Nature and structure of language

Nature and Structure of Language

Criteria of the system of communication
in order to be considered a language:
A language uses symbols
A language is meaningful and therefore can
be understood by other users of that
language.

A language is generative
A language has rules that govern how
symbols can be arranged.

The Building Blocks of Language
1. Phonemes- the smallest distinguishable
units in a language.
2. Morphemes- the smallest meaningful units
in a language.

3. Syntax – is a system of rules that governs
how words can be meaningfully
arranged to form phrases and
sentences.

Properties of Human Language
creative and dynamic
structured
meaningful
referential
interpersonal

Course Descriptions of the Language

What is the secondary English subject all
about?
The secondary English curriculum for 2002
seeks to develop citizenship and to address
the communication needs(i.e. interpersonal,
informative, and aesthetic) of Filipino
students for English, which is emerging as the
international lingua franca.

In line with developments in applied
linguistics and pedagogy, and in consonance
with the government thrusts and
globalization ,this emerging English
curriculum adopts a communicative-
interactive, collaborative approach to
learning as well as reflection and
introspection .

It has the aim in view of developing
autonomous language learners who are aware
of and are able to cope with global trends.

…Central to the framework of this
curriculum is the need for language learning
that is contextualized, interactive, and
integrated.

Goals and Expectations
At the end of the First Year, the students is
expected to:
a. determine how sentences are used to
perform communicative acts, such as
describing, defining, classifying,etc.;

b. make use of real world knowledge and
experience with emphasis on cross-
cultural items ,
c. Work at the denotative meanings of a text;
identify and explain different literary
types with emphasis on Philippine
literature,

d. and show appreciation of art forms and
familiarization with the more common
mass media forms.

At the end of the Second Year, the students
is expected to:
a. Exhibit skills in utilizing the prosodic
features in oral texts and signals and
cues in written texts to follows the
development of ideas,

b. Show understanding and appreciation of
the different genres with emphasis on types
contributed by Afro-Asian and Philippine
countries,

c. and to manipulate formal devices used to
combine sentences to create continuous
prose employing different rhetorical
patterns.

At the end of the Third Year, the students is
expected to:
a. Utilize a variety of sentences and
methods in persuasion and
argumentations,
b. Break down complex sentence to get
the message in different text types,

c. Journalistic, scientific, literary, and
technical,

d. and single out the devices employed in
fiction works and non –fiction works
(foreshadowing, flashbacks, figurative
language, etc.) used by authors for
intellectual, emotional, and aesthetic
purpose with emphasis on Philippine and
British-American literature.

At the end of the Fourth Year, the students
is expected to:
a. Have acquired skills of assessing,
evaluating, and using relevant
information to meet their various needs,
thereby enabling them to adapt and
respond flexibly to a rapidly changing
world;

b. and to have developed listening, speaking,
reading, and writing skills and appreciation
of literature resulting in a deeper
understanding of the ideas, experiences,
and cultures of other people, customs and
traditions, as well as values.

Scope and Sequence of the
Language Subjects

First Year
Quarter 1
Getting in Touch with Self and Others
1. How I see myself
2. How does family see me?
3. Through the eyes of my friends

4. I, as a member of the community
5. How informed and concerned am I about
national and global issues?
6. Reaching out to others
7. being open to contrary opinions

8. Do I step on the right of others?
9. My relationship with God
Output: My Profile: A thumbnail sketch ( An
autobiography, a collage,
or a self- portrait)

Quarter 2
I as a learner
1. I am a learner
2. Making sense of what I’ve learned
3. When communication bogs down
4. When memory fails me

5. Planning my learning activities
6. Becoming a resourceful learner
7. Working harmoniously with others
8. Reflecting on what I’ve done
9. Synthesizing my learning experiences
Output: My portfolio as a learner

Quarter 3
My Relationship with Nature
1. Learning from nature
2. Bounties of nature
3. Taking care of nature
4. Coping with the wrath of nature

5. The 3 Rs of waste management
6. Being a responsible steward of nature
7. Communing with nature
8. Nature in us
9. Drawing inspiration from nature
Output: a campaign for change: treating
nature right

Quarter 4
Science and Technology: Friend of Foe?
1. Development in transportation
2. Development in communication
3. Medical breakthroughs
4. Food for all

5. Consumerism
6. Science and Technology: master or slave?
7. Our throw- away society
8. Experiencing information overload
9. Necessity: the mother of all inventions

Output: Round table discussion on the topic:
science and technology: friend of
foe?

