New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering. Aspergillus System Properties and Applications 1st Edition Vijai G. Gupta

New and Future Developments in Microbial
Biotechnology and Bioengineering. Aspergillus
System Properties and Applications 1st Edition
Vijai G. Gupta download
https://textbookfull.com/product/new-and-future-developments-in-
microbial-biotechnology-and-bioengineering-aspergillus-system-
properties-and-applications-1st-edition-vijai-g-gupta/
Download more ebook from https://textbookfull.com

We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit textbookfull.com
to discover even more!
New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology
and Bioengineering: Crop Improvement through Microbial
Biotechnology 1st Edition Ram Prasad
https://textbookfull.com/product/new-and-future-developments-in-
microbial-biotechnology-and-bioengineering-crop-improvement-
through-microbial-biotechnology-1st-edition-ram-prasad/
Current Developments in Biotechnology and
Bioengineering. Human and Animal Health Applications
1st Edition Vanete Thomaz Soccol
https://textbookfull.com/product/current-developments-in-
biotechnology-and-bioengineering-human-and-animal-health-
applications-1st-edition-vanete-thomaz-soccol/
Bioengineering. Food and Beverages Industry 1st Edition
Ashok Pandey
biotechnology-and-bioengineering-food-and-beverages-industry-1st-
edition-ashok-pandey/
Bioengineering. Solid Waste Management 1st Edition
Jonathan W-C Wong
biotechnology-and-bioengineering-solid-waste-management-1st-
edition-jonathan-w-c-wong/

Bioengineering. Production, Isolation and Purification
of Industrial Products 1st Edition Ashok Pandey
biotechnology-and-bioengineering-production-isolation-and-
purification-of-industrial-products-1st-edition-ashok-pandey/
Bioengineering. Biological Treatment of Industrial
Effluents 1st Edition Duu-Jong Lee
biotechnology-and-bioengineering-biological-treatment-of-
industrial-effluents-1st-edition-duu-jong-lee/
Mushroom biotechnology developments and applications
1st Edition Petre
https://textbookfull.com/product/mushroom-biotechnology-
developments-and-applications-1st-edition-petre/
Microbial Biotechnology Basic Research and Applications
Joginder Singh
https://textbookfull.com/product/microbial-biotechnology-basic-
research-and-applications-joginder-singh/
Engineering of Microbial Biosynthetic Pathways Vijai
Singh
https://textbookfull.com/product/engineering-of-microbial-
biosynthetic-pathways-vijai-singh/

New and Future Developments in Microbial
Biotechnology and Bioengineering

New and Future
Developments in Microbial
Biotechnology and
Bioengineering
Aspergillus System Properties and Applications
Edited by
Vijai Kumar Gupta
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON
NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO

Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance
Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other
than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods
they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a
professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability
for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or
from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 978-0-444-63505-1
For Information on all Elsevier publications
visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com
Publisher: John Fedor
Acquisition Editor: Kostas Marinakis
Editorial Project Manager: Sarah Watson
Production Project Manager: Anitha Sivaraj
Designer: Greg Harris
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India

xi
A.M. Abdel-Azeem University of Suez Canal, Ismailia,
Egypt
M.A. Abdel-Azeem University of Sinai, North Sinai, Egypt
H.S.AL-Maliki The State University of New Jersey, New
Brunswick, NJ, United States
J.W. Bennett The State University of New Jersey, New
M. Cereia Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto,
SP, Brazil
F.J. Contesini University of Campinas, Campinas, São
Paulo, Brazil
R.R. de Melo University of Campinas, Campinas, São
Paulo, Brazil
M. Dimarogona National Technical University of Athens,
Athens, Greece
C.S. Farinas Embrapa Instrumentation, São Carlos, SP,
Brazil; Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos,
SP, Brazil
F.J. Fernández Spanish National Science Council (CIB-
CSIC), Madrid, Spain
A.C. Flores-Gallegos UniversidadAutónoma de Coahuila,
Saltillo, Coahuila, México
B. Gajaraj Jain University, Bengaluru, India
Bharath Ganesan K.S. Rangasamy College of Technology,
Erode, Tamil Nadu, India
S. Gómez Spanish National Science Council (CIB-CSIC),
Madrid, Spain
R. Hung The State University of New Jersey, New
N.A. Khan N.D. University ofAgriculture andTechnology,
Faizabad, UP, India
D.Kumar N.D.UniversityofAgricultureandTechnology,
Faizabad, UP, India
M.Kumar BiharAgriculturalUniversity,SabourBhagalpur,
Bihar, India;Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ravi Ranjan Kumar Bihar Agricultural University,
Sabour Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
Ranjeet Ranjan Kumar Division of Biochemistry, Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
V. Kumar Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
F. Lara-Victoriano Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila,
S. Lee The State University of New Jersey, New
S. Lee Rutgers The State University of New Jersey, New
M. Michel-Michel Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila,
K. Mikawlrawng University of Delhi, Delhi, India
M.T. Mohesien University of Damietta, New Damietta,
Egypt
G. Molina University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo,
Brazil; Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e
Mucuri, Diamantina, Minas Gerais, Brazil
A. Mukherjee Special Centre for Molecular Medicine,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
V.K. Nadumane Jain University, Bengaluru, India
N.A. Nafady Assuit University, Assiut, Egypt
P. Pandey N.D. University ofAgriculture andTechnology,
Faizabad, UP, India
G.M. Pastore University of Campinas, Campinas, São
Paulo, Brazil
K.K. Pennerman The State University of New Jersey,
New Brunswick, NJ, United States
M.G. Pereira Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto,
SP, Brazil
M.L.T.M. Polizeli Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão
Preto, SP, Brazil
A.G. Rodrigues Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg,
Halle, Germany
R. Rodríguez-Herrera Universidad Autónoma de
Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, México
List of Contributors

xii List of Contributors
F.M. Salem University of Suez Canal, Ismailia, Egypt
H.H. Sato University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo,
Brazil
A.S.A. Scarcella Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão
Preto, SP, Brazil
Md. Shamim N.D. University of Agriculture and
Technology, Faizabad, UP, India; Bihar Agricultural
University, Sabour Bhagalpur, Bihar, India
S. Siddiqui Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh,
India
K.N.Singh N.D.UniversityofAgricultureandTechnology,
Faizabad, UP, India
S. Singh Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab,
India
E.A. Soliman University of Suez Canal, Ismailia, Egypt
D.Srivastava N.D.UniversityofAgricultureandTechnology,
Faizabad, UP, India
P. Teotia Chaudhary Charan Singh University, Meerut,
Uttar Pradesh, India
E. Topakas National Technical University of Athens,
Athens, Greece
A. Varma Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
F. Veana-Hernandez Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila,
M.C.Vega Spanish National Science Council (CIB-CSIC),
Madrid, Spain
P. Venkatachalam Jain University, Bengaluru, India
A.C. Vici Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP,
Brazil

3
New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering. DOI:
© Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63505-1.00001-4
2016
INTRODUCTION
Members of the genus Aspergillus are cosmopolitan and
prevalent components of different ecosystems in a wide
range of environmental and climatic zones (Klich, 2002a;
Lević et al., 2013), because they can colonize a wide variety
of substrates. Species belonging to the genus Aspergillus are
widely distributed throughout the world biomes, for exam-
ple, soil (Hill et al., 1983; Klich, 2002a; Abdel-Azeem and
Ibrahim, 2004; Conley et al., 2006; Jaime-Garcia and Cotty,
2010), salterns (Butinar et al., 2011; Balbool et al., 2013),
agroecosystems (Bayman et al., 2002; Horn, 2003; Jaime-
Garcia and Cotty, 2006; Abdel-Azeem et al., 2007; Marín
et al., 2012; Muthomi et al., 2012), polar (Arenz et al., 2014),
living plants, animals and lichens (Yu et al., 2012; Salem and
Abdel-Azeem, 2014; Tripathi and Joshi, 2015), stones (Tang
et al., 2012), water-related (Sivakumar et al., 2006; Bonugli-
Santos et al., 2015), fossil records (Thomas and Poinar, 1988;
Dörfelt and Schmidt, 2005), and human (Horré et al., 2010;
Marguet et al., 2012; Findley et al., 2013).
The occurrence of Aspergillus species is controlled by
several factors including microclimate, the availability of
substrates, as well as water activity and complex ecological
interactions (Mouchacca, 1995; Grishkan and Nevo, 2010;
Pettersson and Leong, 2011). Survival in different environ-
mental and geographical habitats can be related to meta-
bolic diversity, high reproductive capacity, and competitive
capabilities of Aspergillus strains in nature (de Vries and
Visser, 2001; Horn and Dorner, 2002; Shehu and Bello,
2011; Mehl and Cotty, 2013).
The genus Aspergillus consists of about 339 species,
including both pathogenic and beneficial species (Samson
et al., 2014). Several species are pathogenic to plants, ani-
mals, and humans (eg, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus
terreus) and/or produce different types of toxins, such
as aflatoxins and ochratoxins (eg, Aspergillus flavus,
Aspergillus ochraceous). On the other hand, several spe-
cies are widely used in different industrial applications, for
example, production of foods, drinks, organic acids, and a
large variety of enzymes (eg, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus
aculeatus, Aspergillus oryzae). The broad relevance and
economic importance of the genus have pushed it to the
forefront of fungal research, with one of the largest aca-
demic and industrial research communities dedicated to this
genus. We searched major names of interest of Aspergillus
species in both the web of Google Scholar and Research
Gate on July 17, 2015. Results showed that A. niger came
first by 307,000 and 79,900 recorded hits followed by
A. fumigatus (199,000 and 55,500), A. oryzae (82,900 and
25,200) and A. flavus (79,000 and 43,100), respectively.
The aim of this chapter is to give an overview of the
studies aimed at the investigation of Aspergillus biodiver-
sity in a wide variety of different ecological habitats.
METHODOLOGY OF STUDYING
ASPERGILLUS BIODIVERSITY
Phenotypic Studies
Microscopic features of Aspergillus and its teleomorphs
are an important part of the species concept. However,
many debatable taxonomic schemes in several sections
of the genus have resulted due to the occurrence of much
morphological variation. Phenotypic characters of asper-
gillum-like spore-bearing structure include conidial head
shape (presence or absence of metulae, ie, uniseriate or
biseriate), color, shape, texture and dimension of stipes,
vesicles, conidia, and Hülle cells if present. Morphological
characteristics, such as colony growth rates on identifica-
tion media, texture, sporulation rate, production of sclerotia
or cleistothecia, colors of mycelia, sporulation, diffusible
pigments, exudates and reverses, and physiological charac-
teristics (temperature, water activity) have been used with
aforementioned criteria for charcterizing species. The pre-
liminary identification of species can be performed with
the aid of taxonomic keys and descriptions available in the
Chapter 1
Biodiversity of the Genus Aspergillus
in Different Habitats
A.M. Abdel-Azeem1
, F.M. Salem1
, M.A. Abdel-Azeem2
, N.A. Nafady3
, M.T. Mohesien4
and E.A. Soliman1
1
University of Suez Canal, Ismailia, Egypt, 2
University of Sinai, North Sinai, Egypt, 3
Assuit University, Assiut, Egypt, 4
University of Damietta,
New Damietta, Egypt

4 SECTION | I Biology and Biodiversity
literature (Thom and Church, 1926; Thom and Raper, 1945;
Raper and Fennell, 1965; Christensen and States, 1982;
Christensen, 1981,1982; Gams et al., 1985; Samson and
Gams, 1985; Pitt, 1985; Klich and Pitt, 1988; Kozakiewicz,
1989; Samson and Pitt, 2000; Klich, 2002b; McClenny,
2005; Varga and Samson, 2008; Pitt and Hocking, 2009;
Samson et al., 2010; Hubka et al., 2013). Furthermore, all
these phenotypic features have to be determined by trained
mycologists under standardized laboratory conditions
to obtain an accurate identification (Okuda et al., 2000).
However, without professional expertise this may often lead
to an incorrect description, therefore, the use of biochemi-
cal and molecular methods is recommended.
Secondary Metabolite Profiling and
Chemotaxonomy
Aspergilli have a variety of biochemical characteristics
that classify them as Eumycota. Their cell walls containing
polysaccharide (chitin and glucan); ergosterol; fatty acid
profile dominated by C16 and C18 chain lengths; and pro-
duction of trehalose and polyols (Wessels, 2005).
Guarro et al. (1999) recommended other chemical
markers or patterns of metabolites, secondary metabolite
profiles, in conjunction with morphology and physiology
approaches for further classification of Aspergillus. Raper
and Fennell (1965) did not use any physiological, chemical,
or biochemical characters, but in later physiological tests
(Klich and Pitt, 1988) and secondary metabolites (Frisvad,
1989; Frisvad et al., 1998, 2004, 2007; Samson et al., 2004)
have been introduced in the taxonomy of Aspergillus.
Secondary metabolites have been the molecules most
often used in species recognition due to their high species
specificity (Frisvad, 1989; Larsen et al., 2005). All species
produce a unique combination of different types of small
organic compounds of mixed biosynthetic origin and even
unique to a single species (Frisvad et al., 2007). Recently
various studies have shown that major genomic differences
between Aspergillus species are often related to the num-
ber and similarity of polyketide and nonribosomal peptide
synthase genes (Galagan et al., 2005; Nierman et al., 2005;
Pel et al., 2007). Hence, secondary metabolites are indeed
excellent phenotypic characters for species recognition.
Chemotaxonomy by using fatty acid profiles have been
used extensively for bacteria and the characterization of
microbial communities (Zelles, 1999; Kirk et al., 2004).
In comparison with bacteria, fewer different fatty acids are
produced by fungi (Lechevalier and Lechevalier, 1988), and
by the end of the 20th century fatty acids analyses were
increasingly used to distinguish different fungi (Welch,
1991; Stahl and Klug, 1996; Nemec et al., 1997; Silva et al.,
1998; Guarro et al., 1999). Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME)
prepared in most methods and analyzed by gas chroma-
tography (GC) or gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
(GC-MS) and multivariate programs have been developed
to apply fungal Fatty Acid data in routine taxonomy and
identification work (Stahl and Klug, 1996). Few studies
concerning the Fatty Acid methodology have been applied
as a taxonomic tool for discriminating amongst Aspergillus
(Fraga et al., 2008). Glassbrook (2008) studied the bio-
chemical markers for the detection and classification of
Aspergillus. In his study, reference strains of different
Aspergillus species, Penicillium chrysogenum, Candida
albicans, and Cryptococcus neoformans were characterized
using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS)
and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) bio-
chemical profiling techniques in order to find specific small
molecules, peptides, or biochemical profiles that can be
used in addition to established methods to detect and clas-
sify Aspergilli to the species level.
Thus in various scenarios detection of a unique mixture
or in some cases one or a few biomarkers can be used for
species recognition based on the chemical nature of such
small organic molecules which can be detected by differ-
ent spectroscopic tools. These spectroscopic techniques
(Infrared (IR), Ultra Violet (UV), Fluorescence Detection
(FLD), Mass Spectroscopy (MS), and Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance (NMR), UV, FLD, MS, and NMR) give com-
plementary structural information, and are often used in a
combined setup in connection with either gas or liquid chro-
matography (Nielsen et al., 2004).
In the last decade, other tools concerning chemoinformat-
ics have been developed and applied in order to deal with
large amounts of spectroscopic data that can be generated
from analysis of numerous fungal taxa (Nielsen et al., 2004;
Larsen et al., 2005). The use of electronic nose technologies,
a similar but very different approach for species recognition
combined with neural network analysis as a kind of “black
box” approach for detection of fungal growth, is associated
with certain kinds of feed or foodstuffs (Karlshøj et al., 2007).
Protein profiles, as a diagnostic tool, are not used exten-
sively in the taxonomy of genus Aspergillus (Glassbrook,
2008). By using electrophoretic techniques different protein
patterns will be observed and they directly related to the
diversity of the coding genes and may indicate specific differ-
ences or similarities between examined species (Mitterdorfer
et al., 2002). One-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electro-
phoresis (PAGE) of proteins has been used to compare dif-
ferent species of Aspergillus (Rath, 2001; Leila et al., 2010;
Khosravi et al., 2012). Several investigators (Khosravi et al.,
2012 Nealson and Garber, 1967; Nasuno, 1971, 1972a,b,
1974; Kurzeja and Gabber, 1973; Cruickshank and Pitt, 1990;
Sugiyama and Yamatoya, 1990; Yamatoya et al., 1990) have
studied enzyme profiles of a limited number of Aspergillus
isolates. Slab polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis method was
introduced by Saito et al. (1991) for the identification of the
alkaline proteinases of A. flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus,
but the result was not good enough.

Biodiversity of the Genus Aspergillus in Different Habitats Chapter | 1 5
Ubiquinone (coenzyme Q) is a lipid component of the
mitochondrial electron transport chain and has been used
as a taxonomic criterion for yeast and filamentous fungi
(Yamada et al., 1989; Yaguchi et al. (1996)). The num-
ber of isoprene units attached to the benzoquinone varies,
and such differences in ubiquinone structure are excellent
indicators in the classification of genera and subgeneric
taxa in bacteria and yeasts. In addition, the isoprene units
of ubiquinone were highly correlated with morphologi-
cal and physiological characters in the infrageneric taxa
of Aspergillus (Kuriashi et al., 1990). Sugiyama et al.
(1991) and Matsuda et al. (1992) reported that three major
ubiquinone systems (Q-9, Q-10, and Q-10(H2)) occurred
in Aspergillus and the ubiquinones were useful indicators
for classification. Kuriashi et al. (1990) studied the ubiqui-
none systems in Aspergillus in relation to the taxonomy of
Raper and Fennell (1965), who subdivided Aspergillus into
uniseriate species, uniseriate or biseriate species, and biseri-
ate species. Their study showed that nearly all species hav-
ing Hülle cells possessed only the Q-10(H2) system while
xerophilic species had Q-9 or Q-10. Yamatoya et al. (1990)
determined the ubiquinone systems of 27 isolates assigned
to Aspergillus sect. Flavi. Coenzyme Q systems for 190
(teleomorphic and anamorphic) isolates, and three samples
of Dendrosphaera eberhardtii fruit bodies, which belonged
to Eurotiales, Onygenales, and related taxa have been deter-
mined by Kuraishi et al. (2000).
Several biochemical and physiological techniques have
been introduced to improve Aspergillus taxonomy, one of
which is isoenzyme patterns (Cruickshank and Pitt, 1990;
Yamatoya et al., 1990). It generally is most successful at
distinguishing species and has been used to make recom-
mendations on the separation or combination of species
(Micales et al., 1992). Differences in isozyme banding
patterns have been used to separate species of Aspergillus
(Kurzeja and Gabber, 1973).
Cruickshank and Pitt (1990) used polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis to examine several kinds of exoenzymes (pec-
tinases, ribonucleases, amylases, and proteases) from six iso-
lates of Aspergillus. They found that four isolates (A. flavus,
A. parasiticus, Aspergillus tamarii, and Aspergillus nomius)
produced distinct patterns. On the other hand, A. oryzae
produced very similar patterns to those of A. flavus, and
patterns of Aspergillus sojae were very similar to those of
A. parasiticus. In the above-mentioned studies taxonomic
relationships could be elucidated, but until now isozyme pro-
files have not provided a practical system for identification
because isoenzyme patterns could not be used to distinguish
the domesticated species from their wild types.
Frisvad et al. (2007) discussed the particular interest of
using mycotoxins, as secondary metabolites with bioac-
tive properties, in taxonomy of Aspergillus species. As an
important chemotaxonomic marker, aflatoxins have been
used by several investigators (Frisvad et al., 1998; Klich
et al., 2000; Seifert and Levesque, 2004; Varga et al., 2004;
Frisvad et al., 2007) in taxonomic studies of aflatoxin-
producing taxa of Aspergillus.
Evolution of the Approach: Polyphasic
Taxonomy of Aspergillus
The polyphasic taxonomy takes into account all available
phenotypic and genotypic data and integrates them in a con-
sensus type of classification. Phylogenetic species recogni-
tion is increasingly being used with the internal transcribed
spacers of the nrDNA (ITS) now accepted as the official
DNA barcode for fungi (Schoch et al., 2012). Sequencing
of genomic regions widely applied to the identification of
a large number of Aspergillus species and the results of
these techniques are generally well correlated with mor-
phological and physiological characteristics (Rodrigues
et al., 2011). Genomic regions that are sequenced for the
identification of Aspergillus species include the ITS (inter-
nal transcribed spacer) region (White et al., 1990), β-tubulin
(BenA) gene (Glass and Donaldson, 1995), and calmodu-
lin (CaM) gene (Carbone and Kohn, 1999). The nuc rDNA
internal transcribed spacer rDNA region (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2)
is the official DNA barcode for fungi because it is the most
frequently sequenced marker in fungi and has primers that
work universally (Schoch et al., 2012). In contrast, BenA is
easy to amplify, in comparison with the RNA polymerase
II second largest subunit (RPB2), but has been reported to
vary in the number of introns and amplification of paralo-
gous genes sometimes resulting from PCR (Peterson, 2008;
Hubka and Kolarik, 2012).
Isolates of Aspergillus species usually produce a diverse
range of extrolite (secondary metabolites) that are charac-
teristic of the different groups of sections of Aspergillus.
For example, production of kojic acid characterized species
of Aspergillus section Flavi (Varga et al., 2011), while peni-
cillic acid (small acidic molecules) produced by most spe-
cies of Aspergillus section Circumdati (Frisvad et al., 2004).
Production of a specific extrolite is considered an efficient
identification tool for allocating a species of Aspergillus
to section but some extrolites, for example, ochratoxin A,
are produced by species in different sections, for example,
Flavi, Circumdati, and Nigri (Frisvad et al., 2004, 2011;
Varga et al., 2011; Samson et al., 2014). Various poly-
phasic studies have been carried on different sections of
Aspergillus by several researches (Hong et al., 2005; Varga
et al., 2007a; Houbraken et al., 2007; Silva et al., 2011;
Samson et al., 2007, 2014). Samson et al. (2014) recom-
mended an updated qualitative database on the verified
production of secondary metabolites to identify isolates of
Aspergillus up to species level.
Current knowledge pertaining to the diversity, detec-
tion, and distribution of Aspergillus taxa is still rudimen-
tary. Obviously, improvements in traditional approaches

