the natives of the country, our remotest ancestors, built their wattled dwellings, or fed their flocks in the open spaces; most probably not, for the wild animals that ranged here were dangerous to contend with. Years went on, and men clad in skins, and dyed blue with woad, came from the shores of Gaul. They established themselves in the plain country which is bounded by the British Channel, and formed at length a considerable settlement beside the river that waters this part of Britain. They also threw up bulwarks, and added to the natural strength of the place by forming
- 58. ramparts and sinking fosses. The settlement was called Llyn-din, or the town on the lake, Llyn being the British term for a broad expanse of water or lake. It was appropriately given, for the low grounds on the Surrey side of the river were often overflowed, as also those that extend from Wapping marsh to the Isle of Dogs, and still further, for many miles along the Essex coast. At length, strangers from another country settled there. They saw that the land was good, and that the trees which crowded around the settlement, and shadowed on either side the current of the river, might be cleared away. They were men who soon carried into execution the schemes which they devised, and having enlarged the place, and raised within it noble buildings, for beauty and security, they gave it the name of Londinium. A fort was built, and ships came from a distance, bringing with them the productions of other climes. Then began the trees of the great forest to fall beneath the axe of the woodcutter, and the marshy places were brought into cultivation. Londinium rapidly advanced to the dignity of a military station; it even became the capital of one of the great provinces, into which the Romans divided Britain. A spirit of enterprise had ever characterised the polished people who now gained an ascendency; not only were the marshy places in the forest drained for the purpose of feeding cattle, but the low-ground which lay along the river, and which, in rainy seasons, presented an unsightly aspect, was recovered from the waters. Embankments were thrown up on either side to prevent the encroachments of the tide. They commenced in what are now St. George’s Fields, and continued along the adjoining and equally shallow marshes, till they terminated in the grand sea-wall of the deep fens of Essex. Thus, in comparatively a short period, those vast tracts of land which presented, during winter, only a dreary expanse of troubled waters; in the summer, small stagnant pools, with a dry crust of mud, and here and there tufts of rushes, or rank grass, were covered with splendid villas, and a thronging population.
- 59. The giant work of embanking the river was succeeded by making one of those great military roads which opened a communication from one end of the island to the other. This was the old Watling or Gathelin Street: it led from London to Dover, and was much travelled on by those who were going to embark for the Imperial city. The making of the road broke up the quiet of the forest, through an extent of which it had to pass; nothing was heard but the crashing of noble trees, and the rattling of cars, heavily laden with stone and lime; it was carried within sight of the old trees, and, having crossed what is now the Oxford road, at Cumberland-gate, it ran to the west of Westminster, over the river Thames, and onward into Kent. This was its broad outline, and the country through which it lay had been reclaimed either from the forest or the river. It was exceedingly frequented, and carriages of all descriptions continually passed and repassed, either in going to, or else returning from the city. Londinium was next surrounded with a wall, and a considerable extent of forest-land was cleared for the purpose of being enclosed within its ample range. It was said that the mother of Constantine, who liked much to reside in the rising city, greatly favoured this great work, and that she urged her son to promote the grandeur and security of the place. The wall encompassed the city from right to left. It began at the fort, which occupied a portion of what is now the Tower, and made a circuit of nearly two miles, and one furlong. Another wall, strongly defended with towers and bastions, extended along the banks of the river, to the distance of one mile, and one hundred and twenty yards. The height of the wall was twenty two feet, that of the towers forty feet, and the space of ground enclosed within the circumference of both walls, was computed at three hundred and eighty acres. Thus stood Londinium. Patricians and military officers, merchants and artificers, resorted thither from all parts, and there Constantine held his court, with the splendour of Imperial Rome. A few more years, and the power of the Romans began to wane, and with it waned also, the prosperity of the sea-girt isle. Stranger barks came
- 60. from the shores of Saxony, and in them armed men of fierce countenances, who knew little of the arts of civilized life. What they saw, they conquered, and the noble city with its palaces and forums, its schools, of eloquence, and temples for Pagan worship, fell into their hands. Then might be seen from the old trees the red glare of the burning city; but it was again rebuilt, and though, in after years, the Danes sorely oppressed its inhabitants, it resumed its high standing as the metropolis of Britain; the seat of arts and commerce; kings reigned within its walls, and merchants came from all parts of the known world, bringing with them the productions of other countries, and exciting a spirit of enquiry and enterprise, throughout all classes of society. The old trees remained as they were, and London, for so the city was called at length, increased in might and power; the swarming population could no longer be contained within its walls, and the walls were broken down in consequence. Villages were built in places where, but a few years before, was a dense growth of underwood, with high trees that cast their lengthened shadows on the ground. Gradually the city enlarged her bounds, and those groups of houses which had been called villages, and which stood in the midst of pleasant fields, well-watered and reclaimed from the forest, were reached by lines of streets, and so encroaching were they, that it was thought advisable to retain some portion of the ancient forest as a royal park, both for exercise and ornament. If the trees of the forest could have spoken, they would have rejoiced at this, but none more than the old trees, my own memorial trees, these relics of past ages; though now beginning to decay, long tufts of lichens having struck their roots into the rough bark, and many of their noblest branches having been long since broken by fierce winds, or rovers of the forest. They nearly stood alone, for very few remained of those which had grown here, when all around was one wide forest, one intermingling of shadowing boughs from sea to sea, or spaces of waste land, untilled and tenantless. The old Roman road, which had been raised with so much cost and care, soon fell to decay; its materials were carried off, and the green sward rapidly