Second Year
Quarter 1
Learning to Know
1. A wealth of knowledge
2. Learning to learn
3. Learning from experiences

4. Learning from others
5. Learning from events
6. Learning from information technology
7. An analytical learner
8. Reflecting on what I learned

9. Reflecting on an informative talk show
Output: An informative talk show related to
national and global issues

Quarter 2
Learning to Be
1. Being true to ourselves
2. Tracing our roots
3. Being a nationalists
4. Being an Asian citizen

5. Being an open- minded but discerning
global citizen
6. Being a team player
7. Being concerned about people
8. Being concerned about nature
9. Being responsible for one’s decisions
Output: A peace book/ wall or board

Quarter 3
Learning to Become
1. Responding to differences of opinions
and culture
2. Responding to personal problems
3. Responding to societal problems

4. Responding to uncertainties
5. Responding to changes
6. Responding to media
7. Taking risks
8. Listening to events

9. Timeout for reflection
Output: A show case of growth through
colors, shapes, objects, sounds, and
language

Quarter 4
Learning to Do
1. Viewing problems and issues from
different vantage points
2. Reading up on previous efforts
3. Noting trends

4. Drawing up plans
5. Trying things out
6. Analyzing results
7. Reflecting and evaluating processes
8. Creating new applications

9. Presenting and sharing results
Output: A project proposal and end- of-
project reports

Third Year
Quarter 1
In the Realm of Thoughts
1. Seeing patterns
2. Perception versus reality
3. Reconciling contradictions

4. Breaking down walls
5. Up- down and up again: The S- curve
6. People change
7. What’s new?
8. Green housing ideas

9. Looking back, looking forward
Output: Making ideas take shape through
songs, painting, collage, etc.

Quarter 2
Interactions
1. Formal interaction with people
2. Interaction through technology
3. Interaction with nature
4. Interaction with ideas: A self-talk

5. Non- verbal interactions
6. Reducing language barriers
7. Language of power
8. A cross- cultural perspective
Output: A phrase book of basic
conversational expressions

Quarter 3
Quality not Quantity
1. Uniqueness
2. Impact
3. Multi- modal
4. Inter- connectedness integration

5. A work of art
6. A labor of love
7. Transcending time and space
8. Source of pride
9. Beyond the unexpected
Output: standards of quality: a primer

Quarter 4
Making a Difference
1. People who make a difference
2. Earth- shaking events
3. Moving ideas
4. Inventions and discoveries that change
the world

5. What if?
6. Both sides of the coin
7. Taking a stand
8. Refuting arguments
9. Where lies the truth?
Output: debate

Fourth Year
Quarter 1
Education for Life
1. Learning to think
2. Expanding and refining knowledge
3. Applying for college admission/
employment

4. Process and product
5. Language in the content area
6. Developing a sense of responsibility
7. Service for others and willingness to
share
8. Making my voice heard

9. Previewing and evaluating
Output: Annotated bibliography and note
cards

Quarter 2
Education for Justice
1. Sharing resources equitably
2. Tempering justice with mercy
3. In defense of life
4. Defending basic human rights

5. The culture of non- violence
6. Trial by publicity
7. Justice delayed, justice denied
8. In fairness to all
9. Speaking out in defense with others
Output: Debate and letters to the editor

Quarter 3
Education for Sustainable Development
1. Education: A life long process
2. Values for sustainable growth and
development
3. Change is costly

4. Networking
5. Self- management
6. concern for the environment
7. Using language to establish relationships
8. Constant self- assessment
Output: Research paper. Draft for chapters
1- 3

Quarter 4
Education for Global Citizenship
1. Stressing interconnectedness
2. Looking at problems in a global context
3. Accepting cultural differences
4. Working cooperatively and responsibly

5. Thinking in critical and systematic way
6. Going ``global``
7. Adjustments and re- adjustments
8. Language for survival in a global culture
9. Envisioning possible, preferred and
plural future scenarios

Output: Research paper or a simple
feasibility study

Principles of Teaching
and
Learning Language

1. Begin with the end in mind.
“With a specific objective in mind, our
lesson becomes more focused. We do not
waste nor kill time for we are sure of what
to teach, how to teach and what materials
to use.” – Corpuz, B. & G.

2. Encourage your students to personalize
the learning goals identified for them.
“When students set their own personal
targets (lesson objectives), they will become
more self-motivated.” – Corpuz, B. & G.

3. Motivation is essential in learning.
It is motivation that makes students
explore, choose, remain interested,
participate actively and build self-
confidence.

4. Learning is a social activity.
“It is a cooperative and collaborative
process.” – Pine, Gerald & Peter J. Horne.
We learn from others when we interact
with them in the same way that they learn
from us.

