Natural Language Processing

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09IT:
Natural Language Processing
Introduction
Dr. Akhtar Hussain
QUEST, Nawabshah

Natural Language Processing
• NLP is the branch of computer science
focused on developing systems that allow
computers to communicate with people
using everyday language.
• Also called Computational Linguistics
– Also concerns how computational methods can
aid the understanding of human language
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Related Areas
• Artificial Intelligence
• Formal Language (Automata) Theory
• Machine Learning
• Linguistics
• Psycholinguistics
• Cognitive Science
• Philosophy of Language
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Communication
• The goal in the production and comprehension of
natural language is communication.
• Communication for the speaker:
– Intention: Decide when and what information should
be transmitted (a.k.a. strategic generation). May
require planning and reasoning about agents’ goals and
beliefs.
– Generation: Translate the information to be
communicated (in internal logical representation or
“language of thought”) into string of words in desired
natural language (a.k.a. tactical generation).
– Synthesis: Output the string in desired modality, text or
speech.

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Communication (cont)
• Communication for the hearer:
– Perception: Map input modality to a string of words,
e.g. optical character recognition (OCR) or speech
recognition.
– Analysis: Determine the information content of the
string.
• Syntactic interpretation (parsing): Find the correct parse
tree showing the phrase structure of the string.
• Semantic Interpretation: Extract the (literal) meaning of the
string (logical form).
• Pragmatic Interpretation: Consider effect of the overall
context on altering the literal meaning of a sentence.
– Incorporation: Decide whether or not to believe the
content of the string and add it to the KB.

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Syntax, Semantic, Pragmatics
• Syntax concerns the proper ordering of words and its affect
on meaning.
– The dog bit the boy.
– The boy bit the dog.
– * Bit boy dog the the.
– Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
• Semantics concerns the (literal) meaning of words,
phrases, and sentences.
– “plant” as a photosynthetic organism
– “plant” as a manufacturing facility
– “plant” as the act of sowing
• Pragmatics concerns the overall communicative and social
context and its effect on interpretation.
– The ham sandwich wants another beer. (co-reference, anaphora)
– John thinks vanilla. (ellipsis)

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Modular Comprehension
Acoustic/
Phonetic Syntax Semantics
Pragmatics
words parse
trees
literal
meaning
meaning
(contextualized
)
sound
waves

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Ambiguity
• Natural language is highly
ambiguous and must be
disambiguated.
– I saw the Grand Canyon flying to LA.
– Time flies like an arrow.
– Time runners like a coach.

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Ambiguity is Ubiquitous
• Speech Recognition
– “recognize speech” vs. “wreck a nice beach”
– “youth in Asia” vs. “euthanasia”
• Syntactic Analysis
– “I ate spaghetti with chopsticks” vs. “I ate spaghetti with meatballs.”
• Semantic Analysis
– “The dog is in the pen.” vs. “The ink is in the pen.”
– “I put the plant in the window” vs. “Ford put the plant in Mexico”
• Pragmatic Analysis
– From “The Pink Panther Strikes Again”:
– Clouseau: Does your dog bite?
Hotel Clerk: No.
Clouseau: [bowing down to pet the dog] Nice doggie.
[Dog barks and bites Clouseau in the hand]
Clouseau: I thought you said your dog did not bite!
Hotel Clerk: That is not my dog.

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Ambiguity is Explosive
• Ambiguities compound to generate enormous
numbers of possible interpretations.
• In English, a sentence ending in n
prepositional phrases has over 2n syntactic
interpretations (cf. Catalan numbers).
– “I saw the man with the telescope”: 2 parses
– “I saw the man on the hill with the telescope.”: 5 parses
– “I saw the man on the hill in Texas with the telescope”:
14 parses
– “I saw the man on the hill in Texas with the telescope at
noon.”: 42 parses
– “I saw the man on the hill in Texas with the telescope at
noon on Monday” 132 parses

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Humor and Ambiguity
• Many jokes rely on the ambiguity of language:
– Groucho Marx: One morning I shot an elephant in my
pajamas. How he got into my pajamas, I’ll never know.
– She criticized my apartment, so I knocked her flat.
– Noah took all of the animals on the ark in pairs. Except
the worms, they came in apples.
– Policeman to little boy: “We are looking for a thief with
a bicycle.” Little boy: “Wouldn’t you be better using
your eyes.”
– Why is the teacher wearing sun-glasses. Because the
class is so bright.