combined with other biochemical/serological methods
and incorporation of various molecular techniques (DNA-
based) have provided new data on these aspects but, for a
clearer picture and a better understanding, a combination of
all approaches (polyphasic) is essential. There is a need to
unravel the taxonomic diversity of speciose groups (Jeewon
and Hyde, 2007).
ASPERGILLUS DIVERSITY IN DIFFERENT
HABITATS
Desert
By definition a “desert” is a region that receives extremely
low rains—less than 250mm/year—far less than the amount
requiredtosupportthegrowthofmostplants.Approximately
one-third of the earth’s land surface is desert, with an area
more than 52,000 square kilometers (Fig. 1.1).
Deserts are extreme environments where intense solar
radiation, limited nutrients, low organic matter content,
and restricted water availability present formidable chal-
lenges for fungi inhabiting these areas. Desert soils gener-
ally are characterized by low propagule densities but high
species diversity (Christensen, 1981; Mouchacca, 1995).
Studies on mycobiota of soils may be dated back to 1886
when Adametz started his pioneer study by isolation and
naming 4 species of yeasts and 11 species of filamentous
fungi including Aspergillus (Watanabe, 2002). Species of
Aspergillus are common and they may account for up to
20% of the total species isolated in the desert (Christensen
and Tuthill, 1985).
The number of mycological studies on desert soil is
rather limited in comparison with other ecological habitats.
Several authors assume the diversity of microbes including
fungi is low compared to soil in moderate or tropical regions
and they suggest these extreme ecosystems as suitable in
situ models to study the relationship between phylogenetic
biodiversity and function (Adams et al., 2006).
Desert mycobiota of Egypt have been the target of many
studies, namely: Montasir et al. (1956a,b), Mahmoud et al.
(1964), Besada andYusef (1968), Moubasher and Moustafa
(1970), Moubasher and El-Dohlob (1970), Salama et al.
(1971), Mouchacca (1971, 1973a,b, 1977, 1982); Naguib
and Mouchacca (1970-1971), Mouchacca and Nicot (1973),
Mouchacca and Joly (1974, 1976), Samson and Mouchacca
(1974, 1975), Moubasher et al. (1985, 1988, 1990), Nassar
(1998), Abdel-Hafez et al. (1989a,b, 1990), Abdel-Sater
(1990, 2000), Abdel-Hafez and El-Maghraby (1993),
Abdel-Azeem and Ibrahim (2004), and Abdel-Azeem
(1991, 2009).
Moubasher and Moustafa (1970) surveyed the Egyptian
soil fungi with special reference to Aspergillus, Penicillium,
and Penicillium-related genera in 32 soil samples collected
from different localities in Egypt. They met 16 species of
Aspergillus and the highest population and occurrence were
recorded for A. niger, A. terreus, A. flavus, and Aspergillus
sydowii, respectively.
Mouchacca and Joly (1976) studied the biodiversity of
genus Aspergillus in arid soils of Egypt. They collected 31
soil samples from the western desert of Egypt. They col-
lected 14 soils (set A) from regions receiving very weak to
null winter rains and 17 (set B) samples from regions that
benefit from an appreciable amount of wintry precipitation.
In their study the taxonomic distribution is hardly affected
by the dimensions of soil sand components, while regional
localization exerts a certain influence. Twenty-seven species
FIGURE 1.1 Map shows the generalized location of Earth’s ten largest deserts on the basis of surface area (http://geology.com/records/largest-desert.shtml).

of Aspergillus were isolated, some are practically omnipres-
ent (A. niger, A. flavus group), others develop preferen-
tially in set A soil (Aspergillus nidulans, Aspergillus ustus,
A. ochraceous, and possibly A. fumigatus groups) and/or
have distribution positively affected (Aspergillus flavipes
and A. terreus) or perhaps negatively (A. fumigatus group)
due to soil reclamation.
In their extensive survey of Sinai terricolous fungi,
Abdel-Azeem and Ibrahim (2004) and Abdel-Azeem (2009)
recorded 17 species of Aspergillus. They recorded A. aluta-
ceous, Aspergillus candidus, Aspergillus clavatus, A. flavus,
A. fumigatus, Aspergillus japonicus, A. niger, A. ochraceous,
A. sydowii, Aspergillus tamerii, A. terreus, A. ustus,
Aspergillus versicolor, Aspergillus wentii, Emericella nidu-
lans, Eurotium amstelodami, and Eurotium chevalieri.
Six taxa are introduced to the genus Aspergillus as novel
taxa based on type materials collected from Egyptian deserts
namely: Aspergillus egyptiacus Moubasher and Moustafa
(1972) (as Aspergillus aegyptiacus), Aspergillus floriformis
Samson and Mouchacca (1975), Aspergillus pseudodeflec-
tus Samson and Mouchacca (1975), Emericella deserto-
rum Samson and Mouchacca (1974), Emericella purpurea
Samson and Mouchacca (1975), and Eurotium xerophilum
Samson and Mouchacca (1975).
Few investigations have been made on soil mycobiota in
Libya. Naim (1967a,b) studied rhizosphere and soil fungi
of Artemisia herba-alba and fungi under citrus trees in
Tripoli, Libya. Youssef (1974) studied the fungal flora of
Libyan soil. He examined 16 different localities in Libya for
their fungal microflora. El-Said and Saleem (2008) studied
soil fungi at the western region of Libya. Mansour (2010)
studied the distribution and occurrence of various groups
of fungi in different kinds of soils in the eastern region
of Libya. Result showed that the most abundant species
were Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, A. niger, Aspergillus
ochraceus, A. terreus, and A. ustus. For more details con-
cerning the checklist of Libyan fungi check El-Buni and
Rattan (1981).
Mycobiota of Algerian, Tunisian, and Moroccan deserts
do not receive that much attention from mycologists and
hence few studies have been published concerning the myc-
obiota of these deserts. Recently mycobiota of three chotts
located in the northeast of Algerian Sahara have been stud-
ied by Dendouga et al. (2015). They isolated 327 colonies
of fungi and Aspergillus was one of the most common gen-
era isolated in this study.
Studies on micromycetes of desert soils of the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia showed that Aspergillus amstelodami,
Aspergillus chevalieri, Aspergillus ruber, A. ochraceous,
A. fumigatus, A. flavus, A. sydowii, A. terreus, and A. ustus
are the most common species (Fathi et al., 1975; Ali, 1977;
Ali et al., 1977; Abdel-Hafez, 1982a,b,c, 1994; Hashem,
1991, 1995; Arif and Hashem (1988); Barakat, 1999;
Abdulmoniem and Saadabi (2006); Abou-Zeid and Abd
El-Fattah, 2007). Also, the teleomorph genera Emericella
(E. nidulans) and Eurotium with E. amstelodami and
E. chevalieri are common in Saudi Arabian desert soils.
Tolba et al. (1957), Al-Doory et al. (1959), Ismail and
Abdullah (1977), and Abdullah et al. (1986) studied soil
microfungi from different localities in Iraq. In these stud-
ies genus Aspergillus accounted for about 16% of the total
species isolated. Aspergillus fumigatus was the most com-
mon species, being isolated from 70% of the sampling sites
examined. Aspergillus candidus and A. niger were in the
second and third positions in frequency, being isolated from
60% and 50% of the sampling sites examined, respectively.
Imran and Al Rubaiy (2015) studied the molecular ecologi-
cal typing of environmental isolates of A. terreus collected
from the desert region in Iraq.
In Syria various species of Aspergillus were recorded by
various investigators, such as: Sizova et al. (1967), Baghdadi
(1968), Abdel-Hafez et al. (1983), and Abdel-Kader et al.
(1983). Aspergillus niger, A. sydowii, A. flavus, A. wentii,
and A. clavatus were the most prevalent species. Aspergillus
kassunensis as a new species added to genus Aspergillus
was introduced by Baghdadi (1968) from Syrian soil.
Al-Subai (1983) and Moubasher (1993) concluded
that Aspergillus was consistently the most common genus
in Qatari soils. Moubasher (1993) isolated fungi from 11
desert soil samples out of 42 samples representing differ-
ent ecological habitats of Qatar. Aspergillus contributed by
23 species and 5 varieties, of which A. terreus, A. flavus,
A. versicolor, and A. niger were the most frequent species.
Halwagy et al. (1982) found Aspergillus, Alternaria, and
Drechslera constituted 16%, 5%, and 3% respectively of
the total species isolated from desert soils in Kuwait. They
recorded Aspergillus terreus, A. fumigatus, and A. niger with
frequencies of occurrence of 70%. El-Said (1994) studied
soil mycoflora of Bahreen (Bahrain) in which 39 species
belonging to 20 genera were isolated from 50 soil samples
on different isolation media. Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus,
A. niger, A. sydowii and A. terreus, Eurotium amstelodami,
and E. chevalieri were the most common species.
Mycobiota of the northern part of the Negev desert
(Rayss and Borut, 1958; Borut, 1960; Guiraud et al., 1995;
Steiman et al., 1995) represented by 159 species belonging
to 58 genera in which 16 of them under genus Aspergillus.
Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus sclerotiorum, and A. ver-
sicolor are the most common species in this region. Volz
et al. (2001) concluded that the majority of Israel soil fungi
(309 species—70%) belong to the division Ascomycota, but
only 56 species of them were found to have a perfect stage
in their life cycle. Concerning species diversity among gen-
era, they showed that Aspergillus recorded only 48 species
(15.53%) out of 309 species. Aspergillus niger, A. terreus,
A. ustus, and A. versicolor are the most widely distributed
species in Israel. Grishkan and Nevo (2010) isolated 185
species belonging to 76 genera from the soil of Makhtesh

Ramon hot desert in Israel. Ten species of Aspergillus, nine
anamorphic and one teleomorphic, were isolated in which
A. fumigatus comprised a basic part of thermotolerant myc-
obiota obtained in this study.
Aspergillus as a xerotolerant and xerophilic genus can
grow at or below a water activity (aw) of 0 (Pettersson and
Leong, 2011). Several researchers have isolated genus
Aspergillus from desert soils inArgentina, Chile, and Mexico
(Giusiano et al., 2002, Piontelli et al., 2002, Samaniego-
Gaxiola and Chew-Madinaveitia, 2007). Conley et al. (2006)
studied the fungal content of Atacama desert, the driest and
oldest desert on Earth, without any record rainfall for dec-
ades. They reported 12 genera of fungi, with Aspergillus one
of them. Aspergillus flavus and A. fumigatus reported from
desert soils worldwide (Moubasher, 1993; Abdel-Hafez,
1981; Giusiano et al., 2002; Piontelli et al., 2002; El-Said and
Saleem, 2008) and Aspergillus carneus recorded exclusively
from desert soils in the Middle East (Abdullah et al., 1986;
Ali-Shtayeh and Jamous, 2000, El-Said and Saleem, 2008)
were missing in the Atacama soil.
Grishkan et al. (2015) examined the variations in micro-
fungal communities inhabiting different biological crust
types in the vicinity of the Shapotou Research Station in
the Tengger Desert, China. The mycobiota isolated from the
crusts sampled in 2011 and 2013 were composed of 123 and
67 identified species, respectively. Altogether 134 species
were isolated: 6 of Mucoromycotina, 22 of teleomorphic
(morphologically sexual) Ascomycota, and 106 of anamo-
rphic (asexual) Ascomycota. These species belonged to 66
genera, with the most common being Aspergillus (12 spe-
cies). Taxa of Aspergillus fumigatus, A. niger, A. nidulans,
and Aspergillus rugulosus dominated.
Klich (2002a) published her biogeography of Aspergillus
species in soil and litter and she concluded that there was no
overall trend in distribution of the members of the entire
genus by ecosystem, however, individual sections of the
genus appeared to have distinct distribution patterns. Most
members of sections Aspergillus, Nidulantes, Flavipedes,
and Circumdati occurred at greater than expected frequen-
cies in desert soils (Klich, 2002a). To conclude, in desert
environments, the pan-global stable Aspergillus spe-
cies are represented by A. niger, A. flavus, A. fumigatus,
A. ochraceus, A. terreus, A. sydowii, A. tamerii, A. ustus,
A. versicolor, A. wentii, Emericella nidulans, Eurotium
amstelodami, and E. chevalieri.
Salterns
When evaporation of seawater accompanied with hal-
ite (NaCl) concentrations of greater than 10% (m/w),
Thalassohaline hypersaline environments originated (Oren,
2002) and provide some of the most extreme habitats in
the world. They are common all around the globe, and
include, for example, marine ponds and salt marshes that
are subjected to evaporation, salt or soda lakes, and sea-salt
and manmade salterns (Trüper and Galinski, 1986).
Life-limiting parameters in salterns are many, for exam-
ple, variable water activities (aw), high concentrations
of NaCl, low oxygen concentrations as well as high light
intensity (Brock, 1979). Halotolerant and halophilic fungi
were first reported as active inhabitants of solar salterns by
Gunde-Cimerman et al. (2000). Later they were isolated by
several investigators (Butinar et al., 2005a, b, c; Cantrell
et al., 2006) from salterns around the world, for example,
La Trinidad in the Ebro River Delta and Santa Pola on the
Mediterranean coast of Spain, Camargue in France, and the
salterns on the Atlantic coast in Portugal, and in Namibia,
the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico.
After a decade of research into the fungal diversity in
salterns, together with new taxa, a number of fungal genera
with high diversities of halotolerant and halophilic species
have been described. Different species of genus Aspergillus
are among the filamentous fungi that appear with the high-
est frequencies in salterns (Butinar et al., 2011). The group
of filamentous fungi that have been isolated from differ-
ent salterns around the world is mainly represented by the
order Eurotiales by the teleomorphic genera Eurotium and
Emericella and the anamorphic Aspergillus and Penicillium
(Tresner and Hayes, 1971; Cantrell et al., 2006; Butinar
et al., 2011).
Global natural hypersaline waters are characterized by
certain taxa mainly of Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus
caesiellus, while hypersaline localities at higher envi-
ronmental temperatures are characterized by primarily or
exclusively taxa of A. ochraceus, A. flavus, Aspergillus
roseoglobulosus, and Aspergillus tubingensis. Butinar
et al. (2011) listed Aspergillus melleus, A. sclerotiorum,
and Petromyces alliaceus (holomorphic species) within
these taxonomic groups, although they have appeared only
locally. Both Aspergillus versicolor and A. sydowii have
also been identified as part of the fungal communities in the
hypersaline environments, even they are common in marine
environments and in dry foods. Aspergillus wentii, A. fla-
vipes, A. terreus, and particularly A. candidus have been
repeatedly isolated from Adriatic salterns, whereas A. peni-
cillioides, A. proliferans, and A. restrictus have been found
only sporadically at salinities below 10% NaCl. Aspergillus
fumigatus is common in arid environments (deserts) at high
temperatures, and has been found consistently in solar salt-
erns, although it is also most abundant at salinities below
10% NaCl (Moustafa, 1975; El-Dohlob and Migahed, 1985;
Moubasher et al., 1990; Abdel-Azeem, 2003; Abdullah
et al., 2010; Butinar et al., 2011; Balbool et al., 2013).
Six different species of the known teleomorphic food-
borne xerophilic genus Eurotium were repeatedly isolated
in a mycodiversity study of hypersaline waters: Eurotium
amstelodami, Eurotium herbariorum, and Eurotium repens
as indigenous taxa in hypersaline water, while Eurotium