5. Teaching language is more effective and
learning, more meaningful when it is
integrative.
When you do integrative teaching, you will:
 incorporate the 4 language arts
(listening, speaking, reading and writing)

consider varied strategies for all multiple
intelligences and learning styles
apply interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary
teaching
teach language structure and form in
authentic contexts rather than through
contrived drills in language workbooks

connect your lessons to the life
experiences of your students
incorporate effective, research-based
instructional strategies for teaching
integrate values in your lessons

6. A conducive classroom atmosphere is a
sine qua non of the teaching-learning
process.
Build comfort into learning. People
function best in a favorable atmosphere.

Gerald J. Pine and Peter J. Horne describe a
facilitative learning atmosphere as one that:
encourages people to be active
promotes and facilitates the individual’s
discovery of the personal meaning of
ideas

emphasizes the uniquely personal and
subjective nature of learning
sees difference as good and desirable
consistently recognizes people’s right to
make mistakes
tolerates ambiguity

looks at evaluation as a cooperative
process and emphasizes on self-
evaluation
encourages openness of self rather than
concealment of self

encourages people to trust in themselves
as well as in external sources
gives respect to people
accepts people for who they are
permits confrontation with self and ideas

7. Learning is an active process which uses
sensory input and constructs meaning out of
it.
“Learning involves the learner’s engaging
with the world and not the passive acceptance
of knowledge which exists out there” – Hein, G.

8. Learning is reflective.
Need to provide activities which engage
the mind as well as the hands. Physical
actions, hands-on experience may be
necessary for learning but it is not sufficient.

9. An approach that allows for ‘more time,
more depth with fewer, more complex topics’
is more desirable.
This superficial teaching won’t allow a
teacher’s lesson to seep into the minds and
hearts of the students.

10. Emphasize on self-evaluation.
Feedback should be criterion-
referenced. Practice using rubrics. It is
against this personal target that they will
evaluate themselves at the end of the
lesson.

11. Make use of an integrated performance
assessment that makes the connections
between learning styles, intelligence, and
the real world explicit in a way that is useful
to both students and teachers.

12. Emphasize on real word application that
favors realistic performances over out-of-
context drill items.
Howard Gardner argues for assessment
practices that look directly at the performance
that we value, whether it is linguistic, logical,
aesthetic, or social performance.

Effective Instructional
Strategies

Characterize an effective instructional
strategy are:
Interactive
Integrated
Introspective
Reflective Contextualized
Experiential
Collaborative
Cooperative

Interactive Teaching Strategy
=> is in keeping with the principle that
learning is an active process. The more you
involve yourselves in the learning process, the
more learning you get.

Modes of Interaction:
Interact with Classmates
Interact with Teacher
Interact with Instructional Material
Interact with Self

Integrative Teaching
=> comes from the word “integer” which
means to make a whole; an effective
instructional strategy.

Integrative Teaching
=> To do wholistic or integrated teaching is
in contrast with the choppy and isolated
teaching that takes place in several
classrooms.

MI-Integrated Teaching Strategy
Teaching is also integrative when it
includes all learners with multiple
intelligences and varied learning styles.
There are teaching strategies that are more
effective for each intelligence and learning
style.

Intelligence Examples of Classroom
Activities
Verbal-Linguistic discussions, debates, journal
writing, conferences, essays,
stories, poems, storytelling,
listening activities, reading
Logical-Mathematical calculations, experiments,
comparisons, number games,
using evidence, formulating &
testing hypothesis, deductive &
inductive reasoning

Activities
Visual-Spatial concept maps, graphs, charts,
art projects, metaphorical
thinking, visualization, videos,
slides visual presentations
Bodily-Kinesthetic role-playing, dance, athletic
activities, manipulatives,
hands-on demonstrations,
concept miming

Activities
Musical playing music, singing, rapping,
whistling, clapping, analyzing
sounds and music
Interpersonal community-involvement
projects, discussions,
cooperative learning, team
games, peer tutoring,
conferences, social activities,
sharing

Activities
Intrapersonal student choice, journal writing,
self-evaluation, personal
instruction, independent study,
discussing feelings, reflecting
Naturalist ecological field trips,
environmental study, discussing
feelings, reflecting