Why is Language Ambiguous?
• Having a unique linguistic expression for every
possible conceptualization that could be conveyed
would make language overly complex and
linguistic expressions unnecessarily long.
• Allowing resolvable ambiguity permits shorter
linguistic expressions, i.e. data compression.
• Language relies on people’s ability to use their
knowledge and inference abilities to properly
resolve ambiguities.
• Infrequently, disambiguation fails, i.e. the
compression is lossy.
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Natural Languages vs. Computer Languages
• Ambiguity is the primary difference between
natural and computer languages.
• Formal programming languages are designed to be
unambiguous, i.e. they can be defined by a
grammar that produces a unique parse for each
sentence in the language.
• Programming languages are also designed for
efficient (deterministic) parsing, i.e. they are
deterministic context-free languages (DCLFs).
– A sentence in a DCFL can be parsed in O(n) time where
n is the length of the string.
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Natural Language Tasks
• Processing natural language text involves
many various syntactic, semantic and
pragmatic tasks in addition to other
problems.
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Word Segmentation
• Breaking a string of characters (graphemes) into a
sequence of words.
• In some written languages (e.g. Chinese) words
are not separated by spaces.
• Even in English, characters other than white-space
can be used to separate words [e.g. , ; . - : ( ) ]
• Examples from English URLs:
– jumptheshark.com Þ jump the shark .com
– myspace.com/pluckerswingbar
Þ myspace .com pluckers wing bar
Þ Ä myspace .com plucker swing bar

Morphological Analysis
• Morphology is the field of linguistics that studies the
internal structure of words. (Wikipedia)
• A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that has
semantic meaning (Wikipedia)
– e.g. “carry”, “pre”, “ed”, “ly”, “s”
• Morphological analysis is the task of segmenting a word
into its morphemes:
– carried Þ carry + ed (past tense)
– independently Þ in + (depend + ent) + ly
– Googlers Þ (Google + er) + s (plural)
– unlockable Þ un + (lock + able) ?
Þ (un + lock) + able ?

Part Of Speech (POS) Tagging
• Annotate each word in a sentence with a
part-of-speech.
I ate the spaghetti with meatballs.
Pro V Det N Prep N
John saw the saw and decided to take it to the table.
PN V Det N Con V Part V Pro Prep Det N
• Useful for subsequent syntactic parsing and
word sense disambiguation.

Phrase Chunking
• Find all non-recursive noun phrases (NPs)
and verb phrases (VPs) in a sentence.
– [NP I] [VP ate] [NP the spaghetti] [PP with]
[NP meatballs].
– [NP He ] [VP reckons ] [NP the current account
deficit ] [VP will narrow ] [PP to ] [NP only #
1.8 billion ] [PP in ] [NP September ]

Syntactic Parsing
• Produce the correct syntactic parse tree for
a sentence.

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Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD)
• Words in natural language usually have a
fair number of different possible meanings.
– Ellen has a strong interest in computational
linguistics.
– Ellen pays a large amount of interest on her
credit card.
• For many tasks (question answering,
translation), the proper sense of each
ambiguous word in a sentence must be
determined.

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Semantic Role Labeling (SRL)
• For each clause, determine the semantic
role played by each noun phrase that is an
argument to the verb.
agent patient source destination instrument
– John drove Mary from Austin to Dallas in his
Toyota Prius.
– The hammer broke the window.
• Also referred to a “case role analysis,”
“thematic analysis,” and “semantic parsing”

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Semantic Parsing
• A semantic parser maps a natural-language
sentence to a complete, detailed semantic
representation (logical form).
• For many applications, the desired output is
immediately executable by another program.
• Example: Mapping an English database query to
Prolog:
How many cities are there in the US?
answer(A, count(B, (city(B), loc(B, C),
const(C, countryid(USA))),
A))

Textual Entailment
• Determine whether one natural language
sentence entails (implies) another under an
ordinary interpretation.

Textual Entailment Problems
from PASCAL Challenge
TEXT HYPOTHESIS ENTAIL
MENT
Eyeing the huge market potential, currently
led by Google, Yahoo took over search
company Overture Services Inc last year.
Yahoo bought Overture. TRUE
Microsoft's rival Sun Microsystems Inc.
bought Star Office last month and plans to
boost its development as a Web-based
device running over the Net on personal
computers and Internet appliances.
Microsoft bought Star Office. FALSE
The National Institute for Psychobiology in
Israel was established in May 1971 as the
Israel Center for Psychobiology by Prof.
Joel.
Israel was established in May
1971. FALSE
Since its formation in 1948, Israel fought
many wars with neighboring Arab
countries.
Israel was established in
1948. TRUE

Co-Reference
• Determine which phrases in a document refer
to the same underlying entity.
– John put the carrot on the plate and ate it.
– Bush started the war in Iraq. But the president
needed the consent of Congress.
• Some cases require difficult reasoning.
• Today was Jack's birthday. Penny and Janet went to the store.
They were going to get presents. Janet decided to get a kite.
"Don't do that," said Penny. "Jack has a kite. He will make you
take it back."