rubrum, E. chevalieri, and E. halotolerans are only imper-
manent inhabitants of brine at lower salinities (Butinar
et al., 2005c).
The representatives of genus Emericella, which are
recognizable by Hülle cells in the cleistothecial walls and
ornamented ascospore, have frequently been isolated from
dry substrata in hot and arid areas worldwide. These appear
to be well adapted to dry and warm climates (Samson and
Mouchacca, 1974) and low aw (Zalar et al., 2008). The
new taxa of soil representative of Emericella was isolated
also from desert saline soil as mentioned before (Samson
and Mouchacca, 1974, 1975), while two newly described
halotolerant species, Emericella filifera and Emericella
stella-maris, were reported from hypersaline water of the
Sečovlje salterns in Slovenia (Zalar et al., 2008). Emericella
striata was described as a new taxon from Lake Enriquillo
in Dominican Republic (Butinar et al., 2011).
To conclude, in hypersaline environments, the pan-
global stable taxa of genus Aspergillus are represented
by A. niger and E. amstelodami, and possibly also by
A. sydowii, A. candidus, and E. herbariorum, which are also
quite abundant, although more locally distributed (Butinar
et al., 2011).
Aspergillus Xerophily in Different Habitats
The most xerophilic of the anamorphic Aspergilli are spe-
cies in the section Restricti (Peterson, 2008), particularly
Aspergillus restrictus and A. penicillioides. The later is
regarded as an extreme xerophile (Andrews and Pitt, 1987),
as it grows restrictedly or not at all at high aw, optimally at
0.91–0.93 aw and is capable of growth down to at least 0.73
aw in experimental systems.
Aspergillus candidus is an important xerophilic species,
and has been reported from a wide range of commodities,
but rarely as a primary cause of spoilage. The most toler-
ant of the Aspergilli to low oxygen tensions is A. candidus
which can grow in 0.45% oxygen, which assists develop-
ment to high populations in stored grain. It produces a range
of secondary metabolites, but of these, only kojic acid is
regarded as a significant toxin. Aspergillus flavus and
A. parasiticus are perhaps the most widely reported food
spoilage fungi, since the discovery in the early 1960s of
their toxic carcinogenic metabolites, aflatoxins. Aspergillus
parasiticus appears to be widely distributed in foodstuffs in
the USA, Latin America, Africa, India, and Australia and
rarely in Southeast Asia (Pettersson and Leong, 2011).
Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus carbonarius, A. japoni-
cus, and A. aculeatus, as black Aspergilli, are widely dis-
tributed species. Aspergillus niger is widespread throughout
the tropical and temperate zones and was regarded as a
nontoxigenic species until it was demonstrated that certain
strains produce ochratoxin A and fumonisin B2 (Frisvad
et al., 2007). Aspergillus carbonarius is considered to be the
major producer of ochratoxin A. Aspergillus niger occurs in
a range of foods (eg, peanuts, cereals, oilseeds, spices, dried
fish, and meat products).
Aspergillus ochraceus and related species Aspergillus
westerdijkiae and Aspergillus steynii produce the myco-
toxin ochratoxin A. Like most Aspergilli, A. ochraceus is
tolerant of a wide range of pH, growing well between pH
3 and 10, and weakly at pH 2.2. It is common in dried and
stored products, has been reported in high numbers from
green coffee beans, and may be a source of ochratoxin con-
tamination in this commodity. It is less frequently reported
from cereals and cereal products. Sterigmatocystin is pro-
duced by Aspergillus versicolor, which considered as an
important species in the deterioration of stored grain and
a major source of volatile compounds. It has also been
implicated as one cause of the “Rio” off-flavor in coffee
(pungent, medicinal, or iodine-like taste, musty cellar-like
odor) due to formation of trichloroanisoles (Pettersson and
Leong, 2011).
Eurotium species are perhaps the epitome of xerophilic
fungi, being capable of rapid growth over wide tempera-
ture and aw ranges (minimum ∼ 0.70–0.72 aw), and hav-
ing a cosmopolitan distribution. There are four common
foodborne species of Eurotium: Eurotium amstelodami,
E. chevalieri, E. repens, and E. rubrum. All are similar
physiologically (halophilic xerophiles), and they appear
to occupy similar ecological niches, namely causing dete-
rioration of dried foods and also high-sugar products such
as confectionery, dried fruit, jams, and conserves (Butinar
et al., 2005c; Pettersson and Leong, 2011). Although most
Eurotium species are capable of growth at high water activ-
ity, they compete poorly in natural substrates at water activ-
ity values above 0.92.
Agricultural
Globally the majority of the research which has involved
the isolation and identification of Aspergillus strains from
various agricultural and horticultural crop fields in differ-
ent agro-climatic zones was undertaken in order to evaluate
them for mycotoxin production (Klich, 2002b). Therefore,
only a limited number of studies deal with biodiversity of
the genus Aspergillus in specific crop fields or agroecosys-
tems. Climatic factors, followed by edaphic and spatial pat-
terning, are the best predictors of soil fungal richness and
community composition at the global scale (Tedersoo et al.,
2014). Biotic (plant species and their growth stage, micro-
bial competition) and abiotic factors (soil physico-chemical
characters, application of pesticides and/or fertilizers) as
well as the geographical position affected populations and
diversity of fungal communities in agroecosystems (Kredics
et al., 2014).
In her biogeographic study of Aspergillus species in
soil and litter, Klich (2002a) found that five species of

Aspergillus reported in over 100 studies were A. fumiga-
tus, A. versicolor, A. terreus, A. flavus, and A. niger var.
niger. With one exception, these five species occurred at the
expected frequencies in all of the biomes; A. terreus occurred
at greater than expected frequencies in cultivated soils and
less than expected frequencies in forest soils. In many parts
of Egypt several investigators studied soil fungi from cul-
tivated soil, for example, Abdel-Hafez (1974), Moubasher
and Abdel-Hafez (1978), and Abdel-Azeem (2003). They
found taxa belonging to Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium,
Mucor, and some dematiaceous Hyphomycetes were the
most common in various types of Egyptian soils. Mazen
and Shaban (1983) studied the fluctuation of soil fungi in
wheat fields and found that the most common fungi isolated
were Aspergillus represented by five species Aspergillus
niger, A. terreus, A. fumigatus, A. flavus, and A. versicolor.
Abdel-Hafez and coworkers (2000) isolated 118 species in
addition to seven varieties belonging to 51 genera from cul-
tivated and desert soils in Egypt. The results obtained from
the three soil types were basically similar, and the most
common Aspergillus species were A. flavus, A. flavus var.
columnaris, A. fumigatus, A. niger, Aspergillus sydowii, and
A. terreus.
Hafez (2012) made an ecological comparison on soil
and rhizospheric fungi of maize and wheat plants in differ-
ent areas in Minia Governorate in Egypt. She isolated 28
fungal species from wheat belonging to 18 genera and that
13 species were isolated from maize belonging to 9 genera.
Aspergillus was the most dominant in both rhizospheric and
nonrhizospheric soils and was represented by four species:
A. niger, A. terreus, A. flavus, and A. ustus.
Fusaria and other fungi associated with rhizosphere and
rhizoplane of lentil and sesame at different growth stages
from cultivated soil in Egypt have been studied by Abdel-
Hafez et al. (2012). They isolated 16 Fusarium species and
three Aspergillus species (A. flavus, A. niger, and A. ochra-
ceous) were isolated.
Abdel-Azeem et al. (2007) studied the effects of long-
term heavy metal contamination on diversity of terricolous
fungi and nematodes in an agroecosystem in Egypt as a case
study. They collected 100 soil samples in a randomized way
to represent different stages of land reclamation during the
period from September (2004) to February (2005). These
profiles represented different land use periods of 0–20 years.
Isolated species belonged to 21 genera. The prevailing gen-
era were Aspergillus (12 species including anamorph stages
of one Emericella and one Eurotium species; 52.63% of
the total isolates). They found that the most abundant spe-
cies were: Aspergillus niger var. niger, (21.15% of the total
isolate number), Trichoderma pseudokoningii (12.65%),
A. flavus (9.4%), and A. fumigatus (8.63%).
Aspergillus taxa distributed in different altitudes (24m
above sea level to 2000m above sea level) of the eastern
Himalayas were studied by Devi and Joshi (2012). They
recorded Aspergillus versicolor in samples collected from
1–500m above sea level, Aspergillus nomius (500–1000m),
A. niger (1000–1500m), A. fumigatus, A. flavus, A. terreus,
and Aspergillus awamori (1500–2000m).
Aspergillus species are able to produce a range of myco-
toxins, including, for example, aflatoxins, ochratoxins,
fumonisins, and patulin. Aflatoxins are mainly produced by
members of Aspergillus section Flavi, and they contaminate
various agricultural products in several parts of the world
(Baranyi et al., 2013).
Taxonomically, based on Aspergillus species, myco-
toxins in fruits can be divided into three major groups:
(1) Aflatoxins produced by A. flavus, A. parasiticus, and
A. nomius; (2) Ochratoxin A produced by A. ochraceus,
A. carbonarius, A. niger aggregate, A. tubingensis, A. scle-
rotiorum, Aspergillus sulphureus, A. aculeatus, A. japoni-
cus var. aculeatus, Aspergillus alliaceus, A. melleus, and
other species; and (3) Other toxic metabolites produced by
a variety of Aspergillus spp., the most important of these
being sterigmatocystin, produced by A. flavus, A. flavipes,
A. nidulans, and A. versicolor; cyclopiazonic acid, pro-
duced by A. flavus, A. tamarii, and A. versicolor; aflatrem,
produced by A. flavus; citrinin, produced by A. flavipes, A.
carneus, A. niveus, and A. terreus; and patulin, produced
by A. terreus (Gill-Carey, 1949; Raper and Fennell, 1965;
Semeniuk et al., 1971; Ciegler, 1972; Hesseltine et al., 1972;
Buchanan et al., 1975; Durley et al., 1975; Lee et al., 1975;
Mislivec et al., 1975; Sommer et al., 1976; Moss, 1977;
Gallagher et al., 1978; Stack and Mislivec, 1978; Gorst-
Allman and Steyn, 1979; Anke et al., 1980; Cole and Cox,
1981; Davis, 1981; Wicklow and Cole, 1982; Turner and
Aldridge, 1983; Cole, 1984; Dorner et al., 1984; Scudamore
et al., 1986; Kurtzman et al., 1987; Vesonder et al., 1988;
Betina, 1989; Kim et al., 1993; Doster et al., 1996; Varga
et al., 1996; Richard et al., 1999; Giridhar and Reddy,
2001; Sage et al., 2002, 2004; Battilani and Pietri, 2002;
Bayman et al., 2002; Serra et al., 2003; Magnoli et al., 2004;
Iamanaka et al., 2005; Medina et al., 2005; Perrone et al.,
2006; Roussos et al., 2006; Barkai-Golan, 2008).
Fourteen species assigned to three sections of the genus
Aspergillus are responsible for acute aflatoxicosis epidem-
ics that occurred recently in several parts of Asia and Africa
leading to the deaths of several hundred people. Taxa dis-
tributed among three sections: Flavi (A. flavus, Aspergillus
pseudotamarii, A. parasiticus, A. nomius, Aspergillus bom-
bycis, Aspergillus parvisclerotigenus, Aspergillus miniscle-
rotigenes, Aspergillus arachidicola, Aspergillus togoensis),
section Nidulantes (Emericella astellata, Emericella vene-
zuelensis, Emericella olivicola), and section Ochraceorosei
(Aspergillus ochraceoroseus, Aspergillus rambellii) (Varga
et al., 2009; Rank et al., 2011). Potential aflatoxin-produc-
ing A. flavus isolates were also identified in other agricul-
tural products including stored wheat, onions, grapes, and
rice, and in cattle feed (Krnjaja et al., 2008). Aflatoxins

were also detected in sunflower flour samples (Masic et al.,
2003) and in spices in Serbia (Saric and Skrinjar, 2008).
Several Aspergillus species are also able to produce
patulin, including species assigned to Aspergillus sections
Clavati (Varga et al., 2007b) and Terrei (Varga et al., 2005).
These species frequently occur in cereals and cereal prod-
ucts (Lopez-Diaz and Flannigan, 1997; Abramson et al.,
1987). The most well-known species A. clavatus can be
isolated mainly from soil and dung, but it also occurs in
stored products (mainly cereals) with high moisture con-
tent, for example, inadequately stored rice, corn, and millet
(Flannigan and Pearce, 1994). Aspergillus clavatus isolates
appeared to be particularly well adapted for growth during
malting (Flannigan and Pearce, 1994).
Polar
Around 2.3% of the world’s fungal biota exists in the Arctic
and fungi in this region have been isolated from various
substrates and habitats (Ivarson, 1965; Reeve et al., 2002;
Säwström et al., 2002; Callaghan et al., 2004; Ozerskaya
et al., 2009; Pathan et al., 2009). More than 1000 species
and over 400 genera of nonlichenized fungi have been
reported from Antarctic regions (including the sub-Antarc-
tic) (Bridge and Spooner, 2012;Arenz et al., 2014) including
genus Aspergillus. The genus Aspergillus is also mesophilic
to thermotolerant, yet some spores of Aspergillus and its
associated teleomorphs are found in Arctic regions (Gunde-
Cimerman et al., 2005). The presence of “cosmopoli-
tan” species such as Alternaria, Penicillium, Aspergillus,
Cladosporium, and others may be referred to their wide
dispersal potential and ubiquitous association with human
activities and material (Ruisi et al., 2007).
However, fungal diversity in Arctic soils has been inves-
tigated only to a limited extent. Krishnan et al. (2011) iso-
lated 28 isolates of fungi from bird-forming soil, pristine, and
human-impacted soils collected from the Fildes Peninsula,
King George Island, Antarctica, without any Aspergillus spe-
cies. Singh et al. (2012a,b) studied filamentous soil fungi
from Ny-Ålesund, Spitsbergen, and they isolated 19 species
under 14 genera. Aspergillus were represented by three spe-
cies, namely: A. aculeatus, A. flavus, and A. niger. Similarly,
other genera seem to be absent in cold ecosystems, for exam-
ple, Byssochlamys and its anamorphic state Paecilomyces.
Aspergillus species in general grow poorly below 12°C, and
thus may have been recovered as spores in cold ecosystems
(Gunde-Cimerman et al., 2003) because they are common as
marine spores, transported by wind or birds, or are carried
around due to human activity (Frisvad, 2008).
Water-Related
Shearer et al. (2007) estimated fungal biodiversity in fresh-
water, brackish, and marine habitats based on reports in the
literature. In their study they covered the ecological groups
including fungi and taxa formerly treated as fungi, exclu-
sive of yeasts, in freshwater, brackish, and marine habitats.
They have reported approximately 3047 taxa from aquatic
habitats thus far. The largest taxonomic group of fungi in
aquatic habitats is comprised of teleomorphic and anamo-
rphic Ascomycota, followed by the Chytridiomycota.
Marine fungi are an ecological rather than a taxonomic
group and comprise an estimated 1500 species, exclud-
ing those that form lichens (Hyde et al., 1998). Obligate
marine fungi grow and sporulate exclusively in the marine
or estuarine environment; facultative marine species may
grow in marine as well as in freshwater (or terrestrial) habi-
tats (Kohlmeyer and Kohlmeyer, 1979). A case in point is
Aspergillus sydowii, isolated from diseased sea fans and
causing the disease in laboratory experiments (Geiser et al.,
1998).
Boutaiba (1997) studied the fungal flora of Lake El
Golea in Algeria. He studied their taxonomy, ecology, and
metabolite production. He isolated A. niger, A. terreus,
A. sydowii, A. repens, A. ochraceous, A. fumigatus,
A. flavus, A. candidus, and A. wentii.
Singh et al. (2012a,b) investigated fungal diversity in
two sediment cores w40 cmbsf (cm below seafloor) at a
depth of w5000m in the Central Indian Basin (CIB), by cul-
ture-dependent as well as culture-independent approaches.
This resulted in recovering a total of 19 culturable fungi
and 46 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), respec-
tively. The majority of the fungi belonged to Ascomycota,
within no single species dominating. It included members
of filamentous fungi such as Aspergillus sp., Eurotium
sp., Cladosporium sp., Pleospora sp., Chaetomium sp.,
Ascotricha sp., Penicillium sp., and Sagenomella sp.
Zhang et al. (2014) investigated the composition and
abundance of fungal community in the deep-sea sediments
of the Pacific Ocean. They identified 12 Ascomycetes
belonged to 6 genera (Aspergillus, Aureobasidium, Candida,
Exophiala, Fusarium, and Periconia). Aspergillus was rep-
resented only by two species A. sydowii and A. vitricola.
Abdel-Azeem et al. (2015) studied the occurrence and
diversity of mycobiota in heavy metal-contaminated sedi-
mentsofaMediterraneancoastallagoon,El-Manzala,Egypt.
They found that the prevailing genera were Aspergillus (11
species including anamorph stages of 2 Emericella species;
36.66% of the total isolates), Penicillium (4 species includ-
ing anamorph of Talaromyces; 13.33%), and the remain-
ing taxa were represented only by two to one species each.
Aspergillus niger, A. flavus, and A. terreus showed the high-
est percentage of frequency of occurrence.
Mangrove
Mangroves are an assortment of tropical and subtropical
trees and shrubs which have adapted to the inhospitable

zone between sea and land: the typical mangrove habitat
is a muddy river estuary (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001;
Hogarth, 2007). Mangles are considered a dynamic ecotone
and approximately 25% of the world’s coastline is domi-
nated by mangroves distributed in 112 countries encom-
passing an area of 18,000,000ha (Spalding et al., 1997).
The biodiversity of biota associated with mangle ecosystem
is well known for animals and plants, but poorly known for
fungi (Khalil et al., 2013).
Species diversity of fungi, seasonal variation and fre-
quency of occurrence in Muthupettai mangroves, on the
east coast of Tamil Nadu, India, was studied at two different
seasons by Sivakumar et al. (2006). A total number of 118
fungal species were isolated, of which maximum 94 species
from sediment samples followed by water with 83 species
in which genus Aspergillus came first as the common genus
followed by Penicillium, Curvualria, and Alternaria.
Tariq et al. (2008) studied the rhizosphere fungi of four
different species of mangrove plants collected from coastal
areas in Pakistan. They found that A. flavus, A. fumigatus,
and A. niger were common in the rhizosphere soil of the
four species of mangrove plants sampled.
Behera et al. (2012) studied the diversity of soil fungi
from mangroves of Mahanadi delta, Orissa, India. Twenty-
two fungal species and A. oryzae, A. niger, A. flavus, and
Aspergillus albus were recorded as occasionally frequent.
Madavasamy and Pannerselvam (2012) studied the
phylloplane fungi of green, senescent, and brown leaves
of Avicinnia marina. Recovered taxa included Aspergillus
candidus, A. flavus, A. luchueusis, A. niger, A. sydowii,
A. fumigatus, and A. sulphureus out of a total of 22 species.
The mycobiota composition of the mangrove soil located
in costal area at the Red Sea in Egypt was investigated in
24 soil samples that were collected (Khalil et al., 2013).
Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, A. versicolor, and A. fumigatus,
were recorded at high species frequency in more than 15
cases out of 24.
Living Plants, Lichens, and Animals
Endophytes colonize symptomlessly the living, internal tis-
sues of their host, even though the endophyte may, after an
incubation or latency period, cause disease (Petrini, 1991).
In literature the term “fungal endophytes” is normally used
to describe fungal organisms, which in contrast to mycorrhi-
zal fungi, reside entirely within the host tissues and emerge
during host senescence (Rodriguez et al., 2001; Rodriguez
and Redman, 2008).
Endophytic fungi have been classified into two groups
based on differences in taxonomy, evolution, plant hosts, and
ecological functions into clavicipitaceous, able to infect only
some species of grasses, and nonclavicipitaceous, which are
found in the asymptomatic tissues of bryophytes, ferns, gym-
nosperms, and angiosperms (Rodriguez et al., 2009).
There are 1.3 million species of endophytic fungi alone,
the majority of which are likely found in tropical ecosys-
tems (Verma et al., 2014). There has been great interest in
endophytic fungi as potential producers of novel biologi-
cally active products (Schulz et al., 2002; Wildman, 2003;
Strobel and Daisy, 2003; Tomita, 2003; Urairuj et al., 2003;
Spiering et al., 2006; Manoharachary et al., 2013).
Unique species of endophytic fungi with a wide range of
potential practical applications in plant protection as repel-
lents, insecticides, antimicrobials, anthelmintics, and ver-
micides have been found (Strobel et al., 2008; Vega et al.,
2008). In the last 5 years, there has been evidence of the
use of endophytes for producing anticancer, antimicrobial,
and antioxidant compounds, and also in a biotransformation
process (Pimentel et al., 2011; Salem and Abdel-Azeem,
2014).
Species of Aspergillus as a member of nonclavicipita-
ceous endophytes attracted the attention of researchers as
effective producers of bioactive metabolites. Such studies
may result in the description of new Aspergillus species,
for example, Zhao et al. (2009) described Aspergillus niger
var. taxi as a new species variant of taxol-producing fungus
isolated from Taxus cuspidata in China.
Endophytic fungi Aspergillus clavatus isolated from the
Azadirachta indica plant have also been reported to synthe-
size silver nanoparticles, which have significant antibacte-
rial and antifungal activity (Verma et al., 2010). Endophytic
Aspergillus fumigatus, isolated from Juniperus communis
as a novel source of the anticancer prodrug deoxypodophyl-
lotoxin, has been isolated and chemically characterized by
Kusari et al. (2009).
Mustafa et al. (2013) exploited some Egyptian endo-
phytic taxa for extracellular biosynthesis of silver nanopar-
ticles. They isolated endophytic fungi from medicinal plants
in arid Sinai. Their results showed that Zygomycota repre-
sented by two species (9.5% of the total species number),
teleomorphic Ascomycota (3 species, 14.2%), anamorphic
Ascomycota (16 species, 76.19%). The prevailing genera
were Aspergillus (3 species including anamorph stages of
one Eurotium species; 14.28% of the total isolates), and
Alternaria (2 species, 9.5%). The remaining taxa were rep-
resented only by one species each. The most abundant spe-
cies were: Alternaria alternata (41.6%), Nigrospora oryzae
(38.3%), and Chaetomium globosum (11.1%). A total 13
species belonging to 11 genera were screened for the pro-
duction of AgNPs. They recorded that Aspergillus niger
synthesized AgNPs in a moderate rate in comparison with
other taxa.
Zhang et al. (2012a,b) isolated indolyl diketopipera-
zines (1–6) from the endophytic fungus Aspergillus tama-
rii of Ficus carica and examined its antiphytopathogenic
potentiality in vitro for the first time. Thirty-nine fungal
metabolites, including two new alkaloids, of endophytic
fungus Aspergillus fumigatus isolated from the stem bark of