LS – Integrated Activities
Intelligence Example of
Classroom Activities
Activities that focus
on:
Mastery
Exercise—practice
Direct instruction
Drill and repetition
Demonstrations
Competitions
• organizing &
managing
information
• practicing a skill
• observing
• describing
• memorizing
• categorizing

on:
Interpersonal
Experience—
personalize
Team games
Learning circles
Role playing
Group investigation
Peer tutoring
Personal sharing
• describing feelings
• emphasizing
• responding
• valuing

on:
Understanding
Explain—prove
Inquiry
Concept formation
Debate
Problem solving
Independent study
Essays
Logic problems
• classifying
• analyzing
• using evidence
• applying
• comparing and
contrasting
• evaluating

Intelligence Example of Classroom
Activities
Activities that
focus on:
Self-Expressive
Explore—produce
Divergent thinking
Metaphors
Creative art activities
Imagining
Open-ended discussion
Imagery
Creative problem
solving
• hypothesizing
• synthesizing
• symbolizing
• creating
• metaphorical
expression
• self-expression

Research-based Teaching Strategy
According to the McREL researchers, there
are 9 categories of instructional strategies that
proved to be exceptionally effective in
increasing student performance.

 Setting Objectives
Teachers can narrow the focus for students.
Instructional goals should not be too
specific, however, or learning will be
limited.
Students should be encouraged to adapt
the teachers’ goals to their own personal
needs and desires.

 Providing Feedback
Feedback should be corrective in nature.
The timeliness of feedback is essential to its
effectiveness.
Feedback should be specific to a criterion.
Students can effectively provide their own
feedback through on-going self-evaluation of
their learning and performance.

 Non-linguistic Representations
A variety of activities (graphic
representations, pictures, mental images,
physical and technological models and
kinesthetic activities) can help students to
formulate non-linguistic representations.
It elaborate on knowledge.

 Cues and Questions
It should focus on what is important rather
than on what is unusual.
Higher-level questions produce deeper
learning than lower-level questions.

Waiting at least 3 sec. before accepting
responses from students increases the
depth of answers.
Questions are effective even before a
lesson begins.

 Advance Organizers
It should focus on what is important
instead of what is unusual.
Higher-level organizers produce deeper
learning than lower level advance
organizers.

It is best used to give structure to
information that is not well organized.
There are 4 main types of advance
organizers: expository, narrative,
skimming, and graphic.

 Cooperative Learning
These groups should rarely be organized by
ability.
These groups should also be small.
Teachers should take care not to overuse
them.

 Summarizing
To effectively summarize, students must
keep, delete, and substitute information.
Students must analyze the information at a
fairly deep level.
Being aware of the explicit structure of
information is an aid when summarizing.

 Note Taking
Verbatim note taking is the least effective way
to take notes.
Notes should always be considered works in
progress.
Notes should be used as study guides for tests.
The more notes taken, the better.

 Homework
The amount of homework assigned to
students should increase as they progress
from elementary through high school.
Parental involvement in homework should
be minimal.

The purpose of homework should be
identified and articulated.
Feedback should be provided on
homework.

 Reinforcing Effort
Students are unaware of the direct effect
that effort has on success.
Students can learn that the effort they put
into a task has a direct effect on their
success.
Strong belief in effort increases motivation.

 Providing Recognition
Rewards do not necessarily have a negative
effect on intrinsic motivation.
Rewards are most effective when they are
contingent upon the attainment of some
standard performance.

Abstract recognition is more effective in
improving performance than are tangible
rewards.

 Generating and Testing Hypotheses
Hypothesis generation and testing can be
approached in an inductive or deductive
manner.
Teachers must encourage students to
explain their hypotheses and conclusions.

 Identifying Similarities and Differences
Teacher-directed activities deeper
understanding for students and increase
their ability to use knowledge.
Students should independently identify
similarities and differences.

When students represent similarities and
differences in graphic or symbolic form, it
enhances their ability to identify and
understand similarities and differences.

There are four different forms of
identifying similarities and differences:
comparing, classifying, creating analogies,
and creating metaphors.

Instructional Materials
for
Language Teaching

Graphic Organizers
=> The use of different types of graphic
organizers enhances teaching and learning.

Nature and structure of language

Narrative Frame
Elements of the narrative or story frame:
 Characters: the characteristics of the main
characters in the story
 Setting: the time, place, and context in
which the information took place

 Initiating event: the event that starts the
actions rolling in the story
 Internal response: how the main characters
react emotionally to the initiating event
 Goal: what the main characters decided to do
as a reaction to the initiating event

 Consequence: how the main characters try
to accomplish try to a accomplish the goal
 Resolution: how the goal turns out

Value Integration Techniques / Tools
 Value Sheet – It consist of a provocative
statement and a series of questions duplicated
on a sheet of paper. The purpose of the
provocative statement is to raise an issue that
have a value implication for students.