- 61. extended over that portion of it which passed through Hyde Park and St. James’s Park. Those who like to tread where the Romans trod, may yet walk on a small portion of their ancient route, in the public road leading to Westminster Abbey, on the side nearest the turnpike. The retaining part of the old forest was a desirable measure, for the advance of London towards this quarter, was alone restrained by the prescribed boundaries; and now the windows of her crowding houses look upon the trees and grass, and the ceaseless hum of human voices, which she sends forth from all her hundred gates, is heard continually, with the mingled sound of rolling carriages, of heavy waggons, and the trampling of horses’ feet. Magnificent equipages drive along the smoothly gravelled roads, with which the modern park that extends around the old tree is intersected. Riders on steeds, such as the ancient Britons saw not, and even the polished Romans could hardly have imagined, pass and repass among the trees, and gaily attired pedestrians walk beneath their shade. Strange contrast to what has been! The mental eye, back glancing through the vista of long ages, still loves to dwell on the loneliness and the grandeur, on the gloom and depth of the wide forest: it mourns over the ages and the generations that have passed away, since the memorial trees emerged from their cradle in the earth. Some hand might inscribe on their rough bark that all is vanity, that the glorious earth was not designed to be thus made a charnel-house; but, among those who pass the aged trees, few would stop their progress, or their discourse, to read the inscription; and, among those who read, fewer, perhaps, would desire that it should be otherwise.
- 63. Hatfield Oak. [Queen Elizabeth is said to have been seated beneath the shade of Hatfield Oak when she received intelligence of the death of her sister Mary.] How dim and indistinct the silent scene! O’er groves and valleys sleeping mists are spread, Like a soft silvery mantle; while the stream, Scarce heard to flow, steals on its pebbly bed; Nor e’en a ripple wakes the silence round, As if it flowed, perchance, through some enchanted ground. But O, the gorgeous tint, the dazzling glow In the clear west; for scarce the sun is gone! That glowing tint doth yet a radiance throw On the hill-top, while, aye, each old grey stone Glitters like diamonds ’mid the mountain heath, While fades, in deep’ning gloom, the sleeping vale beneath. One lonely spot, which oft, in solemn mood, Men have gazed on in ages long gone by, Where stands that relic of the good green wood, The aged oak, prompting a tear or sigh; That lonely spot gleams o’er the misty scene, Catching the splendour of the dazzling sheen. And, aye, the lichens that have fixed deep Their tiny roots within the furrowed bough; And one small flower, which still her vigils keep, The blue forget-me-not, are glowing now,
- 64. In characters, methinks, of living flame, Seeming to print the old oak’s massy frame. It looks as if a bright and sudden beam, Within that oak, broke forth with fervid ray, Tinting its old boughs with a golden gleam, Bright as the deep glow of the parting day; Tempting the passer-by to linger still, Amid the deep’ning gloom that broods o’er dale and hill. Ah! linger still, nor fear the chill night-wind; It comes not yet, for scarce the sun is gone! Each living emblem, speaking to the mind, May counsel well, and cheer, if reft and lone, Thy sad thoughts, earthward bend, giving but little heed To signs of mercy near, waiting each hour of need. Men may learn from them, be it joy or pain, That bids the heart its wonted calm forego, Sunbeams, or showers, loud wind, or driving rain, The morning hoar frost, or the dazzling snow, The small bird, journeying through the pathless skies, May win dull thought, from earthly care to rise. It might be, that in such a glowing hour, When shone the old oak, as with living flame, While anxious thoughts within her breast had power, Forth from yon aged hall[39] a lady came To meet the freshness of the evening breeze, Viewless, yet rustling still among the trees. Oh! there were hearts within that stately hall, Though ruined now, that beat with high alarm, And champing steeds, and warders waiting all To guard, if need might be, from gathering harm, And cautious looks, and voices speaking low,
- 65. As if they feared an hour of coming woe. Yes, life or death, eternity or time, Waited the passing of that anxious day; A throne, a prison, much perchance of crime, Should statesmen battle, each in stern array; Should death steal onward through a palace gate, Warning his victim from her hall of state. The mind back glancing through long ages past, E’en to the changes in that fitful scene, Calls forth from out the dim, the lone, the vast, One act to gaze on, noting what hath been In dreamy life; though all we now descry Seems as a mournful vision sweeping by. Look then on her, for whom no evening gleam, Nor soft wind rustling in the young green trees, Can soothe the wasting grief—the fever’d dream— The wandering thought, finding but little ease; For each fond hope from the sad heart is flown, Like leaves by autumn winds, all sear’d and gone. Her hall is lonely now, her throne of state Strangers may gaze at; one lone couch of pain Holdeth her now, and pale care seems to wait Beside that couch, despite the weeping train Who vainly seek, with fond officious zeal, To soothe the rankling grief they may not heal. Through the dim oriel streams that sunny glow Which tints the old oak with its parting beam And one last flush gleams on the cold, damp brow Whence life is ebbing, like a fitful dream,— Too soon for those whom anxious boding fill, Her weeping train of ladies, watching still.