Melia azedarach and their antifungal, antifeedant, and toxic
activities were tested by Li et al. (2012).
Palenicia (2012) studied endophytic associations of
species in the Aspergillus section Nigri with Zea mays and
Arachis hypogea and their mycotoxins. He developed a sys-
tem to identify black Aspergilli from peanut and maize in
the southeastern United States. His survey indicated that
A. niger species complex is predominant in maize and pea-
nut fields.
Raghunath et al. (2012) screened Aspergillus niger iso-
lated from Taxus baccata for the production of lovastatin
on a solid state fermentation. The presence of lovastatin
was confirmed by different techniques, for example, spec-
troscopic method, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), thin
layer chromatography (TLC), and high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) methods.
Silva et al. (2011) studied endophytic fungi from
Laguncularia racemosa (Brazilian mangrove) and their
antimicrobial potential. They recovered six isolates of
A. niger out of 70 endophytic strains.
Guatam (2014) isolated endophytic fungi from leaf seg-
ments of five medicinal plants collected from Mandi dis-
trict, Himachal Pradesh, India. Aspergillus niger, A. flavus,
A. clavatus, and A. variecolor were isolated with 14 species
belonging to 15 genera out of a total of 373 fungal strains.
Eight medicinal plants (Achillea fragrantissima,
Artemisia herba-alba, Chiliadenus montanus, Origanum
syriacum, Phlomis aurea, Tanacetum sinaicum, Teucrium
polium, and Thymus decussates) were screened for their
content of endophytic fungi on different altitudes by Salem
and Abdel-Azeem (2014) in Saint Katherine Protectorate,
South Sinai, Egypt. Salem and Abdel-Azeem isolated 32
genera belonging to 75 species in which nine species of
Aspergillus, namely, A. alliaceus, A. bisporus, A. candidus,
A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. japonicus, A. niger, A. terreus,
and A. versicolor were recovered.
Yu et al. (2012) studied the diversity of endozoic fungi
in South China Sea sponges and their potential in synthesiz-
ing bioactive natural products suggested by PKS gene and
cytotoxic activity analysis. They isolated 14 genera and
Aspergillus was the predominant component in the culturable
fungal community and was represented by Aspergillus insu-
licola, A. penicillioides, A. terreus, A. oryzae, and E. rubrum.
Genus Aspergillus was associated with more than 30
species of sponge all over the world (Abrell et al., 1996;
Varoglu and Crews, 2000; Lin et al., 2003; Gao et al., 2008;
Proksch et al., 2008; Ein-Gil et al., 2009; Li and Wang,
2009; Lee et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2010; Menezesa et al.,
2010; Paz et al., 2010; Ding et al., 2011; Wiese et al., 2011;
Zhou et al., 2011; Thirunavukkarasu et al., 2012; Yu et al.,
2012). The most common species of Aspergillus recorded
in those studies were A. aculeatus, A. insuetus, A. niger,
A. ostianu, A. sclerotiorum, A. ustus, A. versicolor, and
Eurotium cristatum (Suryanarayanan, 2012).
Bai et al. (2014) characterized two new aromatic butyro-
lactones, flavipesins A (1) and B (2), two new natural prod-
ucts (3 and 4), and a known phenyl dioxolanone (5) from
marine-derived endophytic fungus Aspergillus flavipes.
Different species from the genus Aspergillus are cited as
marine-derived producers of enzymes (Bonugli-Santos
et al., 2015). Aspergillus terreus was most frequently iso-
lated as an endosymbiont from green, brown, and red
seaweeds namely: Caulerpa scalpelliformis, Helimeda
macroloba, Ulva lactuca, Ulva fasciata, brown Lobophora
variegata, Padina gymnospora, Stoechospermum margi-
natum, Sargassum ilicifolium, Portieria hornemanni, and
Gracilaria edulis, respectively (Suryanarayanan et al.,
2010). Marine-derived fungi such as Aspergillus spp.,
apart from dominating the endosymbiont assemblage of
seaweeds (Suryanarayanan et al., 2010) also dominate the
fungal consortium of marine invertebrates collected from
different localities such as the great Barrier Reef, North
Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Caribbean (Höller et al.,
2000) attesting to their adaptation to occupy such a niche
as the inner tissues of seaweeds or marine animals. Such
a widespread occurrence of marine-derived fungi may be
indicative of their passive migration from terrestrial habitats
(Alva et al., 2002).
However, since these fungi are better adapted to marine
environments than their terrestrial conspecifics (Zuccaro
et al., 2004; König et al., 2006) and survive in seaweeds
which produce antifungal metabolites (Kubanek et al.,
2003; Lam et al., 2008), it is likely that they are not cas-
ual residents of the seas but have coevolved with the
seaweeds (Zuccaro et al., 2004; Suryanarayanan et al.,
2010). Common endosymbiont of algae and seaweeds are
Aspergillus versicolor, A. terreus, A. niger, A. flavus, and
A. oryzae (Suryanarayanan, 2012).
Kelecom (2002) predicted a relationship between the
type of secondary metabolite and the source of fungus,
rather than the fungi themselves. The latter was exempli-
fied by the fungi in the genus Aspergillus that produce
fumiquinazoline derivatives if they are obtained from fish,
sesquiterpene nitrobenzoate derivatives if they originate
from algae, and indole diketopiperazine derivatives if they
are isolated from sponges.
To conclude, in association with seaweeds, the marine-
derived Aspergillus species are represented by Aspergillus
versicolor, A. terreus, A. niger, A. flavus, and A. ory-
zae (Belofsky et al., 1998; Lee et al., 2003; Zhang et al.,
2007a,b,c; Lin et al., 2008; Qiao et al., 2010).
Endolichenic fungi represent an important ecological
group of species that form associations with lichens, and to
extend the knowledge of their diversity within macrolichens,
Tripathi and Joshi (2015) isolated and identified the endoli-
chenic fungi from some healthy macrolichens of Kumaun
Himalaya. The majority of endolichenic fungi belonged to
anamorphic Ascomycota (Hyphomycetes), and the lowest

were obtained from Zygomycetes. Aspergillus flavus and
A. niger were common as endolichenic species and were
recorded during various studies (Suryanarayanan et al.,
2005; Li et al., 2007; Tripathi et al., 2014a,b,c; Tripathi and
Joshi, 2015).
Air and Settled Dust
Over 225 species of fungi have been reported from indoor
environments, which represent a few of the proposed esti-
mate of 1.5 million species of fungi (McGinnis, 2007). The
most common allergenic fungal genera are Cladosporium,
Alternaria, Aspergillus, and Fusarium, where more than 80
genera of fungi have been linked with symptoms of respira-
tory tract allergies (Horner et al., 1995). Exposure to the
large concentration of conidia of the four genera is consid-
ered the main causative agent of aspergillosis (Anderson
et al., 1996), asthma and pneumonitis (Cuijpers et al., 1995;
Hu et al., 1997), allergic alveolitis, and toxicosis (Flannigan
et al., 1991).
Fröhlich-Nowoisky et al. (2012) studied the bioge-
ography and fungal diversity in the air. They found asco-
mycota species were represented by 67–85% of the total
isolated taxa and taxonomically distributed in four taxo-
nomic classes namely: Sordariomycetes, Dothideomycetes,
Eurotiomycetes, and Leotiomycetes, respectively. They
represent plant and animal pathogens, symbionts, sapro-
phytes, endophytes and epiphytes, and allergenic taxa (eg,
Cladosporium spp., Aspergillus spp.).
In the United States, Shelton et al. (2002) evaluated the
presence of indoor airborne fungi in 1717 buildings from
1996 to 1998, including hospitals, homes, schools, and
industries. They determined Aspergillus versicolor as the
predominant taxon, followed by A. flavus, A. fumigatus,
and A. niger. Studies of Samson et al. (2010) and Flannigan
et al. (2011) listed 100 fungal species common in indoor
environments. In these lists, A. fumigatus and A. sydowii
were common in the collected house dust.
As part of a worldwide survey of the indoor mycobiota,
dust was collected from nine countries (Australia, Indonesia,
Mexico, Micronesia, New Zealand, South Africa, Thailand,
United Kingdom, and Uruguay). Mycological analyses of
samples included the culture-dependent dilution-to-extinc-
tion method and culture-independent 454-pyrosequencing.
They found 2717 isolates out of the 7904 isolates were
identified as belonging to Aspergillus, Penicillium, and
Talaromyces, respectively (Visagie et al., 2014). Studies
showed that A. versicolor was considered to be very com-
mon in indoor environments and recently it was shown to
represent a species complex, with nine new species intro-
duced (Jurjević et al., 2012).
The diversity of air mycobiota showed the highest diver-
sity in countries that are also listed as biodiversity hotspots
of the world (Myers et al., 2000). This might refer to the
origin of at least a considerable proportion of these species
isolated from house dust as being from outdoors. However,
the prevalence of specific species commonly isolated from
indoor surveys suggests that the indoor environments do
select for the growth of specific species. In addition, much
of the metagenomics diversity may come from transient,
dormant, or dead spores (Visagie et al., 2014).
Júnior et al. (2012) studied the biodiversity of
Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp. residing in libraries
in Brazil. The genus Aspergillus was highlighted as one of
the principal airborne fungi present in indoor environments.
Aspergillus spp. were identified in 1277 (89.6%) samples
and Penicillium spp. in 148 (10.4%). The dry period exhib-
ited a greater number of isolates of the two taxa. Frequency
of species of 34 taxa of genus Aspergillus (anamorph and
teleomorph) isolated from library units in the dry (2009)
and wet season (2010) in the city of Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
were studied. The taxa belonged to 13 sections. Aspergillus
niger var. niger came first with a recorded 30.2% frequency
of occurrence, followed by A. flavus (19.7%).
In Egypt, Abdel-Azeem and Rashad (2013) studied
mycobiota of outdoor air that can cause asthma: a case
study from Lake Manzala, Egypt. They isolated a total
of 71,780 mold and 560 yeast colony-forming units from
600 exposures and the isolated taxa were assigned to 28
genera and 43 species. They found that the greater pres-
ence of fungal spores occurred in the summer. Aspergillus
niger, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Epicoccum nigrum,
Aureobasidium pullulans, Alternaria cheiranthi, P. chrys-
ogenum, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Alternaria alternata
were the predominant species. They found that Aspergillus,
Cladosporium, Penicillium, and Alternaria that had the
greatest frequencies in air of Lake Manzala are strongly
associated with allergic respiratory disease, especially
asthma, in Port Said and Ismailia governorates.
Decaying Wood and Mummies
Wooddeteriorationbyfungimayoccurfromseveralsources.
These include the following: surface molds that cause local-
ized discoloration; stain fungi that penetrate deep into the
sapwood causing blue, gray, green, red, or other dark color-
ation; and wood-destroying fungi that decompose cell-wall
polymers (Blanchette, 1998). Many ascomycetous fungi,
such as Aspergillus nidulans, A. fumigatus, and A. oryzae,
Magnaporthe grisea, Neurospora crassa, and Fusarium
gramineum have a higher number of cellulases, with 34–44
hemicellulase encoding genes, and even 1–5 of the most
efficient cellobiohydrolases (Hatakka and Hammel, 2010).
Research on microbial and enzymatic degradation of wood
and wood components has provided a great deal of infor-
mation that has been useful in helping to protect and con-
serve historic and archeological wood. Ascomycetes fungi
(anamorphic and teleomorphic) usually cause soft-rot

decay of wood with soft brown appearance and cracked and
checked when dry (Nilsson et al., 1989; Blanchette, 1995).
Two forms of soft rots were described by Blanchette (1995),
type I consisting of biconical or cylindrical cavities that are
formed within secondary walls, while type II refers to an
erosion form of degradation. The knowledge of lignocel-
lulose degradation by Ascomycetes is rather limited in com-
parison with other basidiomycetous fungi, and very little is
known about how they degrade lignin (Nilsson et al., 1989).
Zidan et al. (2006) studied the conservation of a wooden
Graeco-Roman coffin box and they isolated Paecilomyces
variotii, Penicillium aurantiogriseum, Aspergillus niger,
Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus terreus, Emericella nidu-
lans, and Mucor racemosus. These fungi were found in
various parts of the coffin box, and their growth rate varied
from one part to the other.
In Latvia, during the period from 1996 to 2007, a total
of 300 private and public buildings, as well as more than 20
cultural monuments had been inspected regarding the dam-
age by wood decay basidiomycetes and discoloring micro-
fungi (Irbe et al., 2009). Wood decay fungi in constructions
occurred in 338 cases. Brown-rot damage occurred more
frequently (78.1%) than the white-rot (21.9%). Wood dis-
coloring fungi (molds and blue stain) on construction and
decorative materials were recorded in 55 cases where fre-
quent genera were Penicillium, Cladosporium, Aspergillus,
and Trichoderma.
Aspergillus candidus, A. ustus, and A. terreus were iso-
lated from two wooden masks dating back to the Greek-
Roman period in Egypt (Darwish et al., 2013). Abu Deraz
(2014) studied the soft rot fungi deteriorating archeologi-
cal wood in Al-Aqsa mosque, Jerusalem, Israel. He iso-
lated Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, A. glaucus, A. niger,
A. ochraceopetaliformis, and Emericella nidulans. Both
A. flavus and A. niger showed high frequency of occurrence
in all examined samples.
Mummies have been widely investigated by phenotypic
and molecular techniques, particularly the study of ancient
bacteria and micromycetes. There are several well-known
examples showing the colonization of preserved bodies
by opportunistic fungi, such as the case of the restoration
of the body of Ramses II, performed in Paris in 1976–77.
The mummy showed a dense fungal population with spe-
cies belonging to the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium
(Mouchaca, 1985). In his study, Mouchacca isolated 21
species and one variety of Aspergillus from debris (D)
and abdominal materials (A) of Ramses II mummy. The
most common species of D and A were A. niger, A. flavus,
A. versicolor, A. sydowii, A. amstelodami, and A. restrictus.
Aspergilli also dominated the microbial communities of the
air and dust of the Egyptian mummy chamber at the Baroda
Museum in India (Arya et al., 2001).
Additionally, saprophytic fungi belonging to the genera
Monilia, Penicillium, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Rhizopus,
and Chrysosporium as well as saprophytic bacteria of the
genus Bacillus were isolated from a mummy from the col-
lection of the Archaeological Museum in Zagreb, Croatia
(Čavka et al., 2010). Fungal genera more related to the
mummy materials were: Botryotinia, Giberella, Didymella,
Fusarium, Verticillium, Tritirachium, Coprinus, and
Coniosporium (Piñar et al., 2013).
Microscopic fungi were isolated from different mate-
rials including muscles, bones, skin, and funeral clothes
from the mummified human remains of three members of
the Kuffner’s family and from the surrounding air environ-
ments in Slovakia by Šimonovičová et al. (2015). Their
hydrolytic abilities such as cellulolytic, lipolytic, and prote-
olytic keratinolytic were also assessed. The most commonly
isolated fungi, from human remains, belonged mainly to
the species of Aspergillus (A. candidus, A. calidoustus,
A. fumigatus, A. niger, A. sydowii, A. terreus, A. ustus,
A. venenatus, A. versicolor, and A. westerdijkiae).
Stones
The tiny pores and cracks in rocks which buffer microbial
communities from a number of physical stresses, such as
desiccation, rapid temperature variations, and UV radia-
tion is defined as endolithic environment. The diversity of
microorganisms in these ecosystems gained considerable
attention, but few culture-independent studies have been
carried out on the diversity of fungi to date.
Raghukumar et al. (1992) studied the endolithic fungi
from deep sea calcareous substrata from calcareous ani-
mal shells at 100–860m depth in the Bay of Bengal. They
found that conidia of an isolate of A. niger obtained from
intertidal calcareous shells did not germinate above 1atm.
Up to 512Mu calcium was leached out upon growth of
A. restrictus on 1g of calcareous shell substrata at 100atm.
in 25 days.
The diversity of endolithic fungal communities in dolo-
mite and limestone rocks from Nanjiang Canyon in Guizhou
karst area was China studied by Tang et al. (2012). The most
common genus in the investigated carbonate rocks was
Verrucaria. Aspergillus and Penicillium were also identified
from the rock samples.
The diversity of culturable fungi associated with six
species of healthy South China Sea gorgonians was investi-
gated using a culture-dependent method followed by analy-
sis of fungal ITS sequences (Zhang et al., 2012a,b). A total
of 121 fungal isolates belonged to 41 fungal species from 20
genera. Of these, 30 species and 12 genera are new records
for gorgonians, and the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium
were the most diverse and common. Fourteen Aspergillus
were isolated, they were: Aspergillus carneus, A. flavus,
A. fumigatus, A. gracilis, A. insulicola, A. niger, A. nomius,
A. ochraceopetaliformis, A. penicillioides, A. sclertoiorum,
A. sydowii, A. terreus, A. tubingensis, and A. versicolor.