The purpose of the question is to carry each
student through the value- clarifying process
with the issue.
 Value-Clarifying Question: Can we love our
country even if we can speak English better
that Filipino?

Can we claim we love our country even if we do
not speak the national language? Are other ways
of showing our love for country? Is there really
need for a national language?

 Voting – The teacher asks questions which
require the students to take a stand on
issues by raising their hands. e.g. Are you for
the school policy on no field trip? Each
student is asked to support his/her stand.

 Rank Ordering – Words or statements are
placed on the blackboard and the students
are asked to rank them in order of their
preference. Then each student is asked to
explain his rank ordering.

 Picture Without a Caption – The students will
be asked to write a caption for a picture
without a caption. Students will be asked to
explain their caption.

 Value Continuum – A value-laden statement is
presented to the students. Each student is
asked to express his degree of agreement or
disagreement by encircling the letter that
corresponds to his response in Likert scale: SA –
Strongly Agree, A- Agree, U- Undecided, D-
Disagree, SD – Strongly Disagree

 Devil’s Advocate – This serves as an example. In
his/her attempt to justify the presence of a
pollution-contributing cement factory in town,
the teacher forwards plausible reasons
defending the cement factory before his/her
students.

She/he says: “The cement factory gives jobs to
the community. It made the town a first class
town because of its taxes. It has put the
community into the limelight because of its
excellent products is serves as donor in many
community projects”, etc. Teacher acts as
contravida in the first part of the lesson.

In doing so, she/he stimulates the class to
argue, to debate with him/her making the class
highly interactive. Before the class ends,
however, teacher makes clear his/her stands to
clear all doubts and confusion.

 Unfinished Sentences – An unfinished
sentence is written on the board and the
students are asked to complete it by
injecting their thoughts about something.

 Conflict Story – This is best explained by the
use of this example. Shall we allow our best
teachers, nurses, medical doctors and other
professionals to contribute to the brain drain or
keep them here to compete for the scare job
offerings and contribute to unemployment?

Non-Linguistic Representations
 Pictographs help students visualize
information, recognize patterns, and
remember new content such as vocabulary.
 Photographs

 Generating Mental Pictures – This helps
students understand and store knowledge.
Use all the five sense to help produce rich
mental images.

 Physical Models – These are concrete
representations of what is being learned.
When students use manipulative, they are
making a physical model to represent
knowledge.

Manipulative are commonly associated with
math (e.g. shapes, cubes, money) but can
actually be incorporated in all content areas
through such items as puzzles, maps, word sorts
and Legos.

 Kinesthetic Activities – Students engage in
active language learning by demonstrating
their comprehension through body
movements such as standing up, turning
around, sitting down, clapping their hands.

 Explicit Cues – Cues and questions must be
used before a lesson begins in order to
activate background knowledge and to help
students focus on what they will be learning.
A K-W-L chart is perfect for this purpose.

 Teacher-Prepared Notes – This way teacher
models good note taking. As students progress
in their language acquisition, notes given in
written form with some of the words missing.
 Comparison matrix

 English Debate – There are two sides to a
question. The class is divided into two sections
facing each other according to the position
taken on the topic. Each side has a leader who
fields questions. If someone’s argument
convinces anyone that they should change
sides, they literally get up and move to the
other side.

A count is taken at the beginning and end to
note changes made. A total class discussion of
the pros and cons can be the final synthesizing
activity. This debate technique can last for
several days allowing time for students to read
more on the topic for persuasive argument.

Assessment as an Integral Part of Teaching
Assessment
=> is an integral part of the teaching
process. Teaching cannot be whole and complete
without you assessing learning and you doing
something after you have assessed students’
learning.

For our purpose, suffice it is to mention that:
 The use of the traditional paper-and –pencil
test is not adequate to measure the many
types of learning.
 An authentic assessment consists in looking
directly into the performance that we value.

 Assessment is formative and summative.
 Self-assessment is a pedagogically sound
practice.

Here are some effective assessment strategies:
o Reflect and revise – Give students a chance to
reflect on and revise previously completed
work will help ensure that they do, ultimately,
master content objectives.

o Use rubrics - Students can use the same tool
to self-and- peer-assess assignments that
teachers employ to assess their work. If
students write a summary of an article they
read, for example, they can use a rubric to
determine how well their work meets the
established criteria for the assignment.

o The exit slip - Give students a chance to
assess the teacher, too. Teachers can give
students a form to fill out and turn in at the
end of the class. The form may state the
learning objectives for that day’s lesson and
ask student to reflect on what they learned.

Nature and structure of language

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