- 66. Why watch ye now? Seven thunders would not wake That dreaded one—her load of life laid down. Her sleep is sound. Her stern heart may not ache, Nor throb the brow that wore a joyless crown; An instant past a queen. For love or hate, She cares not now; waiting at mercy’s gate. Hark to swift footsteps on the dewy grass, ’Mid the dim twilight, for the flush is gone That lit yon death-couch. Hasting on they pass To hail, as queen, the lone and captive one. Captive, and yet a queen! one moment more Shall give to her the crown that anxious Mary wore.
- 68. The Beech of the Frith Common. “Thrice fifty summers have I stood In beauteous, leafy solitude, Since childhood in my rustling bower First spent its sweet and sportive hour, Since youthful lovers in my shade Their vows of truth and honour paid; And on my trunk’s smooth, glossy frame Carv’d many a long-forgotten name: Oh! by the vows of gentle sound, First breath’d upon this sacred ground; By all that truth hath whisper’d here, Or beauty heard with willing ear, As love’s own altar honour me, Spare, woodman, spare the beechen tree.”—Rogers. Let him who loves to mark the changes of the seasons, and to watch the alternations which spring and summer, autumn and winter, produce in the vegetable kingdom, stand beside one of those magnificent columns which spring from out the parent earth, and bear on high a canopy of branches. Let him choose that season when the leaves are just beginning to expand, when the swelling buds assume a reddish tint, and here and there a young green leaf has unfolded, in all its freshness and its beauty, as yet unsoiled by a passing atom, or unbeaten by a single rain-drop. The clouds, how beautiful they look, and the deep blue sky above them! for both are clearly seen through the ramified branches; the first, when driven swiftly by soft breezes from the west; the other, in all its grandeur and extent, as when the morning stars rejoiced together, and it first appeared like a glorious pavilion based on the distant hills.
- 69. Such is the Beech of the Frith Common. It stands alone in the centre of a beautiful common, covered with wild flowers and short herbage, and the fragrant thyme, among which the industrious bee loves to nestle, and to gather in her harvests. The nest of the skylark is among the juniper-bushes that skirt the margin of the common; its joyous tenant is up in air, warbling and rejoicing, and making his high home resound with melody. And well may he rejoice, for he has no sadness to damp his song, no earth-born cares to bring him down. But if we seek for one, albeit assigned to earth, and being unable to soar into mid air, yet thankful and making the best of her humble lot, list to the contented cuckoo; she bids the valley ring with her note, it is unvaried, and some people would fain say that it is wearisome;—no such thing, it is the very voice of spring, telling of sweet flowers and lengthening days, of soft May showers, and of the coming of wandering birds from far-off shores, to make glad the fields of Britain. The Beech of the Frith Common has no voice with which to swell the chorus that has just begun, and which increases daily, as first one musician and then another, comes in aid. But this noble tree is to the eye what music is to the ear. Look at the stately stem, how smooth and glossy; time has not yet furrowed it, nor has the pendent lichen and gray moss rooted themselves in its rough fissures. No records of human crime, nor human care are chronicled upon its bark, no ruin stands near on which the woes of ages have gathered and brood heavy; no associations connected with the beautiful tree, of midnight murders and broken hearts, the tears of orphans and the prayers of oppressed ones, for patience or for redress. Neither is there any trace upon the common, that a circle of unhewn stones ever stood within its precincts, where unhallowed rites were practised, and midnight incantations uttered; nor even that the grave of Briton or of Gaul, of Roman or of Saxon, were made there, for the turf is smooth as velvet. Stately stands the tree, the tree beloved of all. The oak is a majestic tree, the chesnut one of the most umbrageous of forest trees, the elm rises like a pyramid of verdure, the ash has its drooping branches, the maple is celebrated for its light and quivering foliage,
- 70. but the beech is the poets’ tree, the lovers’ tree. Have you not heard that young men often haunt the forest, and disfigure the even and silvery bark of beech-trees, by making them the depositors of the names of their beloved ones? “The bark,” say they, “conveys a happy emblem,” and while thus employed they please themselves with thinking, that as the letters of the name increase, so will their love. Here then stands the beech-tree, in all its dignity and fair proportions, its firm trunk based in the earth, but with no knarled roots upheaving the soil around, and making it unsightly. When the celebrated Smeaton pondered within himself concerning the possibility of constructing a building on the Eddystone rock, which might resist the tremendous violence of contending seas, which had swept away the previous erections of Winstanley and Rudyerd, and left not a stone remaining; seas which dash at least two hundred feet above the rock, and the sound of whose deafening surges resemble the continuous roar of thunder, his thoughts involuntarily turned towards the oak. He considered its large swelling base, which becomes reduced to one third, occasionally to one half of its original dimensions, by a gradual and upward tapering of the living