Abu Deraz (2014) recovered seven species of endo-
lithic fungi from archeological stones of Al-Aqsa Mosque,
Jerusalem, Israel. Surface sterilized stones were incubated
on modified Czapek’s medium supplemented with calcium
carbonate, as sole carbon source, as described by Kurakov
et al. (1999). Five species of genus Aspergillus were com-
mon they were: A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. niger, A. terreus,
and Emericella nidulans.
Human
The fungal biota in an environment (mycobiome) is an
important component of the human microbiome (Cui et al.,
2013). Every human has fungi as part of their microbiota,
however, the impact of fungi on human health is significant,
especially as a reservoir for pathogenic fungi when the host
is compromised and as a potential cofactor in inflammatory
diseases and metabolic disorders (Huffnagle and Noverr,
2013).
Findley et al. (2013) studied the skin mycobiota of
10 healthy Americans, six men and four women. Genera
included the potentially medically significant Candida,
Chrysosporium, Cryptococcus, and otherwise unnamed der-
matophytes assigned to the Arthrodermataceae. Common
saprobic genera such as Aspergillus, Cladosporium,
Epicoccum, Leptosphaerulina, Penicillium, Phoma, and
Rhodotorula were also frequently detected or isolated.
A survey of oral fungal genera has been carried out
by Ghannoum et al. (2010). They found that Candida and
Cladosporium were most common, present in 75% and
65% of participants, respectively. The fungi of the oral cav-
ity were previously believed to be few and relatively nondi-
verse based on culture-dependent or genus/species-focused
culture-independent methods of identification. In contrast
with fungal genera associated with local oral and invasive
diseases, they were Aspergillus, Cryptococcus, Fusarium,
and Alternaria, indicating that these genera are present in
the oral microbiome even during healthy state (Ghannoum
et al., 2010). Different studies (Schuster, 1999, Salonen
et al., 2000; Williams and Lewis (2006); Jabra-Rizk et al.,
2001; Seed, 2015) reported different genera of yeasts and
filamentous fungi, for example, Candida, Saccharomyces,
Penicillium, Aspergillus, Geotrichum, and Scopulariopsis
and the abundant presence of Candida, Aspergillus, and
Fusarium was recorded among the HIV-infected.
A large number of newly emerging pathogens have been
described, besides the most prevalent and well-known fun-
gal pathogens such as Candida albicans and Aspergillus
fumigatus (Horré et al., 2010; Marguet et al., 2012). The
lung mycobiome of healthy people is comprised of vari-
ous geni and species principally controlled by environment
agents including Aspergillus species (van Woerden et al.,
2013; Underhill and Iliev, 2014).
Aspergilloses are commonly caused by the fumiga-
tus, flavus, and niger groups of genus Aspergillus. Other
groups rarely act as agents of pulmonary disease, but it is
assumed that any species can cause hypersensitivity reactions
(Londero and Guadalupe-Cortés, 1990). Aspergillus species
responsible for pulmonary aspergillosis were A. amstelodami,
A. candidus, A. carneus, A. fischeri, A. flavus, A. fumigatus,
A. glaucus, A. niger, A niveus, A. phialiseptus, A. restric-
tus, A. sydowii, A. terreus, and A. versicolor (Londero and
Guadalupe-Cortés, 1990; Júnior et al., 2012). Finally, com-
mon taxa of Aspergillus and human biome are represented by
A. fumigatus, A. flavus, A. niger, and A. versicolor.
Fossils
Today there are reports of representatives of many different
groups of fungi in amber because the translucent nature of
the matrix makes it relatively easy to determine even very
delicate features useful in systematics, as well as those use-
ful in determining interactions with other organisms (Taylor
et al., 2015). Some examples including genus Aspergillus
have been recorded. Thomas and Poinar (1988) described
Aspergillus from a piece of Eocene amber originating from
the Dominican Republic as Aspergillus janus. Aspergillus
collembolorum, a novel species was introduced in 2005 by
Dörfelt and Schmidt when studying a piece of Baltic amber
(Tertiary, Eocene) which contains an inclusion of a spring-
tail (Collembola).
CONCLUSIONS
The studies discussed above reflect that the genus
Aspergillus can be characterized with high adaptability to
various ecological environments (Fig. 1.2). However, it is
important to mention that the results of any study aimed at
the examination of Aspergillus biodiversity should always
be evaluated in the context of the developmental stage of
Aspergillus taxonomy and the species identification meth-
ods available at the time of the publication of the respective
paper. Due to the constant development of the taxonomy of
the genus and the description of new species, more recent
examinations of a specific habitat may reveal higher bio-
diversity of the genus and refine the results of previous
studies. By introducing new techniques and methods in bio-
diversity studies during the past two decades, the amount of
information available about the distribution of Aspergillus
taxa is constantly growing, therefore it can be expected that
the biogeography of the genus will be understood more
deeply in the near future.

Living plants,
lichens and animals
A. alliaceus
A. bisporus
A. candidus
A. Clavatus
A. flavus,
A. fumigatus
A. japonicus
A. niger
A. tamarii
A. terreus
A. variecolor
A. versicolor
Desert
A. candidus
A. flavipes
A. flavus
A. fumigatus
A. niger
A. ochraceous
A. sydowii
A. terreus
A. ustus
A. versicolor
Emericella nidulans
Eurotium amstelodami
E. chevalieri
Agricultural
A. carbonarius
A. flavipes
A. flavus
A. fumigatus
A. japonicus
A. nidulans
A. niger
A. ochr
aceous
A. parasiticus
A. sydowii
A. tamarii
A. terreus
A. versicolor
Polar
A. aculeatus
A. flavus
A. niger
Water-related
environment
A. candidus
A. flavus
A. fumigatus
A. niger
A. ochraceous
A. repens
A. sydowii
A. terreus
A. vitricola
A. wentii
Endozoic
A. flavipes
A. flavus
A. niger
A. oryzae
A. penicillioides
A. sclerotiorum
A. terreus
A. ustus
A. versicolor
Eurotiumcristatum
E. rubrum
Saltern
A. candidus
A. flavus,
A. fumigatus
A. niger
A. penicillioides
A. restrictus
A. sydowii
A. terreus
A. versicolor
A. wentii
Eurotiumamstelodami
E. chevalieri
E. halotolerans
E. herbariorum
E. repens
E.rRubrum
Petromyces alliaceus
FIGURE 1.2 Distribution of Aspergillus species among the different biomes of the world by Abdel-Azeem & Salem.

REFERENCES
Abdel-Azeem, A.M. (1991). Effect of overgrazing on vegetation, microbes
and soil in Ismailia-desert habitat. Biological Diversity Symposium,
Madrid-Spain, pp. 241–246.
Abdel-Azeem, A.M. 2003. Ecological and taxonomical studies on
ascospore-producing fungi in Egypt. PhD Thesis, Faculty of Science,
Suez Canal University, Egypt.
Abdel-Azeem, A.M., 2009. Operation Wallacea in Egypt. I- A prelimi-
nary study on diversity of fungi in the world heritage site of Saint
Katherine, Egypt. Assiut Univ. J. Bot. 38 (1), 29–54.
Abdel-Azeem, A.M., Ibrahim, M.E., 2004. Diversity of terrophilous myco-
biota of Sinai. Egyptian J. Biol. 6, 21–31.
Abdel-Azeem, A.M., Rashad, H.M., 2013. Mycobiota of outdoor air
that can cause asthma: a case study from Lake Manzala, Egypt.
Mycosphere 4 (4), 1092–1104.
Abdel-Azeem, A.M., Abdel-Moneim, T.S., Ibrahim, M.E., Hassan,
M.A.A., Saleh, M.Y., 2007. Effect of long-term heavy metal contami-
nation on diversity of terricolous fungi and nematodes in Egypt- a case
study. Water Air Soil Pollut. 186 (1), 233–254.
Abdel-Azeem,A.M., El-Morsy, E.M., Nour El-Dein, M.M., Rashad, H.M.,
2015. Occurrence and diversity of mycobiota in heavy metal contami-
nated sediments of Mediterranean coastal lagoon El-Manzala, Egypt.
Mycosphere 6 (2), 228–240.
Abdel-Hafez, A.I.I., Mazen, M.B., Galal, A.A., 1989a. Keratinophilic and
cycloheximide resistant fungi in soils of Sinai Governorate, Egypt.
Cryptogam. Mycol. 10 (3), 265–275.
Abdel-Hafez, A.I.I., Mazen, M.B., Galal, A.A., 1989b. Some ecological
studies of osmophilic and halophilic soil fungi of Sinai Peninsula,
Egypt. J. Sohag Pure Appl. Sci. Bull. 5, 67–83.
Abdel-Hafez, A.I.I., Mazen, M.B., Galal, A.A., 1990. Glycophilic and cel-
lulose-decomposing fungi from soils of Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. Arab
Gulf J. Sci. Res. 8 (1), 153–168.
Abdel-Hafez, S., 1981. Halophilic fungi of desert soils in Saudi Arabia.
Mycopathologia 75, 75e80.
Abdel-Hafez, S.I., 1982a. Survey of microflora of desert soils in Saudi
Arabia. Mycopathologia 80, 3–8.
Abdel-Hafez, S.I., 1982b. Osmophilic fungi of desert soils in Saudi Arabia.
Mycopathologia 80, 9–14.
Abdel-Hafez, S.I., 1982c. Thermophilic and thermotolerant fungi of desert
soils in Saudi Arabia. Mycopathologia 80, 15–20.
Abdel-Hafez S.I.I. 1974. Ecological studies on Egyptian soil fungi, PhD
Thesis. Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Assiut University,
Egypt.
Abdel-Hafez, S.I.I., 1994. Studies on soil mycoflora of desert soils in
Saudi Arabia. Mycopathologia 80, 3–8.
Abdel-Hafez, S.I.I., El-Maghraby, O.M.O., 1993. Thermophilic and ther-
motolerant fungi of Wadi-Bir-El-Ain soils. Eastern desert, Egypt.
Abhath Al-Yarmouk. Pure Sci. Eng. 2, 55–66.
Abdel-Hafez, S.I.I., Ismail, M.A., Hussein, N.A., Abdel-Hameed, N.A.,
2012. Fusaria and other fungi taxa associated with rhizosphere and
rhizoplane of lentil and sesame at different growth stages. Acta Mycol.
47 (1), 35–48.
Abdel-Hafez, S.I.I., Moharram, A.M., Abdel-Sater, M.A., 2000. Monthly
variations in the mycobiota of wheat fields in El-Kharga Oasis,
Western Desert, Egypt. Bull. Fac. Sci. Assiut Univ. 29 (2-D), 195–211.
Abdel-Hafez, S.I.I., Abdel-Kader, M.I.A., Abdel-Hafez, A.I.I., 1983.
Composition of the fungal flora of Syrian soils. Mycopathologia 81
(3), 161–166.
Abdel-Kader, M.I.A., Abdel-Hafez, A.I.I., Abdel-Hafez, S.I.I., 1983.
Composition of the fungal flora of Syrian soils. II Cellulose-
decomposing fungi. Mycopathologia 81, 167–171.
Abdel-Sater M.A. 1990. Studies on the mycoflora of the New Valley
area, Western Desert, Egypt. PhD Thesis, Faculty of Science, Assiut
University.
Abdel-Sater, M.A., 2000. Soil fungi of the New Valley area, Western
desert, Egypt. Bull. Fac. Sci. Assiut Univ. 29 (2-D), 255–271.
Abdullah, S.K., Al-Khesraji, T.O., Al-Edany, T.Y., 1986. Soil mycoflora of
the southern desert of Iraq. Sydowia 39, 8e16.
Abdullah, S.K., Al-Dossari, M.N., Al-Imara, F.J., 2010. Mycobiota of
surface sediments in marshes of southern Iraq. Marsh Bull. 5 (1),
14–26.
Abdulmoniem, M.A., Saadabi, A.M.A., 2006. On the fungal flora of Saudi
Arabian soils. Res. J. Microbiol. 1, 280–284.
Abou-Zeid, A.M., El-Fattah, R.I.A., 2007. Ecological Studies on the
Rhizosperic Fungi of some halophytic plants in Taif Governorate,
Saudi Arabia. World J. Agric. Sci. 3, 273–279.
Abramson, D., Sinha, R.N., Mills, J.T., 1987. Mycotoxin formation in
moist 2-row and 6-row barley during granary storage. Mycopathologia
97, 179–185.
Abrell, L., Borgeson, B., Crews, P., 1996. Chloro polyketides from the
cultured fungus (Aspergillus) separated from a marine sponge.
Tetrahedron Lett. 37, 2331–2334.
Abu Deraz, S.S. 2014. Isolation and characterization of microbiota inhab-
iting Al-Aqsa Mosque, Al-Quds, Palestine. Master thesis, Faculty of
Science, University of Suez Canal.
Adametz, L. 1886. Untersuchungen über die niederen Pilze der
Ackerkrume. Inaug. Diss., 1–78. Leipzig.
Adams, B.J., Bardgett, R.D., Ayres, E., Wall, D.H., Aislabie, J., Bamforth,
S., et al., 2006. Diversity and distribution of Victoria Land biota. Soil
Biol. Biochem. 38, 3003–3018.
Al-Doory, Y., Tolba, M.K., Al-Ani, A., 1959. On the fungal flora of Iraqi
soil.II: Central Iraq. Mycologia 51, 429–439.
Ali, M.I., 1977. Studies on the fungal flora of Saudi Arabia. 1-Wadi Hanif.
Bull. Fac. Sci. Riyadh Univ. 8, 7–20.
Ali, M.I., Abu-Zinada, A.H., El-Mashharawi, Z., 1977. On the fungal flora
of Saudi Arabia. 11-Seasonal fluctuations of fungi in the rhizosphere
of some plants. Bull. Fac. Sci., Riyadh Univ., 215–228.
Ali-Shtayeh, M.S., Jamous, R.M., 2000. Keratinophilic fungi and
related dermatophytes in polluted soil and water habitats. Revista
Iberoamericana de Micologia 17, 51–59.
Al-Subai, A.A.T. 1983. Soil fungi in state of Qatar. M.Sc. Thesis, Botany
Department, Faculty of Science, Qatar University, Qatar.
Alva, P., Mckenzie, E.H.C., Pointing, S.B., et al., 2002. Do seagrasses
harbour endophytes?. In: Hyde, K.D. (Ed.), Fungi in Marine
Environments, Fungal Diversity Research Series Hong Kong
University Press, Hong Kong.
Anderson, K., Morris, G., Kennedy, H., Croall, J., Michie, J., Richardson,
M., et al., 1996. Aspergillosis in immunocompromised paediatric
patients: associations with building hygiene, design, and indoor air.
Thorax 51, 256–261.
Andrews, S., Pitt, J.I., 1987. Further studies on the water relations of xero-
philic fungi, including some halophiles. J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol. 133,
233–238. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/00221287-133-2-233.
Anke, H., Kolthoum, I., Zähner, H., Laatsch, H., 1980. Metabolic products
of microorganisms. The anthraquinones of Aspergillus glaucus group.
I. Occurrence,isolation, identification and antimicrobial activity. Arch.
Microbiol. 126, 223–230.

Arenz, B.E., Blanchette, R.A., Farrell, R.L., 2014. Fungal diver-
sity in Antarctic soils. In: Cowan, D. (Ed.), Antarctic Terrestrial
Microbiology: Physical and Biological Properties of Antarctic Soils
Springer, Berlin, pp. 35–53.
Arif, I.A., Hashem, A.R., 1988. Soil analysis and mycoflora of Gizan City,
Saudi Arabia. Phyton 62, 109–113.
Arya, A., Shah, A.R., Sadasivan, S., 2001. Indoor aeromycoflora of
Baroda museum and deterioration of Egyptian mummy. Curr. Sci. 81,
793–799.
Baghdadi, V.Ch. (1968). De speciebus novis Penicilli Fr. et Aspergüli Fr. e
terris Syriae isolatis notula. - Novosti Sistematiki Vysshikh i nizshikh
Rastenii 1968, pp. 96–114.
Bai, Z.Q., Lin, X.P., Wang, Y.Z., Wang, J.F., Zhou, X.F., Yang, B., et al.,
2014. New phenyl derivatives from endophytic fungus Aspergillus
flavipes AIL8 derived of mangrove plant Acanthus ilicifolius.
Fitoterapia 95, 194–202.
Balbool, B.A., Abdel-Azeem, A.M., Khalil, W.F. El-Kazzaz, W.M.
(2013). Bioprospecting as a conservation tool: the genus Aspergillus
(Eurotium) in Egypt. Third International Congress on Fungal
Conservation,Akyaka, Mugla,Turkey, 11–15 November 2013.Abstract
book: 36.
Barakat, A., 1999. Incidence of halophilic and osmophoilic soil fungi and
glycerol biosynthesis by Eurotium amstelodami Mangin from Riyadh,
Saudi Arabia. Bull. Fac. Sci. Assiut Univ. 28 (2-D), 377–390.
Baranyi, N., Kocsubé́, S., Vágvölgyi, C., Varga, J., 2013. Current trends in
aflatoxin research. Acta Biologica Szegediensis 57 (2), 95–107.
Barkai-Golan, R., 2008. In: Barkai-Golan, R., Paster, N. (Eds.), Mycotoxins
in fruits and vegetables Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 115–151.
Battilani, P., Pietri, A., 2002. Ochratoxin A in grapes and wine. Euro. J.
Plant Pathol. 108, 639–643.
Bayman, P., Baker, J.L., Doster, M.A., Michailides, T.J., Mahoney, N.E.,
2002. Ochratoxin production by the Aspergillus ochraceus group and
Aspergillus alliaceus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68, 2326–2329.
Behera, B.C., Mishra, R.R., Thatoi, H.N., 2012. Diversity of soil fungi
from mangroves of Mahanadi delta, Orissa, India. J. Microbiol.
Biotechnol. Res. 2, 375–378.
Belofsky, G.N., Jensen, P.R., Renner, M.K., et al., 1998. New cytotoxic
sesquiterpenoid nitrobenzoyl esters from a marine isolate of the fun-
gus Aspergillus versicolor. Tetrahedron 54, 1715–1724.
Besada, W.H., Yusef, H.M., 1968. On the mycoflora of UAR soil. Proc.
Egyp. Acad. Sci. 21, 103–109.
Betina, V., 1989. Mycotoxins – Chemical, Biological and Environmental
Aspects. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Blanchette, R.A., 1995. Biodeterioration of archaeological wood. CAB
Biodeterioration Abstracts 9, 113–127.
Blanchette, R.A., 1998. A guide to wood deterioration caused by microor-
ganisms and insects. In: Dardes, K., Rotne, A. (Eds.), The Structural
Conservation of Panel Paintings Getty Conversion Institute, Los
Angeles, pp. 55–68.
Bonugli-Santos, R.C., Vasconcelos, M.R., Passarini, M.R.Z., Vieira,
G.A.L., Lopes, V.C.P., Mainardi, P.H., et al., 2015. Marine-derived
fungi: diversity of enzymes and biotechnological applications. Front.
Microbiol. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015.00269.
Borut, S., 1960. An ecological and physiological study on soil fungi of the
Northern Negev (Israel). Bull. Res. Coun. E. Israel 8, 65–80.
Boutaiba, S. 1997. Contribution à l’étude de la flore fongique du lac d’El
Goléa: taxonomie, écologie et production de metabolites. These de
Magister en Biologie, Universite Abou-Bekr Belkaid, Tlemcen,
Institut des Sciences de la Nature.
Bridge, P.D., Spooner, B.M., 2012. Non-lichenized Antarctic fungi: tran-
sient visitors or members of a cryptic ecosystem. Fungal Ecol 5,
381–394.
Brock, T.D., 1979. Ecology of saline lakes. In: Shilo, M. (Ed.), Strategies
of Microbial Life in Extreme Environments Dahlem Konferenzen,
Berlin, pp. 29–47.
Buchanan, J.R., Sommer, N.F., Fortlage, R.J., 1975. Aspergillus flavus
infection and aflatoxin production in fig fruits. Appl. Microbiol. 30,
238–241.
Butinar, L., Santos, S., Spencer-Martins, I., Oren, A., Gunde-Cimerman,
N., 2005a. Yeast diversity in hypersaline habitats. FEMS. Microbiol.
Lett. 244 (2), 229–234.
Butinar, L., Sonjak, S., Zalar, P., Plemenitaš, A., Gunde-Cimerman, N.,
2005b. Melanized halophilic fungi are eukaryotic members of micro-
bial communities in hypersaline waters of solar salterns. Bot. Mar. 48
(1), 73–79.
Butinar, L., Zalar, P., Frisvad, J.C., Gunde-Cimerman, N., 2005c. The
genus Eurotium—members of indigenous fungal community in hyper-
saline waters of salterns. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 51 (2), 155–166.
Butinar, L., Frisvad, J.C., Gunde-Cimerman, N., 2011. Hypersaline
waters- a potential source of foodborne toxigenic aspergilli and peni-
cillia. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 77, 186–199.
Callaghan, T.V., Björn, L.O., Chernov, Y., Chapin, T., Christensen, T.R.,
Huntley, B., et al., 2004. Biodiversity, distributions and adaptations
of Arctic species in the context of environmental change. Ambio 33,
404–417.
Cantrell, S.A., Casillas-Martinez, L., Molina, M., 2006. Characterization
of fungi from hypersaline environments of solar salterns using mor-
phological and molecular techniques. Mycol. Res. 110, 962–970.
Carbone, I., Kohn, L.M., 1999. A method for designing primer sets for
speciation studies in filamentous ascomycetes. Mycologia 91, 553–556.
Čavka, M., Glasnović,A., Janković, I., Šikanjić, P.R., Perić, B., Brkljačić, B.,
et al., 2010. Microbiological analysis of a mummy from the archeo-
logical museum in Zagreb. Coll. Antropol. 34, 803–805.
Christensen, M., 1981. A synoptic key and evaluation of species in the
Aspergillus flavus group. Mycologia 73, 1056–1084.
Christensen, M., 1982. The Aspergillus ochraceous group: two new
species from western soils and a synoptic key. Mycologia 74 (2),
210–225.
Christensen, M., States, J.S., 1982. Aspergillus nidulans group: Aspergillus
navahoensis and a revised synoptic key. Mycologia 74, 226–235.
Christensen, M., Tuthill, D.E., 1985. Aspergillus: an overview. In: Samson,
R.A., Pitt, J.I. (Eds.), Advances in Pencillium and Aspergillus system-
atics Plenum Press, New York, NY, pp. 195–209.
Ciegler, A., 1972. Bioproduction of ochratoxin A and penicillic acid by
members of the Aspergillus ochraceus group. Canad. J. Microbiol. 18,
631–636.
Cole, R.J., 1984. Cyclopiazonic acid and related toxins. In: Betina, V.
(Ed.), Mycotoxins: Production, Isolation, Separation and Purification
Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 405–414.
Cole, R.J., Cox, R.H., 1981. Handbook of Toxic Fungal Metabolites.
Academic Press, New York, NY.
Conley, C.A., Ishkhanova, G., McKay, C.P., Cullings, K., 2006. A pre-
liminary survey of non-lichenized fungi cultured from the hyperarid
Atacama Desert of Chile. Astrobiology 6, 521–526.
Cruickshank, R.H., Pitt, J.I., 1990. Isoenzyme patterns in Aspergillus fia-
vus and closely related taxa. In: Samson, R.A., Pitt, J.I. (Eds.), Modern
Concepts in Penicillium and Aspergillus Classification Plenum Press,
New York and London, pp. 259–264.