Ellipsis Resolution
• Frequently words and phrases are omitted
from sentences when they can be inferred
from context.
"Wise men talk because they have something to say;
fools talk because they have to say something.“ (Plato)
fools, because they have to say something.“ (Plato)

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Information Extraction (IE)
• Identify phrases in language that refer to specific
types of entities and relations in text.
• Named entity recognition is task of identifying
names of people, places, organizations, etc. in text.
people organizations places
– Michael Dell is the CEO of Dell Computer
Corporation and lives in Austin Texas.
• Relation extraction identifies specific relations
between entities.
– Michael Dell is the CEO of Dell Computer
Corporation and lives in Austin Texas.

Question Answering
• Directly answer natural language questions
based on information presented in a corpora
of textual documents (e.g. the web).
– When was Barack Obama born? (factoid)
• August 4, 1961
– Who was president when Barack Obama was
born?
• John F. Kennedy
– How many presidents have there been since
Barack Obama was born?
• 9

Text Summarization
• Produce a short summary of a longer document or
article.
– Article: With a split decision in the final two primaries and a flurry of
superdelegate endorsements, Sen. Barack Obama sealed the Democratic
presidential nomination last night after a grueling and history-making
campaign against Sen. Hillary Rodham Clinton that will make him the
first African American to head a major-party ticket. Before a chanting and
cheering audience in St. Paul, Minn., the first-term senator from Illinois
savored what once seemed an unlikely outcome to the Democratic race
with a nod to the marathon that was ending and to what will be another
hard-fought battle, against Sen. John McCain, the presumptive Republican
nominee….
– Summary: Senator Barack Obama was declared the
presumptive Democratic presidential nominee.

Machine Translation (MT)
• Translate a sentence from one natural
language to another.
– Hasta la vista, bebé Þ
Until we see each other again, baby.

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Ambiguity Resolution
is Required for Translation
• Syntactic and semantic ambiguities must be properly
resolved for correct translation:
– “John plays the guitar.” → “John toca la guitarra.”
– “John plays soccer.” → “John juega el fútbol.”
• An apocryphal story is that an early MT system gave
the following results when translating from English to
Russian and then back to English:
– “The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak.” Þ
“The liquor is good but the meat is spoiled.”
– “Out of sight, out of mind.” Þ “Invisible idiot.”

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Resolving Ambiguity
• Choosing the correct interpretation of linguistic
utterances requires knowledge of:
– Syntax
• An agent is typically the subject of the verb
– Semantics
• Michael and Ellen are names of people
• Austin is the name of a city (and of a person)
• Toyota is a car company and Prius is a brand of car
– Pragmatics
– World knowledge
• Credit cards require users to pay financial interest
• Agents must be animate and a hammer is not animate

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Manual Knowledge Acquisition
• Traditional, “rationalist,” approaches to language
processing require human specialists to specify
and formalize the required knowledge.
• Manual knowledge engineering, is difficult, time-consuming,
and error prone.
• “Rules” in language have numerous exceptions
and irregularities.
– “All grammars leak.”: Edward Sapir (1921)
• Manually developed systems were expensive to
develop and their abilities were limited and
“brittle” (not robust).

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Automatic Learning Approach
• Use machine learning methods to automatically
acquire the required knowledge from appropriately
annotated text corpora.
• Variously referred to as the “corpus based,”
“statistical,” or “empirical” approach.
• Statistical learning methods were first applied to
speech recognition in the late 1970’s and became the
dominant approach in the 1980’s.
• During the 1990’s, the statistical training approach
expanded and came to dominate almost all areas of
NLP.

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Learning Approach
Manually Annotated
Training Corpora
Machine
Learning
Linguistic
Knowledge
NLP System
Raw Text Automatically
Annotated Text

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Advantages of the Learning Approach
• Large amounts of electronic text are now
available.
• Annotating corpora is easier and requires less
expertise than manual knowledge engineering.
• Learning algorithms have progressed to be able to
handle large amounts of data and produce accurate
probabilistic knowledge.
• The probabilistic knowledge acquired allows
robust processing that handles linguistic
regularities as well as exceptions.

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The Importance of Probability
• Unlikely interpretations of words can combine to generate
spurious ambiguity:
– “The a are of I” is a valid English noun phrase (Abney, 1996)
• “a” is an adjective for the letter A
• “are” is a noun for an area of land (as in hectare)
• “I” is a noun for the letter I
– “Time flies like an arrow” has 4 parses, including those meaning:
• Insects of a variety called “time flies” are fond of a particular arrow.
• A command to record insects’ speed in the manner that an arrow would.
• Some combinations of words are more likely than others:
– “vice president Gore” vs. “dice precedent core”
• Statistical methods allow computing the most likely
interpretation by combining probabilistic evidence from a
variety of uncertain knowledge sources.