shaft, and it appeared to him that a building might be erected on the model of the oak, that would be fully able to resist the action of external violence. Thus thinking, he projected the light-house of Eddystone, which soon proved, amid the tremendous fury of contending elements, that he had not erred in taking nature for his guide. A beech or elm might have suggested the same thought, for in the trunk of every forest-tree the material is so disposed that the greater portion pertains to the base of the column; that part, especially, which rises from the root is thickest, and why is this? not only because a tapering column is far more beautiful than one of equal girth, but because the disturbing force at the top, acts more powerfully on the lower sections, than on the higher. It is needful that the base of the column should be strengthened, and it is equally unnecessary that the top should be of the same thickness as the base. Two purposes are consequently answered. The tree is rendered stronger and more elegant, and a certain portion of
- 71. material is given to one part, without weakening the other. A tree is, therefore, equally adapted by its construction to resist the fury of the tempest, of that unseen, yet mighty force which comes against it, when the fierce northern blast howls through the forest; as also the load of snow which often presses heavily upon its topmost branches. There is not throughout the vegetable kingdom a more glorious object than a tree, with its smooth and tapering trunk, and its canopy of mingling boughs. Who can estimate correctly the majesty with which it is invested, or the grace and grandeur of its proportions, and its bulk? The finest trees often grow on mountainous heights, harmonizing with the illimitable expanse of heaven, or surrounded with the wildest extent of forest scenery. Their intrinsic bulk is therefore lessened to the eye, and it is not till they are singled from the surrounding landscape, and subjected to a rule and measure, that an opinion can be formed with respect to their vast size and height. Even then, the certainty often fails to impress the mind, for figures convey but an imperfect conception of length and breadth, of height and girth. Some more familiar illustrations are wanting to prove that many a majestic tree, which is admired among its sylvan brethren, as the proudest ornament of a park or forest, is in reality an enormous mass, which the passer-by would gaze at with awe and admiration, if seen beside the dwellings and the palaces of men; or compared with the moving objects which pass and repass in the streets of a great city. Our native woods often contain noble specimens, of which the bulk is ten or twelve feet in diameter, a width greater by three feet than the carriage-way of Fetter lane, near Temple-bar; and oaks might be named, on the block of which two men could thresh without incommoding one the other. The famous Greendale Oak is pierced by a road, over which it forms a triumphal arch, higher by several inches than the poets’ postern at Westminster Abbey. The celebrated table in Dudley Castle which is formed of a single oaken plank, is longer than the wooden bridge that crosses the lake in the Regent’s park; and the roof of the great hall of Westminster, which is spoken of with admiration on
- 72. account of its vast span, being unsupported by a single pillar, is little more than one-third the width of the noble canopy of waving branches that are upheld by the Worksop Oak. The massive rafters of the spacious roof rest on strong walls, but the branches of the tree spring from one common centre. Architects can alone estimate the excessive purchase which boughs, of at least one hundred and eighty-nine feet, must have on the trunk into which they are inserted. Those of the Oak of Ellerslie cover a Scotch acre of ground; and in the Three-shire Oak, its branches drip over an extent of seven hundred and seven square yards. The tree itself grows in a nook that is formed by the junction of the three counties of York, Nottingham, and Derby; and as the trunk is so constructed, being tapering and firmly rooted in the earth, in order that it may uphold the boughs and repel the fury of the winds, so are the boughs themselves, made with an especial reference to the purpose for which they are designed. They are much thicker at the place of their insertion in the trunk than at the extremity; that their tendency to break may thus be uniform. We owe to this, the graceful waving of innumerable boughs, here aspiring in airy lightness above the general mass, and there gracefully feathering to the ground, the pleasing murmur of their foliage when rustling in the warm breeze of summer, and the elegant ramifications which are perceptible in winter. But whether seen against the clear blue ether of a winter sky, or presenting a broad and ample breadth of shade; whether raged against by a fierce tempest, or having the foliage gently shaken by playful breezes; the giant resistance in one case, or the ceaseless quiver of the other, owe their power, and their play, to the unseen members of the mighty column which are buried deep within the earth. These, though still, are ever working. Though they cannot move themselves, they move others. They draw up the moisture of the earth and send it, by means of a secret influence on an undiscoverable machinery, which is seen in its effects, though the way in which it operates is entirely unknown, to fill with life the smallest leaf that quivers in the sunbeams, or the tender bud that is not yet emerged from its silken cradle.