Cui, L., Morris, A., Ghedin, E., 2013. The human mycobiome in health
and disease. Genome Med. 5, 63. <http://genomemedicine.com/
content/5/7/63>.
Cuijpers, C.E.J., Swaen, G.M.H., Wesseling, G., Sturmans, F., Wouters,
E.F.M., 1995. Adverse effects of the indoor environment on respira-
tory health in primary school children. Environ. Res. 68, 11–23.
Darwish, S.S., El Hadidi, N., Mansour, M., 2013. The effect of fungal
decay on Ficus sycomorus wood. Int. J. Conserv. Sci. 4 (3), 271–282.
Davis, N.D., 1981. Sterigmatocystin and other mycotoxins produced by
Aspergillus species. J. Food. Prot. 44, 711–714.
Dendouga, W., Boureghda, H., Belhamra, M., 2015. Edaphic factors
affecting distribution of soil fungi in three chotts located in Algeria
desert. Courrier du Savoir 19, 147–152.
Devi, L.S., Joshi, S.R., 2012.Antimicrobial and synergistic effects of silver
nanoparticles synthesized using soil fungi of high altitudes of eastern
Himalaya. Mycobiology (40), 27–34.
de Vries, R.P., Visser, J., 2001. Aspergillus enzymes involved in degrada-
tion of plant cell wall polysaccharides. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 65,
497–522.
Ding, B.,Yin,Y., Zhang, F., Li, Z., 2011. Recovery and phylogenetic diver-
sity of culturable fungi associated with marine sponges Clathrina lute-
oculcitella and Holoxea sp. in the South China Sea. Mar. Biotechnol.
13, 713–721.
Dörfelt, H., Schmidt, A.R., 2005. A fossil Aspergillus from Baltic amber.
Mycol. Res. 109, 956–960.
Dorner, J.W., Cole, R.J., Diener, U.L., 1984. The relationship of Aspergillus
flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus with reference to production of afla-
toxins and cyclopiazonic acid. Mycopathologia 87, 13–15.
Doster, M.A., Michailides, T.J., Morgan, D.P., 1996. Aspergillus species
and mycotoxins in figs from Californian orchards. Plant Dis. 80,
484–489.
Durley, R.C., MacMillan, J., Simpson, T.J., et al., 1975. Fungal products.
XIII Xanthomegnin, viomellein, rubrosulphin and viopurpurin, pig-
ments from Aspergillus sulphureus and Aspergillus melleus. J. Chem.
Perkin Trans. 1, 163–169.
Ein-Gil, N., Ilan, M., Carmeli, S., Smith, G.W., Pawlik, J.R., Yarden, O.,
2009. Presence of Aspergillus sydowii, a pathogen of gorgonian sea-
fans in the marine sponge Spongia obscura. ISME J. 3, 752–755.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2009.18.
El-Buni,A.M., Rattan, S.S., 1981. Check List of Libyan Fungi. Department
of Botany, Al Faateh University, Tripoli, 169 pages.
El-Dohlob, S.M. F.F. Migahed (1985): Seed Borne and Rhizosphere Fungi
of FourVarieties of Crop Plants. 2ndAgric. Conf. Bot. Sci. 21–23 Sept.
El-Said, A.H.M., 1994. Studies on soil mycoflora of Bahreen. Microbiol.
Res. 149, 263–269.
El-Said, A.H.M., Saleem, A., 2008. Ecological and physiological studies
on soil fungi at western region, Libya. Mycobiology 36, 109.
Fathi, S.M., El-Husseini, T.M., Abu-Zinada, A.H., 1975. Seasonal varia-
tions of soil microflora and their activities in Riyadh region, Saudi
Arabia. Bull. Fac. Sci., Riyadh Univ. 7, 17–30.
Findley, K., Oh, J., Yang, J., Conian, S., Deming, C., et al., 2013.
Topographic diversity of fungal and bacterial communities in human
skin. Nature <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12171f> (online 22
May 2013).
Flannigan, B., Pearce, A.R., 1994. Aspergillus spoilage: spoilage of cere-
als and cereal products by the hazardous species Aspergillus clava-
tus. In: Powell, K.A., Renwick, A., Peberdy, J.F. (Eds.), The Genus
Aspergillus from Taxonomy and Genetics to Industrial Application
Plenum Press, New York, NY, pp. 55–62.
Flannigan, B., McCabe, E.M., McGarry, F., 1991. Allergenic and toxi-
genic micro-organisms in houses. J. Appl. Bacteriol. Sympos. 70,
61S–73S.
Microorganisms in home and indoor workFlannigan, B., Samson, R.A.,
Miller, J.D. (Eds.), 2011. Environments: Diversity, Health Impacts,
Investigation and Control, second ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
Fraga, M.E., Santana, D.M.N., Gatti, M.J., Direito, G.M., Cavaglieri, L.R.,
Rosa, C.A.R., 2008. Characterization of Aspergillus species based on
fatty acid profiles. Mem. Ist. Oswaldo Cruz 103 (6), 540–544.
Frisvad, J.C., 1989. The use of high-performance liquid chromatography
and diode array detection in fungal chemotaxonomy based on profiles
of secondary metabolites. Bot. J. Linnean Soc. 99, 81–95.
Frisvad, J.C., 2008. Fungi in cold ecosystems. In: Margesin, R., Schinner,
F., Marx, J.-C., Gerday, C. (Eds.), Psychrophiles: from Biodiversity to
Biotechnology Springer, Berlin, pp. 137–156.
Frisvad, J.C., Frank, J.M., Houbraken, J.A.M.P., Kuijpers, A.F.A., Samson,
R.A., 2004. New ochratoxin A producing species of Aspergillus sec-
tion Circumdati. Stud. Mycol. 50, 23–43.
Frisvad, J.C., Andersen, B., Thrane, U., 2007. The use of secondary metab-
olite profiling in chemotaxonomy of filamentous fungi. Mycol. Res.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mycres.2007.08.018.
Frisvad, J.C., Thrane, U., Filtenborg, O., 1998. Role and use of secondary
metabolites in fungal taxonomy. In: Frisvad, J.C., Bridge, P.D., Arora,
D.K. (Eds.), Chemical Fungal Taxonomy Marcel Dekker, New York,
NY, pp. 289–319.
Frisvad, J.C., Larsen, T.O., Thrane, U., 2011. Fumonisin and ochratoxin
production in industrial Aspergillus niger strains. PLoS ONE 6,
e23496.
Fröhlich-Nowoisky, J., Burrows, S.M., Xie, Z., Engling, G., Solomon,
P.A., Fraser, M.P., et al., 2012. Biogeography in the air: fungal diver-
sity over land and oceans. Biogeosciences 9, 1125–1136. http://dx.doi.
org/10.5194/bg-9-1125-2012.
Galagan, J.E., Calvo, S.E., Cuomo, C., Ma, L.J., Wortman, J.R.,
Batzoglou, S., et al., 2005. Sequencing of Aspergillus nidulans and
comparative analysis with A. fumigatus and A. oryzae. Nature 438,
1105–1115.
Gallagher, R.T., Richard, J.L., Stahr, H.M., Cole, R.J., 1978. Cyclopiazonic
acid production by aflatoxigenic and non-aflatoxigenic strains of
Aspergillus flavus. Mycopathologia 66, 31–36.
Gams, W., Christensen, M., Onions, A.H.S., Pitt, J.I., Samson, R.A., 1985.
Infrageneric taxa of Aspergillus. In: Samson, R.A., Pitt, J.I. (Eds.),
Advances in Penicillium and Aspergillus Systematics Plenum Press,
New York, NY, pp. 55–64.
Gao, Z., Li, B., Zheng, C., Wang, G., 2008. Molecular detection of fun-
gal communities in the Hawaiian marine sponges Suberites zeteki and
Mycale armata. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 74, 6091–6101.
Geiser, D.M., Taylor, J.W., Ritchie, K.B., Smith, G.W., 1998. Cause of sea
fan death in the West Indies. Nature 394, 137–138.
Ghannoum, M.A., Jurevic, R.J., Mukherjee, P.K., Cui, F., Sikaroodi, M.,
Naqvi, A., et al., 2010. Characterization of the oral fungal microbiome
(mycobiome) in healthy individuals. PLoS Pathog. 6, e1000713.
Gill-Carey, D., 1949. The nature of some antibiotics from aspergilli. Brit.
J. Exp. Path 30, 123.
Giridhar, P., Reddy, S.M., 2001. Incidence of mycotoxigenic fungi on rai-
sins. Adv. Plant Sci. 14, 291–294.
Giusiano, G., Piontelli, E., Mangiaterra, M., Sosa, M.A., 2002. Distribución
altitudinal de hongos queratinófilos, epífitos y endófitos en suelos
semiáridos del noroeste argentino (Prov. De Jujuy, 23°l.S Y 66°l.W).
Boletín Micológico 17, 51–62.

Glass, N.L., Donaldson, G.C., 1995. Development of primer sets designed
for use with the PCR to amplify conserved genes from filamentous
ascomycetes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61, 1323–1330.
Glassbrook, N.J. 2008. Biochemical markers for the detection and clas-
sification of Aspergillus. PhD Thesis, Cardiff University.
Google Scholar, <https://scholar.google.com.eg/> (Accessed 17. 07.
2015).
Gorst-Allman, C.P., Steyn, P.S., 1979. Screening methods for the detection
of thirteen common mycotoxins. J. Chromat. 175, 325–331.
Grishkan, I., Nevo, E., 2010. Spatiotemporal distribution of soil micro-
fungi in the Makhtesh Ramon area, central Negev desert, Israel.
Fungal Ecol. 3, 326e337.
Grishkan, I., Rong-Liang, J., Kidron, G.J., Xin-Rong, L., 2015. Cultivable
microfungal communities inhabiting biological soil crusts in the
Tengger Desert, China. Pedosphere 25 (3), 351–363.
Guarro, J., Gene, J., Stchigel, A.M., 1999. Developments in fungal tax-
onomy. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 12, 454–500.
Guatam, A.K., 2014. Diversity of fungal endophytes in some medicinal
plants of Himachal Pradesh, India. Arch. Phytopathol. Plant Protect.
47 (5), 537–544.
Guiraud, P., Steiman, R., Seigle-Murandi, F., Sage, L., 1995. Mycoflora of
soil around the Dead Sea II—Deuteromycetes (except Aspergillus and
Penicillium). Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 18, 318–322.
Gunde-Cimerman, N., Zalar, P., de Hoog, S., Plemenitaš, A., 2000.
Hypersaline waters in salterns –natural ecological niches for halo-
philic black yeasts. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 32 (3), 235–240.
Gunde-Cimerman, N., Sonjak, S., Zalar, P., Frisvad, J.C., Diderichsen, B.,
Plemenitaš, A., 2003. Extremophilic fungi in Arctic ice: a relation-
ship between adaptation to low temperature and water activity. Phys.
Chem. Earth Pt. B. 28, 1273–1278.
Gunde-Cimerman, N., Oren, A., Plemenitaš, A., Butinar, L., Sonjak, S.,
Turk, M., et al., 2005. Halotolerant and halophilic fungi from coastal
environments in the Arctics. In: Seckbach, J. (Ed.), Adaptation to life
at High Salt Concentrations in Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya, vol 9,
Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology Springer,
Netherlands, pp. 397–423.
Hafez, W.A. 2012. Comparative ecological studies on soil and rhizospheric
fungi of maize and wheat plants in different areas in Minia Governorate
Egypt. M.S. Thesis, Faculty of Science, El-Minina University.
Halwagy, R., Moustafa, A.F., Kamel, S.M., 1982. Ecology of the
soil mycoflora in the desert soil of Kuwait. J. Arid Environ. 5,
109–125.
Hashem, A.R., 1991. Studies on the fungal flora of Saudi Arabian soil.
Crypt. Bot. 2/3, 179–182.
Hashem, A.R., 1995. Soil analysis and mycoflora of the Jubail industrial
city in Saudi Arabia. J. Univ. Kuwait (Sci) 22, 231–237.
Hatakka, A. and Hammel, K.E. (2010). Fungal biodegradation of ligno-
celluloses, In: Esser, K. (series Ed.), The Mycota, A Comprehensive
Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied
Resarch. In: Hofrichter, M. (vol. Ed.), Industrial Applications, second
ed., vol. 10. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 319–340.
Hesseltine, C.W., Vandegraft, E.E., Fennell, I., et al., 1972. Aspergilli as
ochratoxin producers. Mycologia 64, 539–550.
Hill, R.A., Blankenship, P.D., Cole, R.J., Sanders, T.H., 1983. Effects of
soil moisture and temperature on preharvest invasion of peanuts by the
Aspergillus flavus group and subsequent aflatoxin development. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 45, 628–633.
Hogarth, P.J., 2007. The Biology of Mangroves and Seagrasses. Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 272 pp.
Höller, U., Wrigh, A.D., Matthee, G.F., et al., 2000. Fungi from marine
sponges: diversity, biological activity and secondary metabolites.
Mycol. Res. 104, 1354–1365.
Hong, S.B., Go, S.J., Shin, H.D., Frisvad, J.C., Samson, R.A., 2005.
Polyphasic taxonomy of Aspergillus fumigatus and related species.
Mycologia 97, 1316–1329.
Horn, B.W., 2003. Ecology and population biology of aflatoxigenic fungi
in soil. J. Toxicol.—Toxin Rev. 22, 351–379.
Horn, B.W., Dorner, J.W., 2002. Effect of competition and adverse culture
conditions on aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus through suc-
cessive generations. Mycologia 94, 741–751.
Horner, W.E., Helbling, A., Salvaggio, J.E., Lehrer, S.B., 1995. Fungal
allergens. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 8, 161–179.
Horré, R., Symoens, F., Delhaes, L., Bouchara, J.-P., 2010. Fungal respira-
tory infections in cystic fibrosis: a growing problem. Med. Mycol. 48,
S1–S3. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/13693786.2010.529304.
Houbraken, J., Due, M., Varga, J., et al., 2007. Polyphasic taxonomy of
Aspergillus section Usti. Stud. Mycol. 59, 107–128.
Hu, F.B., Persky, V., Flay, B.R., Richardson, J., 1997. An epidemiological
study of asthma prevalence and related factors among young adult. Br.
Med. J. 34, 67–76.
Hubka, V., Kolarik, M., 2012. β-Tubulin paralogue tubC is frequently
misidentified as the benA gene in Aspergillus section Nigri taxonomy:
primer specificity testing and taxonomic consequences. Persoonia 29.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3767/003158512X658123.
Hubka, V., Kolarik, M., Alena Kubátova, A., Peterson, S.W., 2013.
Taxonomic revision of Eurotium and transfer of species to Aspergillus.
Mycologia 105 (4), 912–937.
Huffnagle, G.B., Noverr, M.C., 2013. The emerging world of the fungal
microbiome. Trends Microbiol. 21, 334–341. Available from: http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2013.04.002.
Hyde, K.D., Jones, E.B.G., Leaño, E., Pointing, S.B., Poonyth, A.D.,
Vrijmoed, L.L.P., 1998. Role of fungi in marine ecosystems. Biodivers.
Conserv. 7, 1147–1161.
Iamanaka, B.T., Taniwaki, M.H., Menezes, H.C., et al., 2005. Incidence of
toxigenic fungi and ochratoxin A in dried fruits sold in Brazil. Food
Addit. Contam. 22, 1258–1263.
Imran, Z.K., Al Rubaiy, A.A., 2015. Molecular ecological typing of wild
type Aspergillus terreus from arid soils and screening of lovastatin
production. Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 9 (8), 534–542.
Irbe, I., Andersone, I., Andersons, B., 2009. Diversity and distribution of
wood decay fungi and wood discoloring fungi in buildings in Latvia.
LLU Raksti 23 (318), 91–102.
Ismail, A.L.S., Abdullah, S.K., 1977. Studies on the soil fungi of Iraq.
Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 86, 151–154.
Ivarson, K.C., 1965. The microbiology of some permafrost soils in the
McKenzie Valley, N.W.T. Arctic 18, 256–260.
Jabra-Rizk, M.A., Ferreira, S.M., Sabet, M., Falkler, W.A., Merz, W.G.,
Meiller, T.F., 2001. Recovery of Candida dubliniensis and other yeasts
from human immunodeficiency virus associated periodontal lesions.
J. Clin. Microbiol. 39, 4520–4522.
Jaime-Garcia, R., Cotty, P.J., 2006. Spatial relationships of soil texture
and crop rotation to Aspergillus flavus community structure in South
Texas. Phytopathology 96, 599–607.
Jaime-Garcia, R., Cotty, P.J., 2010. Crop rotation and soil temperature
influence the community structure of Aspergillus flavus in soil. Soil
Biol. Biochem. 42, 1842–1847.
Jeewon, R., Hyde, K.D., 2007. Diversity and detection of fungi from
environmental samples: traditional versus molecular approaches.