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Human Language Acquisition
• Human children obviously learn languages from experience.
• However, it is controversial to what extent prior knowledge
of “universal grammar” (Chomsky, 1957) facilitates this
acquisition process.
• Computational studies of language learning may help us to
understand human language learning, and to elucidate to
what extent language learning must rely on prior grammatical
knowledge due to the “poverty of the stimulus.”
• Existing empirical results indicate that a great deal of
linguistic knowledge can be effectively acquired from
reasonable amounts of real linguistic data without specific
knowledge of a “universal grammar.”

Pipelining Problem
• Assuming separate independent components for
speech recognition, syntax, semantics, pragmatics,
etc. allows for more convenient modular software
development.
• However, frequently constraints from “higher
level” processes are needed to disambiguate
“lower level” processes.
– Example of syntactic disambiguation relying on
semantic disambiguation:
• At the zoo, several men were showing a group of students
various types of flying animals. Suddenly, one of the students
hit the man with a bat.
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Pipelining Problem (cont.)
• If a hard decision is made at each stage, cannot
backtrack when a later stage indicates it is
incorrect.
– If attach “with a bat” to the verb “hit” during syntactic
analysis, then cannot reattach it to “man” after “bat” is
disambiguated during later semantic or pragmatic
processing.
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Increasing Module Bandwidth
• If each component produces multiple scored
interpretations, then later components can rerank
these interpretations.
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Acoustic/
Phonetic Syntax Semantics
Pragmatics
words parse
trees
literal
meanings
meaning
(contextualized
)
sound
waves
• Problem: Number of interpretations grows
combinatorially.
• Solution: Efficiently encode combinations of
interpretations.
• Word lattices
• Compact parse forests

Global Integration/
Joint Inference
• Integrated interpretation that combines
phonetic/syntactic/semantic/pragmatic
constraints.
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sound
waves
Integrated
Interpretation
meaning
(contextualized
)
• Difficult to design and implement.
• Potentially computationally complex.

Early History: 1950’s
• Shannon (the father of information theory)
explored probabilistic models of natural language
(1951).
• Chomsky (the extremely influential linguist)
developed formal models of syntax, i.e. finite state
and context-free grammars (1956).
• First computational parser developed at U Penn as
a cascade of finite-state transducers (Joshi, 1961;
Harris, 1962).
• Bayesian methods developed for optical character
recognition (OCR) (Bledsoe & Browning, 1959).

History: 1960’s
• Work at MIT AI lab on question answering
(BASEBALL) and dialog (ELIZA).
• Semantic network models of language for question
answering (Simmons, 1965).
• First electronic corpus collected, Brown corpus, 1
million words (Kucera and Francis, 1967).
• Bayesian methods used to identify document
authorship (The Federalist papers) (Mosteller &
Wallace, 1964).

History: 1970’s
• “Natural language understanding” systems
developed that tried to support deeper semantic
interpretation.
– SHRDLU (Winograd, 1972) performs tasks in the
“blocks world” based on NL instruction.
– Schank et al. (1972, 1977) developed systems for
conceptual representation of language and for
understanding short stories using hand-coded
knowledge of scripts, plans, and goals.
• Prolog programming language developed to
support logic-based parsing (Colmeraurer, 1975).
• Initial development of hidden Markov models
(HMMs) for statistical speech recognition (Baker,
1975; Jelinek, 1976).

History: 1980’s
• Development of more complex (mildly
context sensitive) grammatical formalisms,
e.g. unification grammar, HPSG, tree-adjoning
grammar.
• Symbolic work on discourse processing and
NL generation.
• Initial use of statistical (HMM) methods for
syntactic analysis (POS tagging) (Church,
1988).

History: 1990’s
• Rise of statistical methods and empirical
evaluation causes a “scientific revolution” in the
field.
• Initial annotated corpora developed for training
and testing systems for POS tagging, parsing,
WSD, information extraction, MT, etc.
• First statistical machine translation systems
developed at IBM for Canadian Hansards corpus
(Brown et al., 1990).
• First robust statistical parsers developed
(Magerman, 1995; Collins, 1996; Charniak, 1997).
• First systems for robust information extraction
developed (e.g. MUC competitions).

History: 2000’s
• Increased use of a variety of ML methods, SVMs,
logistic regression (i.e. max-ent), CRF’s, etc.
• Continued developed of corpora and competitions
on shared data.
– TREC Q/A
– SENSEVAL/SEMEVAL
– CONLL Shared Tasks (NER, SRL…)
• Increased emphasis on unsupervised, semi-supervised,
and active learning as alternatives to
purely supervised learning.
• Shifting focus to semantic tasks such as WSD and
SRL.

Relevant Scientific Conferences
• Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)
• North American Association for Computational
Linguistics (NAACL)
• International Conference on Computational
Linguistics (COLING)
• Empirical Methods in Natural Language
Processing (EMNLP)
• Conference on Computational Natural Language
Learning (CoNLL)
• International Association for Machine Translation
(IMTA) 54

Natural Language Processing

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