- 73. They serve likewise to brace the tree within the earth, and they vary according to climate and locality. Take the beech for instance, which flourishes alike in deep valleys, and on windy hills. When growing in a sheltered place the roots are thrown out equally, like rays diverging from a common centre. When standing on an eminence or on a plain, exposed to the action of a wind that blows generally from one quarter, the roots spread out and grapple the firm soil towards the quarter from which the wind comes. In this country it is generally south-west, or west-south-west; hence it happens that when other causes do not interfere, our native trees generally incline their heads to the north-east, and their strongest roots go forth in an opposite direction, for the evident purpose of holding the tree firm, when the storms beat upon it. Trees are, consequently, often uprooted by a sudden squall of wind from the east or north-east, which have withstood the tempests of ages. The aggregate effect produced by forest scenery is magnificent—the deep retiring woodland, the waving of innumerable branches, the majestic columns which uphold them, the mingled tints and hues, the dancing of the lights and shadows on the ground, the long, long vistas which extend far as the eye can reach, when the view of external nature is shut out, when there is neither a green meadow nor distant hill to be seen, nor even a fence nor railing, nothing which betokens the hand of man; but noble trees around, and a magnificent canopy of mingled boughs; when not a sound is heard except the rustling of the wind in the topmost branches, or perchance the plaintive voice of the ring-dove, which loves to build her nest in solitary places. But the tree, which like the Beech of the Frith Common, stands alone, can best be understood. The mind can rest upon it, and the eye can embrace its beautiful proportions. Wisdom may be gained by him who loves to read the ample page of nature, while musing beneath its branches, for every leaf is an open book, every tender bud tells much concerning the goodness of that Being whose beneficence is equally conspicuous in the smallest, as in the mightiest of created things.
- 74. This noble tree grows on a sunny hill side, And merry birds sing round it all the day long; Oh the joy of my childhood, at evening tide, To sit in its shadow and list the birds’ song! No sound then was heard but the gush of the rill, Or the woodpecker tapping some hollow beech-tree; While the sun shed his last purple glow on the hill, And the last hum was heard of the home-loving bee. But now far away from that sunny hill side, ’Mid the stir and the din of the proud city’s throng, I think, is that tree standing yet in its pride? Are the echoes still woke by the merry birds’ song? They tell me the woodcutter’s hatchet was heard, To thin the tall trees where they drooped o’er the lea; But he marr’d not the home of the wandering bird, The haunt of my childhood, my own beechen-tree. May peace in the cot of that woodman abide, And grateful birds sing to him all the day long, May his steps long be firm on the sunny hill’s side. And echo respond to the voice of his song. I can think of that tree, where no green trees are seen, ’Mid the city’s loud din, for the spirit is free, And dear to me still is the wild daisied green. Where thy branches are waving, my own beechen-tree.
- 76. The Salcey Oak “Thou wert a bauble once, a cup and ball, Which babes might play with, and the thievish jay, Seeking her food, with ease might have purloin’d The auburn nut that held thee, swallowing down Thy yet close-folded latitude of boughs, And all thy embryo vastness at a gulph.”—Cowper. By virtue of those indices which naturalists discover in the trunks and boughs of aged trees, it is conjectured that the autumns of fifteen hundred years have visited the Oak of Salcey. Standing remote from those frequented parts of Britain, where a thronging population causes the increase of buildings and the making of new roads, protected also by the inland situation of the little forest by which it is surrounded, the old tree has remained entire. It stands a living cavern, with an arched entrance on either side, within whose ample circumference large animals may lie down at noon, and where the careful shepherd often folds his flock at nightfall. It measures forty-six feet ten inches at the base, and at one yard from the ground the girth is thirty-nine feet ten inches. The knotted roots of the old tree have been laid bare by time or accidents, or by that living principle which causes aged trees to unearth their roots, and to raise the soil into hillocks; successive storms or the heavy tread of cattle have worn away the hillocks, and the roots being left in arches, produce an equally fantastic and picturesque effect. I have frequently observed the same peculiarity among the deep beech-woods of Gloucestershire; grass does not generally grow beneath them, yet in places open to the sun, primroses nestle in the interstices, and long pendent fern-leaves with the nailwort and forget-me-not grow profusely; but more commonly