In: Varma, A., Oelmuller, R. (Eds.), Advanced Techniques in Soil
Microbiology. Soil Biology Series Springer-Verlag Press.
Junior, P.R.J., Yamamoto, A.C.A., Amadio, J.V.R., Martins, E.R., Leal,
F.A., et al., 2012. Trichocomaceae: biodiversity of Aspergillus spp
and Penicillium spp residing in libraries. J. Infect. Dev. Ctries 6 (10),
734–743.
Jurjević, Ž., Peterson, S.W., Horn, B.W., 2012. Aspergillus section
Versicolores: nine new species and multilocus DNA sequence based
phylogeny. IMA Fungus 3, 59–79.
Karlshøj, K., Nielsen, P.V., Larsen, T.O., 2007. Fungal volatiles: biomark-
ers of good and bad food quality. In: Dijksterhuis, J., Samson, R.A.
(Eds.), Food Mycology. A multifaceted Approach to Fungi and Food
CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 279–302.
Kathiresan, K., Bingham, B.L., 2001. Biology of mangroves and man-
grove ecosystems. Adv. Mar. Biol. 40, 81–251.
Kelecom, A., 2002. Secondary metabolites from marine microorganisms.
An. Acad. Bras. Cienc. 74, 151–170.
Khalil, A.M.A., El-sheikh, H.H., Sultan, M.H., 2013. Distribution of fungi
in mangrove soil of coastal areas at Nabq and Ras Mohammed protec-
torates. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci. 2 (12), 264–274.
Khosravi, A.R., Arash, C.N., Hojjatollah, S., 2012. Protein profiles of
Aspergillus species isolated from the tea gardens and factories air in
northern Iran. Jundishapour J. Microbiol. 6 (1), 4–10.
Kim, K.W., Sugawara, F., Yoshida, S., et al., 1993. Structure of malformin
A, a phytotoxic metabolite produced by Aspergillus niger. Biosci.
Biotech. Biochem. 57, 240–243.
Kirk, J.L., Beaudette, L.A., Hart, M., Moutoglis, P., Klironomos, J.N., Lee,
H., 2004. Methods of studying soil microbial diversity. J. Microbiol.
Methods. 58, 169–188.
Klich, M.A., 2002a. Biogeography of Aspergillus species in soil and litter.
Mycologia 94 (1), 21–27.
Klich, M.A., 2002b. Identification of Common Aspergillus Species.
Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht.
Klich, M.A., Pitt, J.I., 1988. A Laboratory Guide to Common Aspergillus
Species and Their Teleomorphs. CSIRO Division of Food Processing,
North Ryde, NWS.
Klich, M.A., Mullaney, E.J., Daly, C.B., Cary, J.W., 2000. Molecular and
physiological aspects of aflatoxin and Sterigmatocystin biosynthe-
sis by Aspergillus tamarii and A. ochraceoroseus. Appl. Microbiol.
Biotechnol. 53, 605–609.
Kohlmeyer, J., Kohlmeyer, E., 1979. Marine Mycology The Higher Fungi.
Academic Press, New York, NY.
König, G.M., Kehraus, S., Seiber, S.F., Abdel-Lateff, A., Müller, D.,
2006. Natural products from marine organisms and their associated
microbes. Chem. Biochem. 7, 229–238.
Kozakiewicz, Z., 1989. Aspergillus species on stored products. Myc.
Papers 161, 1–188.
Kredics, L., Hatvani, L., Naeimi, S., et al., 2014. Biodiversity of the
genus Hypocrea/Trichoderma in different habitats. In: Gupta, V.G.,
Schmoll, M., Herrera-Estrella, A. (Eds.), Biotechnology and Biology
of Trichoderma Elsevier, pp. 3–24.
Krishnan, A., Alias, S.A., Michael Wong, C.V.L., Pang, K.L., Convey, P.,
2011. Extracellular hydrolase enzyme production by soil fungi from
King George Island, Antarctica. Polar Biol. 4, 1535–1542.
Krnjaja, V., Stojanovic, L.J., Tomic, Z., Nesic, Z., 2008. The presence of
potentially toxigenic fungi in dairy cattle feed with focus on species of
genus Аspergillus. J. Mountain Agric. Balkans 11, 621–630.
Kubanek, J., Jensen, P.R., Keifer, P.A., Sullards, M.C., Collins, D.O.,
Fenical, W., 2003. Seaweed resistance to microbial attack: a targeted
chemical defense against marine fungi. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA
100, 6916–6921.
Kuraishi, H., Itoh, M., Katayama, Y., Ito, T., Hasegawa, A., Sugiyama,
J., 2000. Ubiquinone systems in fungi. V. Distribution and taxo-
nomic implications of ubiquinones in Eurotiales, Onygenales and the
related plectomycete genera, except for Aspergillus, Paecilomyces,
Penicillium, and their related teleomorphs.AntonieVan Leeuwenhoek.
77 (2), 179–186.
Kurakov, A.V., Somova, N.G., Ivanovskii, R.N., 1999. Micromycetes pop-
ulating limestone and red brick surfaces of the Novodevichii Convent
masonry. Microbiologia 68, 232–241.
Kuriashi, H., Itoh, M., Tsuzaki, N., Katayama,Y.,Yokoyama, T., Sugiyama,
J., 1990. The ubiquinone system as a taxonomic aid in Aspergillus and
its teleomorphs. In: Samson, R.A., Pitt, J.I. (Eds.), Modern Concepts
in Penicillium and Aspergillus Classification Plenum Press, NewYork,
NY, pp. 407–421.
Kurtzman, C.P., Horn, H.B., Hesseltine, C.W., 1987. Aspergillus nomius:
a new aflatoxin-producing species related to Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus tamarii. J. Microbiol. 12, 85–87.
Kurzeja, K.C., Gabber, E.D., 1973. A genetic study of electrophoreti-
cally variant extracellular amylolytic enzymes of wild-type strains of
Aspergillus nidulans. Can. J. Genet. Cytol. 15, 275–287.
Kusari, S., Lamshöft, M., Spiteller, M., 2009. Aspergillus fumiga-
tus Fresenius, an endophytic fungus from Juniperus communis L.
Horstmann as a novel source of the anticancer pro-drug deoxypodo-
phyllotoxin. J. Appl. Microbiol. 107, 1019–1030.
Lam, C., Stang, A., Harder, T., 2008. Planktonic bacteria and fungi are
selectively eliminated by exposure to marine macroalgae in close
proximity. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 63, 283–291.
Larsen, T.O., Smedsgaard, J., Nielsen, K.F., Hansen, M.E., Frisvad, J.C.,
2005. Phenotypic taxonomy and metabolite profiling in microbial
drug discovery. Nat. Prod. Rep. 22, 672–693.
Lechevalier, H., Lechevalier, M.P., 1988. Chemotaxonomic use of lipids
an overview In: Ratledge, C. Wilkison, S.G. (Eds.), Microbiol. Lipids,
Vol. I Academic Press, London, pp. 869–902.
Lee, O.O., Wang, Y., Yang, J., Lafi, F.F., Al-Suwailem, A., Qian, P.Y.,
2010. Pyrosequencing reveals highly diverse and species-specific
microbial communities in sponges from the Red Sea. ISME J. 5,
650–664.
Lee, L.S., Bennett, J.W., Cucullu, A.F., Stanley, J.B., 1975. Synthesis of
versicolorin A by a mutant of Aspergillus parasiticus deficient in afla-
toxin production. J. Agric. Food Chem. 23, 1132–1134.
Lee, S.M., Li, X.F., Jiang, H., Cheng, J.G., Seong, S., Choi, H.D., et al.,
2003. Terreusinone, a novel UV-A protecting dipyrroloquinone from
marine algicolous fungus Aspergillus terreus. Tetrahedron Lett. 44,
7707–7710.
Leila, S., Azar, S., Alireza, K., Mansour, B., Amir, B., 2010. Determining
protein patterns for three fungus species Aspergillus fumigatus, Asp.
flavus and Asp. niger, obtained from outdoor air in Iran. Global
Veterinaria 4 (2), 130–134.
Lević, J., Gošić-Dondo, S., Ivanović, D., Stanković, S., Krnjaja, V.,
Boćarov-Stancić, A., et al., 2013. An outbreak of Aspergillus species
in response to environmental conditions in Serbia. Pestic. Phytomed.
(Belgrade) 28 (3), 167–179.
Li, Q., Wang, G., 2009. Diversity of fungal isolates from three Hawaiian
marine sponges. Microbiol. Res. 164, 233–241.
Li, W.C., Zhou, J., Guo, S.Y., Guo, L.D., 2007. Endophytic fungi asso-
ciated with lichens in Baihua mountain of Beijing, China. Fungal
Divers. 25, 69–80.

Li, X.J., Zhang, Q., Zhang, A.L., Gao, J.M., 2012. Metabolites from
Aspergillus fumigatus, an endophytic fungus associated with Melia
azedarach, and their antifungal, antifeedant, and toxic activities.
J. Agr. Food Chem. 60, 3424–3431.
Lin, A., Lu, X., Fang, Y., et al., 2008. Two new 5-Hydroxy-2-pyrone
derivatives isolated from a marine-derived fungus Aspergillus flavus.
J. Antibiot. 61, 245–249.
Lin, W., Brauers, G., Ebel, R., Wray, V., Berg, A., Sudarsono, P.P., 2003.
Novel chromone derivatives from fungus Aspergillus versicolor iso-
lated from the marine sponge Xestospongia exigua. J. Nat. Prod. 66,
57–61.
Liu, W., Li, C., Zhu, P., Yang, J., Cheng, K., 2010. Phylogenetic diversity
of culturable fungi associated with two marine sponges: Haliclona
simulans and Gelliodes carnosa, collected from the Hainan Island
coastal waters of the South China Sea. Fungal Divers. 42, 1–15.
Londero, A.T., Guadalupe-Cortés, J.M., 1990. Aspergiloses Pulmonares.
J. Pneumologia 16, 78–90.
Lopez-Diaz, T.M., Flannigan, B., 1997. Production of patulin and cytocha-
lasin E by Aspergillus clavatus during malting of barley and wheat.
Int. J. Food. Microbiol. 35, 129–136.
Madavasamy, S., Pannerselvam, A., 2012. Isolation, identification of fungi
from Avecinnia marina Muthupet Mangroves Thiruvarur Dt. Asian J.
Plant Sci. Res. 2 (4), 452–459.
Magnoli, C., Astoreca, A., Ponsone, L., et al., 2004. Survey of mycoflora
and ochratoxin A in dried vine fruits from Argentina markets. Lett.
Appl. Mycobiol 39, 326–331.
Mahmoud, S.A.Z., Abou El-Fadle, M., El-Mofty, M., 1964. Studied on the
rhizosphere microflora of a desert plants. Folia. Microbiol. (Praha).
9, 1–8.
Manoharachary, C., Kunwar, I.K., Tilak, K.V., 2013. Diversity and charac-
terization of fungi and its relevance. Indian Phytopath. 66 (1), 10–13.
Mansour, A.M.A., 2010. Contribution to knowledge of some soil fungi in
Eastern region, in Libya. J Prod. Dev. (Agricultural Research) 15 (3), 10.
Marguet, C., Favennec, L., Matray, O., Bertout, S., Giraud, S., Couderc,
L., et al., 2012. Clinical and microbiological efficacy of micafungin
on Geosmithia argillacea infection in a cystic fibrosis patient. Med.
Mycol. Case Rep 1, 79–81.Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
mmcr.2012.08.004.
Marín, S., Ramos, A.J., Sanchis, V., 2012. Modeling Aspergillus flavus
growth and aflatoxins production in pistachio nuts. Food Microbiol.
32, 378–388. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2012.07.018.
Masic, Z., Bocarov-Stancic, A., Sinovec, Z., Dilas, S., Adamovic, M.,
(2003) Mycotoxin in feed for animals in the Republic of Serbia.
10th Symposium Food Technology for Animal Safety and Quality,
Vrnjačka Banja, Serbia and Montenegro. Book of Prooceedings.
Matsuda, H., Kohno, S., Maesaki, S., Yamada, H., Koga, H., Tamura,
M., et al., 1992. Application of ubiquinone systems and electropho-
retic comparison of enzymes to identification of clinical isolates of
Aspergillus fumigatus and several other species of Aspergillus. J. Clin.
Microbiol. 30, 1999–2005.
Mazen, M.B., Shaban, G.M., 1983. Air-borne fungi of wheat fields in
Egypt. Qatar Univ. Sci. Bull. 3, 131–139.
McClenny, N., 2005. Laboratory detection and identification of Aspergillus
species by microscopic observation and culture: the traditional
approach. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 43 (Suppl. 1), S125–S128.
McGinnis, Mr, 2007. Indoor mould development and dispersal. Med.
Mycol. 45 (1), 1–9.
Medina, A., Mateo, R., López-Ocaná, L., et al., 2005. Study of Spanish
grape mycobiota and ochratoxin A production by isolates of
Aspergillus tubingensis and other members of Aspergillus section
Nigri. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71, 4696–4702.
Mehl, H.L., Cotty, P.J., 2013. Influence of plant host species on intraspe-
cific competition during infection by Aspergillus flavus. Plant Pathol.
62, 1310–1318.
Menezes, C.B.A., Bonugli-Santos, R.C., Miqueletto, P.B., Passarini,
M.R.Z., Silva, C.H.D., Justo, M.R., et al., 2010. Microbial diversity
associated with algae, ascidians and sponges from the north coast of
Sao Paulo state, Brazil. Microbiol. Res. 165, 466–482. Available from:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2009.09.005.
Micales, J.A., Bonde, M.R., Peterson, G.L., 1992. Isozyme analysis in fun-
gal taxonomy and molecular genetics. In: Arora, D.K., Elander, R.P.,
Mukerji, K.G. (Eds.), Handbook of Applied Mycology, vol. 4, Fungal
Biotechnology Dekker, New York, NY, pp. 57–79.
Mislivec, P.B., Dieter, C.T., Bruce, V.R., 1975. Effect of temperature
and relative humidity on spore germination of mycotoxic species of
Aspergillus and Penicillium. Mycologia 67, 1187–1189.
Mitterdorfer, G., Mayer, H.K., Kneifel, W., Viernstein, H., 2002.
Clustering of Saccharomyces boulardii strains within the species S.
cerevisiae using molecular typing techniques. J. Appl. Microbiol. 93
(4), 521–530.
Montasir, A.H., Mostafa, M.A., Elwan, S.H., 1956a. Development of soil
microflora under Zygophyllum album L. and Zygophyllum coccineum
L. Ain Shams Sci. Bull. 1, 9–22.
Montasir, A.H., Mostafa, M.A., Elwan, S.H., 1956b. Development of soil
microflora in relation to vegetation along a transect line at yellow hills,
North Cairo. Ain Shams Sci. Bull. 1, 23–32.
Moss, M.O., 1977. Aspergillus mycotoxins. In: Smith, J.E., Patlman, J.A.
(Eds.), Genetics and Physiology of Aspergillus Academic Press, New
York and London, pp. 499–524.
Moubasher, A.H., 1993. Soil Fungi of Qatar and Other Arab Countries.
The Scientific and Applied Research Centre, University of Qatar.
Moubasher, A.H., Abdel-Hafez, S.I.I., 1978. Studies on the mycoflora of
Egyptian soils. Mycopathologia 63 (1), 3–10.
Moubasher,A.H., El-Dohlob, S.M., 1970. Seasonal fluctuation of Egyptian
soil fungi. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 54, 45–51.
Moubasher, A.H., Moustafa, A.F., 1970. A survey of Egyptian soil fungi
with special reference to Aspergillus, Penicillium and Penicillium
related genera. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 54, 35–44.
Moubasher, A.H., Moustafa, A.F., 1972. Aspergillus aegyptiacus sp. nov.
Egypt. J. Bot. 15, 153–154.
Moubasher, A.H., Abdel-Hafez, S.I.I., El-Maghraby, O.M.O., 1985.
Studies on soil mycoflora of Wadi Bir- El- Ain, Eastern Desert, Egypt.
Cryptogamie Mycologie 6, 129–143.
Moubasher, A.H., Abdel-Hafez, S.I.I., El-Maghraby, O.M.O.,
1988. Seasonal fluctuations of soil and air borne fungi of Wadi
Bir- El-Ain in Eastern Desert of Egypt. Nat. Monspel. Ser. Bot. 52,
57–70.
Moubasher, A.H., Abdel-Hafez, S.I.I., Bagy, M.M.K., Abdel-Sater, M.A.,
1990. Halophilic and halotolerant fungi in cultivated, desert and salt
marsh soils from Egypt. Acta Mycologica 27, 65–81.
Mouchacca, J., 1971. Pseudeurotium desertorum sp. nov. Revue de
Mycologie 36, 123–127.
Mouchacca, J., 1973a. Deux Alternaria des sols arides d’Egypte: A. chla-
mydospora sp. nov. et A. phragmospora van Emden. Mycopathol.
Mycol. Appl. 50, 217–225.
Mouchacca, J., 1973b. Les Thielavia des sols arides: espèces nouvelles et
analyse générique. Bulletin de la Société Mycologique de France 89,
295–311.