- 77. the bare and knarled roots are without verdure, and they often afford a welcome covert to the wild rabbit, who makes them the portals of her burrow. The effect which is thus produced is well deserving the attention of the artist. The roots of such trees as grow on high and rugged banks, are occasionally unearthed to the extent of several feet, while between them, are deep hollows, running far back, with masses of freestone, and pendent ferns; and groups of innocent sheep, may be often seen with their heads projecting beneath the long fibres of the thickly tangled roots. Pliny relates that in countries subject to the shock of earthquakes, or where the living principle in trees is extremely vigorous, in consequence of soil or climate, the roots are often raised to a surprising height, that they look like arches, beneath which troops of cavalry may pass, as through the open and stately portals of a town. The venerable tree which has given rise to this digression, stands in the centre of a grassy area, where cattle pasture, and though still bearing the name of forest, the site on which it grows, exhibits little that would recall to mind, that it was once covered with noble trees. A few still remain, some apparently of great age, others in different stages of growth or of decay; but to the eye and to the heart, the one which is called by pre-eminence the Salcey Oak, must be alone. He who loves to watch the motions of animals, and the flight of birds; the passing of summer clouds, and the gradual advancing and receding of the light; the aspect too of nature, when shone upon by the bright warm sunbeams or at the fall of night, may find much to interest him in, and around the time-worn tree. Seen dimly in the dubious nights of the summer solstice, it presents the aspect of a cavern overgrown with bushes, within which a flock of sheep are often quietly reposing, or a cow has laid down to rest, with her little one beside her. The dew meanwhile is heavy on the grass, and not a sound is heard. The inmates of the nearest farm-house are not yet moving, neither is any animal abroad, nor have the early birds left the boughs on which they rest. That sound of waters which of all
- 78. others is the loudest, when all else is still, which seems to gather strength when the night is deepest, and often causes him who loiters in the fields to think that he is listening to the congregated roar of some far-off torrent, when perhaps only a little streamlet is brawling among the trees; that solemn sound is not heard here, for no running streams are close at hand. Nothing then is heard in the silence of this lone hour, but the rustle of the aspen-leaves, which are never still, even in the hot nights of summer, when not a breeze is felt, or the last whoop of the gray owl, when she hastens to shelter herself in the cavernous old tree, for that is her favourite abode. The nightingale does not affect the Oak of Salcey, neither does the lark love to raise his voice in the midst of the old trees, where no young copses, covered with wild roses and honeysuckles, invite him to place his nest among them. When the day dawns, and objects become visible, forth come the hare and rabbit from their shady coverts, and joyous birds from the shelter of trees and bushes. The early blackbird, nature’s sweetest minstrel, sings loudly that all may hear, and shaking off their slumbers may be up and doing; his full strain of melody does not always wait for the rising of the sun, he rather bids him welcome on his first appearance. Heralded by his clear voice, the chorus of singing birds commences. The lark rises high in air, the thrush and throstle, the linnet and the goldfinch pour forth such enchanting notes, as man, with all his science, cannot imitate. The rays of the bright sun shine into the hollow of the tree, and rouse the innocent sheep which slept there, to pasture on the fresh grass; the cattle too are moving, some from the great oak, others from the coppice- wood, which is seen at intervals among the trees. The business of the farm now commences, and the labourers are abroad. You may, perhaps, chance to see one of them pass this way, in going to, or returning from the fields, either to gather in the crops of hay, or corn, or to plough the land according to the season of the year. But this is of rare occurrence, few care to visit the old oak, and the pathway does not lead across the area by which it is surrounded.
- 79. At noon day when the sun is high, how quiet is this place! The song- birds are silent, but the hum of insects is at its height; they float up and down, and seem to rest on the soft air, as if threading the mazes of a dance, and then advancing and retreating with a ceaseless buzz. But when the shadow of the tree lengthens upon the grass, and the beams of the setting sun tint its topmost boughs of a golden hue, first one bird carols, and then another. Then also the breathing of the oxen, and the brushing sound which they make in cropping the damp grass, become audible. No one listens to them at noon, but the deep silence which begins to steal over the place, when twilight renders the large objects alone visible, brings the slightest movement to the ear. At length even such faint sounds are heard no longer; the birds cease their songs, and when the moonbeams shine into the cavern which time has formed in the Oak of Salcey, it may be seen that both sheep and cattle have retired thither. At one season of the year the oak is beat upon by heavy rain, and loud winds howl furiously around its aged head; at another it is white with snow, or the hoar frost of winter settles on it. At length green leaves peep forth from among the fissures of the trunk and boughs, and the sapling trees are green also. There is little else to record in connexion with this aged tree. Peasants may have sheltered their flocks for ages beneath its canopy of branches, when those branches were full of sap, and when stately trees stood round in all their greatness, where now only a grassy area meets the eye. But no ancient ruins are to be seen by him who climbs the trunk, nor yet the traces of any city which might have invited the aggressions of an enemy. We conjecture, therefore, that a forest, with breaks of lawn and thicket, and perhaps a common on which the peasant built his hut, and the homestead arose in peaceful times, might have extended round the oak of Salcey. The ground on which we tread presents sufficient indications that such has been the case. The millfoil-yarrow, the wild camomile, the gravel birdweed, and stonebasil, ancient tenants of the soil, which grow only in the
- 80. purest air of heaven, on waste land and stony banks, are seen in company with the wild bluebell and the crested cowwheat, with which the mower filleth not his hand, nor he that bindeth sheaves his bosom.
- 81. Old Trees in Welbeck Park. “There oft the Muse, what most delights her, sees Long living galleries of aged trees; Bold sons of earth, that lift their arms so high, As if once more they would invade the sky. In such green palaces the first kings reign’d, Slept in their shades, and angels entertain’d. With such old counsellors they did advise, And, by frequenting sacred groves, grew wise. Free from the impediments of light and noise, Man, thus retir’d, his noblest thoughts employs.”—Waller. Valleys and cultivated fields, have each their characteristics of richness or of loveliness, but they have no beauty in comparison with that of woodland scenery. The wild thyme and moss, the short- cropped herbage, the tufts of fern and golden-blossomed gorse, that vary the ground on which we tread; the solemn depth of the lone forest, the noble groups of trees that diversify the open spaces, and the clear streams that flow silently through the deep soil, bordered with cowslips and wild marigolds, have all, and each, their own peculiar attractions. Who has not been sensible when passing among them of an hilarity of feeling, a delight, which he has experienced nowhere else, which carries him onward from one spot to another, now in the midst of trees, and now again in the open space, as if he could never weary? Then, the sweet fresh breezes of the spring, how pure they are, sporting over the green herbage or among the trees. They are not infected with sighs of human sorrow; they have not passed beside the couch of dying men, or through the throng of a great city. They are sporting now as they sported a thousand years ago, among the branches of some of the old trees, which still remain, relics of bygone days, memorials of what has been. Those
- 82. breezes are still the same, for the circumambient fluid, which gives hilarity and freshness to everything that lives and moves on the surface of the earth, is not subjected to the unalterable law which seems impressed on all beside. Earthly things grow old, or assume some new character. Even the kindred element of water evaporates, and is replenished by means of rain or dew; the soil is blown away in dust, and renewed again by the decay of vegetables. Men cease from off the earth; in one day their thoughts perish; cities which they have erected, noble structures, destined to last for ages, crumble silently, or else are overthrown by war or earthquakes; but the air, though ever moving, neither evaporates, nor is susceptible of change. Thus, then, whether in the character of a whirlwind, or of zephyr; whether as a breeze of spring, or tempest from the north, has it raged or sported in the branches of the stately tree, which stands among its brethren of the forest, resembling a noble column, surrounded by crowding houses. It is termed the Duke’s Walking- Stick, but the hand that would essay to move the shaft from out the place where it has stood for ages, must be gifted with a power and a spell, which even the wildest fancy has never yet assigned to any being of mortal mould; not even to those giants of fierce bearing, with whom she loves to people her land of fiction. The column stands alone, its smooth trunk is branchless to a giddy height, and its topmost boughs are higher than the roof of Westminster Abbey at its loftiest elevation. A tree, with which the branches of no other tree can mingle, solitary in the midst of its sylvan brotherhood, having no communion in its stateliness, either with the oak, over which long ages have passed, or with the sapling of yesterday. Thoughts of home and kindred are blended with that other tree, to which the lovers of forest scenery make a pilgrimage—the seven Sisters, for such is the name of a contiguous tree, with several columns, which, upspringing from the same root, are seen to mingle their leaves and branches. The bird which confides her nest in spring to the sheltering boughs of the one, teaches her young to nestle among the opening leaves of the other; so closely are they entwined, that a squirrel would find it difficult to make his way between them. We know not why the cognomen which distinguishes this favourite tree
- 83. was given, or the period of its greatest perfection, whether it arose from out the earth in Saxon or Norman times, or whether seven ladies of a Ducal family, sisters in birth and love, gave that fond name to the noble tree, because of its interwoven stems.
- 84. The Queen’s Oak. O Lady! on thy regal brow The shades of death are gathered now! What matter, if in queenly bower, Was past of life thy fitful hour? In cloister gray, where meets at eve The whispering winds that softly breathe; Or, if in leafy glen afar, To some lone cot the guiding star Of him, who turn’d with weary feet Thy joyous answering smile to meet? What matter, if in hut or hall, Was spread o’er thee the funeral pall; If mutes and banners waited round, Or flowrets decked thy simple mound? If wrought on earth thy Maker’s will, No meddling fiend shall work thee ill: O blest thy waiting-place shall be, Till the grave shall set her captive free, Through His dear might who came to bless Man in his utter helplessness.—M. R. What see you in that old oak more than in any other tree, except that its trunk is white with age, and that gray lichens hang in tufts from out the interstices of the bark? That tree, stranger, was a silent witness of scenes long past. It stood when England was rent asunder during the fearful contest of the Roses; and beside its noble trunk met those, in all the pride of chivalry and loveliness of beauty, who now are resting from life’s weary pilgrimage beneath the tomb of Quentin Matsys.
- 85. Who has not heard concerning the Duchess Dowager of Bedford, how she left her high estate to wed a simple squire, and to dwell with him in the beautiful solitude of her dower castle of Grafton, far from the scene of her former greatness! The noble trees that grouped around the castle wall, mingled with those of the wide forest of Whittlebury, a royal chase, on the verge of which, and at no great distance from the castle, stood this aged tree, then in all the pride of sylvan majesty; and far as the eye could reach, extended one vast sweep of woodland scenery, with breaks of lawn and thicket. The inhabitants of Grafton Castle passed the first years of their wedded life in comparative obscurity, exercising hospitality, according to the manners of the age, yet keeping as much as possible apart from the dangers and excitements of public life. At length the necessity of providing for the elder branches of an increasing family, rendered it desirable to strengthen their connexions, and the Duchess of Bedford, whose rank was more exalted than her fortune, resolved to introduce them at the court of her friend, Queen Margaret, to whom her eldest daughter, the beautiful Elizabeth Woodville, was appointed maid of honour.[40] Years passed on, and Elizabeth was united to John Gray, son and heir to Lord Ferrars of Groby, possessor of the ancient domain of Bradgate,[41] by reason of his descent from Petronilla, daughter of Grantmesnil, one of the proudest of our Norman nobility. Withdrawn from her quiet home by the stirring incidents that attended the fierce contest between the rival houses of York and Lancaster, Elizabeth accompanied her husband during the campaign, and shared with him in many of its perils. It was even said that Queen Margaret persuaded her to visit king-making Warwick in his camp, under the pretence of requesting some little favour, for the stout earl was ever kind to her; but in reality to make observations relative to the number and condition of his troops. This was on the eve of the great battle of St. Albans, which took place at a short distance from the abbey. The abbey stood, in peaceable times, like a vast granary, which continually received and gave out its produce, into which was gathered both corn, and wine, and oil, barley, and the fruits of the
- 86. earth, and to which not fewer than twelve cells and hospitals were appended. And scarcely was there a forest, chase, or wood throughout the greatest part of England, which did not in some measure contribute a supply to the abbey of its timber or venison. Successive monarchs banquetted within its walls, and while the abbots were distinguished for their extensive hospitality, the poor were not forgotten. Thus stood St. Albans, often in stormy times a place of refuge, into which the peasants drove their cattle and were secure, and while the storm of war raged furiously without, there was safety and abundance within. But it was not always so, and St. Albans was sacked more than once. The infuriated followers of Wat Tyler set fire to the papers and written records of the abbey, and in after times it was exposed to all the horrors of civil war, when the rival houses of York and Lancaster battled close beside its walls, and beneath the floor of our Lady’s chapel rest the remains of many who fought and fell in those murderous conflicts. Showers and warm sunbeams contribute their aid ofttimes to repair the ravages which war has made in the aspect of nature. The trodden fields were again covered with corn; dwellings which had been set on fire, were speedily rebuilt, and all went on as before. Tributes of corn, and wine, and oil, were brought into the abbey, and the poor and destitute received their daily doles. But men had not yet learned that war and misery are synonymous. The second battle of St. Albans, at which the forces of Queen Margaret were, for a brief space, triumphant, was deeply felt within the abbey. Wounded men, borne by their companions from the fray, were continually brought in; and when the battle ceased, it was fearful to hear the continual tolling of the bell, sounding daily from morning till night, while the dead were being interred; if holding rank among the living, within the precincts of the monastery, if otherwise, in an adjoining field.[42] The husband of Elizabeth Woodville, Gray Lord Ferrars, was then in the twenty- fifth year of his age. Handsome, valorous, and intrepid, and devotedly attached to the cause of Henry VI.; he was appointed commander of the Red-rose cavalry, and, while leading on the memorable onset by which the field was won, he received a mortal wound, of which he died a few days after, at the village of Colney, on
- 87. the twenty-eighth of February 1461.[43] Henry VI. visited and endeavoured to console the dying youth, and sought, with the usual kindliness of his nature, to reconcile him to the thought of death, by pointing to the only Refuge, on whom his own hopes rested. Some chroniclers relate, that, according to the fashion of the age, he conferred the honour of knighthood on the wounded earl, for the sake of his sons, for although his father, Lord Ferrars, had died two months before, the distracted condition of the country had prevented the young nobleman from taking his place in the house of peers. A deep and rancorous feeling seems to have existed against the memory of this brave and devoted adherent of King Henry; his harmless children, the eldest of whom was not more than four years of age, were deprived of their inheritance, and his widow was not permitted to remain on the family estate; the fine old mansion, with its broad lands, was confiscated; it became the property of another, who repaired thither to take possession, and with him his family and dependents, who filled all the offices and places of trust and profit which the adherents of the house of Gray had hitherto enjoyed. Elizabeth, therefore, sought again the paternal roof. Sad was the day of her return, yet she only was changed. The avenue of noble trees waved in the breeze, fresh and shady as when last she passed; the fields, too, looked as green and lovely, and through them lay the pathway, fringed with wild flowers, where she had often gathered, with her young companions, fresh garlands of sweet flowers, with which to bedeck themselves. The mansion had not been altered, since the family returned from court, at the accession of Edward IV. There was the open door, down the steps of which the train of sisters had followed their stately mother, when they set forth a few years before, at the invitation of Queen Margaret, to visit her court; the eldest, appointed to be her maid of honour;[44] the others, with promises of favour and promotion. They had now returned, for there was neither favour nor promotion for adherents of the Red-rose, and Catherine, and Anne, and Mary, were waiting to receive Elizabeth with blended feelings of joy and sorrow; joy, to welcome back their sister; sorrow, to see her widow’s weeds and orphan children. Time had not changed them, nor were the faithful servants, who had
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