Mouchacca, J., 1977. Sur un nouveau Discomycetes Ascobolus egyp-
tiacus Travaux dédiès à G. Viennot-Bourgin. Société Francaise de
Phytopathologoie, Paris.236–267
Mouchacca J., 1982. Etude analytique de la mycoflore de quelques sols
de régions arides de l’Egypte. Thèse de Doctorat d’Etat, Muséum
National d’Histoire Naturelle et Université Pierre et Marie Curie
(Paris VI), 247 pp., 90 tabs., 30 figs.
Mouchaca, J., 1985. Les champignons. In: Balout, D.L., Roubet, C. (Eds.),
La momie de Ramses II Editions Recherches sur les Civilisations,
Paris, pp. 119–152.
Mouchacca, J., 1995. Check-list of novel fungi from the Middle East
described mainly from soil since 1930. Sydowia 47, 240–257.
Mouchacca, J., Joly, P., 1974. Etude de la mycoflore des sols arides de
l’Egypte. I. Le genre Penicillium. Revue d’Ecologie et de Biologie du
Sol 11, 67–88.
Mouchacca, J., Joly, P., 1976. Etude de la mycoflore des sols arides de
l’Egypte. II. Le genre Aspergillus. Revue d’Ecologie et de Biologie
du Sol 13, 293–313.
Mouchacca, J., Nicot, J., 1973. Les Fusariella des sols arides. Revue de
Mycologie 37, 168–182.
Moustafa, A.F., 1975. Osmophilous fungi in the salt marshes of Kuwait.
Can. J. Microbiol. 21, 1573–1580.
Mustafa, A.I., Abdel-Azeem, A.M. Salem, F.M. (2013) Surveying and
exploitation of some taxa for extracellular biosynthesis of silver
nanoparticles. Third International Congress on Fungal Conservation,
Akyaka, Mugla, Turkey, pp. 11–15 November 2013. Abstract book:
44.
Muthomi, J.W., Mureithi, B.K., Chemining’wa, G.N., Gathumbi, J.K.,
Mutitu, E.W., 2012. Aspergillus species and Aflatoxin B1 in soil,
maize grain and flour samples from semi-arid and humid regions of
Kenya. Int. J. AgriSci. 2 (1), 22–34.
Myers, N., Mittermeier, A., Mittermeier, C.G., da Fonseca, A.B., Kent, I.,
2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403,
853–858.
Naguib, A.I., Mouchacca, J., 1970–1971. The mycoflora of Egyptian
desert soils. Bulletin de l’Institut d’Egypte 52, 37–61.
Naim, M.S., 1967a. Contribution to the knowledge of soil fungi in Libya.
I. Rhizosphere and soil fungi of Artemisia herba alba in Tripoli.
Mycopath. Mycol. Appl. 31, 296–299.
Naim, M.S., 1967b. Contribution to the knowledge of soil fungi in Libya.
II. Fungus flora under Citrus trees in Libya. Mycopath. Mycol. Appl.
31, 300–304.
Nassar, M.S.M., 1998. Soil mycoflora of Wadi Abu-Subayrah at Aswan
region at Eastern Desert of Egypt. Egypt. J. Bot. 38 (1-2), 21–46.
Nasuno, S., 1971. Polyacrylamide gel disc electrophoresis of alkaline pro-
teinases from Aspergillus species. Agric. Biol. Chem. 35, 1147–1150.
Nasuno, S., 1972a. Differentiation of Aspergillus sojae from Aspergillus
oryzae by polyacrylamide gel disc electrophoresis. J. Gen. Microbiol.
71, 29–33.
Nasuno, S., 1972b. Electrophoretic studies of alkaline proteinases from
strains of Aspergillus flavus group. Agric. Biol. Chem. 36, 684–689.
Nasuno, S., 1974. Further evidence on differentiations of Aspergillus sojae
from Aspergillus oryzae by electrophoretic patterns of cellulase, pec-
tin-lyase, and acid proteinase. Can. J. Microbiol. 20, 413–416.
Nealson, K.H., Garber, E.D., 1967. An electrophoretic survey of esterases,
phosphatases and leucine aminopeptidases in mycelial extracts of
Aspergillus. Mycologia 59, 330–336.
Nemec, T., Jernec, K., Cimerman, A., 1997. Sterols and fatty acids of dif-
ferent Aspergillus species. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 149, 201–205.
Nielsen, K.F., Snmedsgaard, J., Larsen, T.O., Lund, F., Thrane, U., Frisvad,
J.C., 2004. Chemical identification of fungi – metabolite profiling
and metabolomics. In: Arora, D.K. (Ed.), Fungal Biotechnology in
Agricultural, Food and Environmental Application Marcel Dekker,
New York, NY, pp. 19–35.
Nierman, W.H., Pain, A., Anderson, M.J., Wortman, J.R., Kim, H.S.,
Arroya, J., et al., 2005. Genomic sequence of the pathogenic and
allergenic filamentous fungus Aspergillus fumigatus. Nature 438,
1151–1156.
Nilsson, T., Daniel, G., Kirk, K.T., Obst, J.R., 1989. Chemistry and micros-
copy of wood decay by some higher ascomycetes. Holzforschung 43,
11–18.
Okuda, T., Klich, M.A., Seifert, K.A., et al., 2000. Media and incubation
effect on morphological characteristics of Penicillium and Aspergillus.
In: Samson, R.A., Pitt, J.I. (Eds.), Integration of Modern Taxonomic
Methods for Penicillium and Aspergillus Classification Harwood
Academic Publishers, Amsterdam, pp. 83–99.
Oren, A., 2002. Halophilic Microorganisms and Their Environments.
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
Ozerskaya, S., Kochkina, G., Ivanushkina, N., Gilichinsky, D.A., 2009.
Fungi in permafrost In: Margesin, R. (Ed.), Permafrost Soils. Soil
Biology, Vol. 16 Springer, pp. 85–95.
Palenicia, E.R., 2012. Eendophytic associations of species in the
Aspergillus section NIGRI with maize (Zea mays) and peanut (Arachis
hypogea) hosts, and their mycotoxins, PhD Thesis. Graduate Faculty
of The University of Georgia, Athens.
Pathan, A.A.K., Bhadra, B., Begum, Z., Shivaji, S., 2009. Diversity of
yeasts from puddles in the vicinity of Midre Lovénbreen glacier,Arctic
and bioprospecting for enzymes and fatty acids. Curr. Microbiol. 60,
307–314.
Paz, Z., Komon-Zelazowska, M., Druzhinina, I.S., et al., 2010. Diversity
and potential antifungal properties of fungi associated with a
Mediterranean sponge. Fungal Divers 42, 17–26.
Pel, H.J., de Winde, J.H., Archer, D.B., Dyer, P.S., Hofmann, G., Schaap,
P.J., et al., 2007. Genome sequencing and analysis of the versatile cell
factory Aspergillus niger CBS 513.88. Nat. Biotechnol. 25, 221–231.
Perrone, G., Mulbe, G., Antonia, S., et al., 2006. Ochratoxin A production
and amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis of Aspergillus
carbonarius, Aspergillus tubingensis and Aspergillus niger strains
isolated from grapes in Italy. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72, 680–685.
Peterson, S.W., 2008. Phylogenetic analyses of Aspergillus species using
DNA sequences from four loci. Mycologia 100, 205–226.
Petrini, O., 1991. Fungal endophytes of tree leaves. In: Fokkema, N.J.,
van den Heuvel, J. (Eds.), Microbial ecology of the leaves Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, pp. 185–187.
Pettersson, O., Leong, S.-l L., 2011. Fungal Xerophiles (Osmophiles). eLS
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester.
Pimentel, M., Lembo, A., Chey, W., et al., 2011. Rifaximin therapy for
patients with irritable bowel syndrome without constipation. N. Eng.
J. Med. 364, 22–32.
Piñar, G., Piombino-Mascali, D., Maixner, F., Zink, A., Sterflinger,
K., 2013. Microbial survey of the mummies from the Capuchin
Catacombs of Palermo, Italy: biodeterioration risk and contamination
of the indoor air. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 86, 341–356. Available from:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1574-6941.12165.
Piontelli, E., Toro, M., Giusiano, G., Vivar, V., 2002. Distribución altitudi-
nal de hongos queratinófilos, epífitos y endíofitos en suelos desérticos
del norte chileno (II Región, 23°L.S Y 68°L.W). Boletín Micológico
17, 33e49.

Pitt, J.I., 1985. Nomenclatorial and taxonomic problems in the genus
Eurotium. In: Samson, R.A., Pitt, J.I. (Eds.), Integration of Modern
Taxonomic Methods for Penicillium and Aspergillus Classification
Harwood Academic Publishers, Amsterdam, pp. 383–396.
Pitt, J.I., Hocking, A.D., 2009. Fungi and Food Spoilage. Springer, US.
Proksch, P., Ebel, R., Edrada, R., et al., 2008. Sponge-associated fungi
and their bioactive compounds: the Suberites case. Bot. Mar. 51,
209–218.
Qiao, M.F., Ji, N.Y., Liu, X.H., Li, K., Zhu, Q.M., Xue, Q.Z., 2010.
Indoloditerpenes from an algicolous isolate of Aspergillus oryzae.
Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 20, 5677–5680.
Raghukumar, C., et al., 1992. Endolithic fungi from deep sea calcare-
ous substrata: isolation and laboratory studies. In: Desai, B.N. (Ed.),
Oceanography of the Indian Ocean Oxford and IBH, pp. 3–9.
Raghunath, R., Radhakrishna, A., Angayarkanni, J., Palaniswamy,
M., 2012. Production and cytotoxicity studies of lovastatin from
Aspergillus niger PN2 an endophytic fungi isolated from Taxus bac-
cata. Int. J. Appl. Biol. Pharm. Technol. 3 (3), 342–351.
Rank, C., Nielsen, K.F., Larsen, T.O., Varga, J., Samson, R.A., Frisvad,
J.C., 2011. Distribution of sterigmatocystin in filamentous fungi.
Fungal Biol. 115, 406–420.
Raper, K.B., Fennell, D.I., 1965. The Genus Aspergillus. Williams &
Wilkins, Baltimore.
Rath, P.M., 2001. Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of reference
strains of the genus Aspergillus. Mycoses 44, 65–72.
Rayss, T., Borut, S., 1958. Contribution to the knowledge of soil fungi
in Israel. Mycopathol. Mycol. Applicata (Mycopathologia) 10,
142–174.
Reeve, J.N., Christner, B.C., Kvitko, B.H., Mosley-Thompson, E.,
Thompson, L.G. 2002. Life in glacial ice (Abstract). In: Rossi, M.,
Bartolucci, S., Ciaramella, M., Moracci, M., (Eds.), “Extremophiles
2002,” 4th International Congress on Extremophiles. 22–26 September
2002, Naples, Italy. pp. 27.
Research Gate. <http://www.researchgate.net/>(accessed 17.07.15).
Richard, J.L., Plattner, R.D., Mary, J., Liska, S.L., 1999. The occur-
rence of ochratoxin A in dust collected from a problem homehold.
Mycopathologia 146, 99–103.
Rodriguez, R., Redman, R., 2008. More than 400 million years of evolu-
tion and some plants still can’t make it on their own: plant stress toler-
ance via fungal symbiosis. J. Exp. Bot. 59 (5), 1109–1114.
Rodriguez, A., Dougall, T., Dodd, J.C., Clapp, J.P., 2001. The large subu-
nit ribosomal RNA genes of Entrophospora infrequens comprise
sequences related to two different glomelean families. New Phytol.
152, 159–167.
Rodrigues, P., Santos, C., Venâncio, A., Lima, N., 2011. Species identifi-
cation of Aspergillus section Flavi isolates from Portuguese almonds
using phenotypic, including MALDI-TOF ICMS, and molecular
approaches. J. Appl. Microbiol. 111, 877–892.
Rodriguez, R.J., White Jr, J.F., Arnold, A.E., Redman, R.S., 2009. Fungal
endophytes: diversity and functional roles. New Phytol. 182, 314–330.
Roussos, S., Zaoula, N., Salih, G., et al., 2006. Characterization of
filamentous fungi isolated from Moroccan olive and olive cake: toxi-
genic potential of Aspergillus strains. Molec. Nutr. Food Res. 50,
500–506.
Ruisi, S., Barreca, D., Selbmann, L., Zucconi, L., Onofri, S., 2007. Fungi
in Antarctica. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 6, 127–141.
Sage, L., Krivobok, S., Delbos, E., et al., 2002. Fungal flora and ochratoxin
A production in grapes and musts from France. J. Agric. Food Chem.
50, 1306–1311.
Sage, L., Garon, D., Seigle-Murandi, F., 2004. Fungal microflora and
ochratoxin. A risk in French vineyards. J. Agric. Food. Chem. 52,
5764–5768.
Saito, M., Kusumoto, K., Kawasumi, T., 1991. A simple method for identi-
fication of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus by slab poly-
acrylamide gel electrophorosesis of alkaline proteinases. Rep. Natl.
Food. Res., Inst. 55, 49–51.
Salama, A.M., Elbatanoni, K., Ali, M.I., 1971. Studies on the fungal flora
of Egyptian soils. I. Western Mediterranean coast and Libyan Desert.
United Arab Republic J. Bot. 14 (1), 99–114.
Salem, F.M., Abdel-Azeem, A.M., 2014. Screening of anticancer metab-
olites produced by endophytic fungi. LAP LAMBERT Academic
Publishing., ISBN 978-3-659-53697-7.
Salonen, J.H., Richardson, M.D., Gallacher, K., Issakainen, J., Helenius,
H., Lehtonen, O.P., et al., 2000. Fungal colonization of haematological
patients receiving cytotoxic chemotherapy: emergence of azole-resist-
ant Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J. Hosp. Infect. 45, 293–301.
Samaniego-Gaxiola, J.A., Chew-Madinaveitia, Y., 2007. Diversidad de
géneros de hongos en suelo en tres campos con diferente condiciones
agrícola en la Laguna, México. Revista Mexicana de Biodiversidad
78, 383e390.
Samson, R., Gams, W., 1985. Typification of the species of Aspergillus and
associated teleomorphs. In: Samson, R.A., Pitt, J.I. (Eds.), Advances
in Penicillium and Aspergillus Systematics Plenum Press, New York,
NY, pp. 31–54.
Samson, R., Pitt, J.I. (Eds.), 2000. Integration of Modern Taxonomic
Methods for Penicillium and Aspergillus Classification Harwood
Academic Publishers, Reading, United Kingdom. 510 p.
Samson, R.A., Mouchacca, J., 1974. Some interesting species of
Emericella and Aspergillus from Egyptian desert soil. Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek 40, 121–131.
Samson, R.A., Mouchacca, J., 1975. Additional notes on species of
Aspergillus, Eurotium and Emericella from Egyptian desert soil.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 41, 343–351.
Samson, R.A., Houbraken, J.A.M.P., Kuijpers, A.F.A., Frank, J.M.,
Frisvad, J.C., 2004. New ochratoxin A or sclerotium producing
species of Aspergillus section Nigri. Studies in Mycology 50,
45–61.
Samson, R.A., Varga, J., Witiak, S.M., et al., 2007. The species concept in
Aspergillus: recommendations of an international panel. Stud. Mycol.
59, 71–73.
Samson, R.A., Houbraken, J., Thrane, U., et al., 2010. Food and Indoor
Fungi. CBS KNAW Biodiversity Center, Utrecht.
Samson, R.A., Visagie, C.M., Houbraken, J., Hong, S.-B., Hubka, V.,
et al., 2014. Phylogeny, identification and nomenclature of the genus
Aspergillus. Stud. Mycol. 78, 141–173.
Saric, L.C., Skrinjar, M.M., 2008. Share of aflatoxigenic molds from gen-
era Aspergillus and Penicillium in mycopopulations isolated from
spices for meat processing industry. Matica Srpska Proceedings for
Natural Sciences 114, 115–122.
Säwström, C., Mumford, P., Marshall, W., Hodson, A., Laybourn-Parry,
J., 2002. The microbial communities and primary productivity of
cryoconite holes in an Arctic glacier (Svalbard 79°N). Polar Biol. 25,
591–596.
Schoch, C.L., Seifert, K.A., Huhndorf, S., Robert, V., Spouge, J.L.,
Levesque, C.A., et al., 2012. Fungal Barcoding Consortium; Fungal
Barcoding Consortium Author List. Nuclear ribosomal internal tran-
scribed spacer (ITS) region as a universal DNA barcode marker for
Fungi. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 109 (16), 6241–6246.

Schulz, B., Boyle, C., Drager, S., et al., 2002. Endophytic fungi; a source
of novel biologically active secondary metabolites. Mycol. Res. 106,
996–1004.
Schuster, G.S., 1999. Oral flora and pathogenic organisms. Infect. Dis.
Clin. North Am. 13, 757–774.
Scudamore, K.A., Atkin, P.M., Buckle, A.E., 1986. Natural occurrence
of the naphtoquinone mycotoxins, xanthomegnin, viomellein and
vioxanthin in cereals and animal feedstuffs. J. Stored Prod. Res. 22,
81–84.
Seed, P.C., 2015. The human mycobiome. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect.
Med. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a019810.
Seifert, K.A., Lévesque, C.A., 2004. Phylogeny and molecular diagnosis
of mycotoxigenic fungi. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 110, 449–471.
Semeniuk, G., Harshfield, G.S., Carlson, C.W., et al., 1971. Mycotoxins in
Aspergillus. Mycopath. Mycol. Appl 43, 137–152.
Serra, R., Abrunhosa, L., Kozakiewiez, Z., Venâncio, A., 2003. Black
Aspergillus species as ochratoxin A producers in Portuguese wine
grapes. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 88, 63–68.
Shearer, C., Descals, E., Kohlmeyer, B., Kohlmeyer, J., Marvanová, L.,
Padgett, D., et al., 2007. Fungal biodiversity in aquatic habitats.
Biodivers. Conserv 16 (1), 49–67.
Shehu, K., Bello, M.T., 2011. Effect of environmental factors on the
growth of Aspergillus species associated with stored millet grains in
Sokoto. Nigerian J. Basic Appl. Sci. 19 (2), 218–223.
Shelton, B.G., Kirkland, K.H., Flanders, W.D., Morris, G.K., 2002. Profiles
of airborne fungi in buildings and outdoor environments in the United
States. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68 (4), 1743–1753.
Silva, M.R.O., Almeida, A.C., Arruda, F.V.F., Gusmão, N., 2011.
Endophytic fungi from brazilian mangrove plant Laguncularia rac-
emosa (L.) Gaertn. (Combretaceae): their antimicrobial potential.
In: Méndez-Vilas, A. (Ed.), Science Against Microbial Pathogens:
Communicating Current Research And Technological Advances
Formatex, Badajoz, pp. 1260–1266.
Silva, T.L., Sousa, E., Pereira, P.T., Ferrão, A.M., Roseiro, C., 1998.
Cellular fatty acid profiles for the differentiation of Penicillium spe-
cies. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 164, 303–310.
Šimonovičová, A., Lucia Kraková, L., Pangallo, D., Majorošová, M.,
Piecková, E., Bodoriková, S., et al., 2015. Fungi on mummified
human remains and in the indoor air in the Kuffner family crypt in
Sládkovičovo (Slovakia). Int. Biodeter. Biodegrad. 99, 157–164.
Singh, S.M., Singh, S.K., Yadav, L.S., Singh, P.N., Ravindra, R., 2012a.
Filamentous soil fungi from Ny-Alesund, Spitsbergen, and screening
for extracellular enzymes. Arctic 65, 45–55.
Singh, P., Raghukumar, C., Meea, R.M., Verma, P., Shiuche, Y., 2012b.
Fungal diversity in deep-sea sediments revealed by culture-dependent
and culture independent approaches. Fungal Ecol. 5, 543–553.
Sivakumar, T., Ravikumar, M., Sivakumar, N., 2006. Abundance of
mangrove fungi along the east coast of Tamil Nadu, India. Asian J.
Microbiol. Biotech. Env. Sci. 18 (3), 589–594.
Sizova, T.P., Baghdadi, V.Kh, Gorlenko, M.V., 1967. Mycoflora
of mukhafez of Damascus and Es-Suveida (Syria). Mikologia
Fitopatdogii 1, 286–293.
Sommer, N.F., Buchanan, J.R., Fortlage, R.J., 1976. Aflatoxin and sterig-
matocystin contamination of pistachio nuts in orchards.Appl. Environ.
Microbiol. 32, 64–67.
Spalding, M., Blasco, F., Field, C., 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The
International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, 178 pp.
Spiering, M.J., Greer, D.H., Schmid, J., 2006. Effects of the fungal endo-
phyte, Neotyphodium lolii, on net photosynthesis and growth rates of
perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) are independent of in plant endo-
phyte concentration. Ann. Bot. 98 (2), 379–387.
Stack, M.E., Mislivec, P.B., 1978. Production of xanthomegnin and viomel-
lein by isolates of Aspergillus ochraceus, Penicillium cyclopium and
Penicillium viridicatum. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 36, 552–554.
Stahl, P.D., Klug, M.J., 1996. Characterization and differentiation of
filamentous fungi based on fatty acid composition. Appl. Environ.
Microbiol. 62, 4136–4146.
Steiman, R., Guiraud, P., Sage, L., Siegle-Murandi, F., Lafond, J.L., 1995.
Mycoflora of soil around the Dead Sea I—Ascomycetes (including
Aspergillus and Penicillium), Basidiomycetes, Zygomycetes. Syst.
Appl. Microbiol. 18, 310–317.
Strobel, G., Daisy, B., 2003. Bioprospecting for microbial endophytes and
their natural products. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 67 (04), 491–502.
Strobel, G.A., Knighton, B., Ren, Y., et al., 2008. The production of
mycodiesel hydrocarbons and their derivatives by the endophytic
fungus Gliocladium roseum (NRRL 50072). Microbiology 154 (11),
3319–3328.
Sugiyama, J.,Yamatoya, T., 1990. Electrophoretic comparison of enzymes
as a chemotaxonomic aid among Aspergillus taxa (1). Aspergillus
sects. Ornati and Cremei. In: Samson, R.A., Pitt, J.I. (Eds.), Modern
Concepts of Penicillium and Aspergillus Classification Plenum Press,
New York and London, pp. 385–394.
Sugiyama, J., Rahayu, E.S., Chang, J., Oyaizu, H., 1991. Chemotaxonomy
of Aspergillus and associated teleomorphs. Jpn. J. Med. Mycol. 32
(suppl 2), 39–60. 31.
Suryanarayanan, T.S., 2012. Fungal endosymbionts of seaweeds. In:
Raghukumar, C. (Ed.), Biology of Marine Fungi Springer, Berlin, pp.
53–69.
Suryanarayanan, T.S., Thirunavukkarasu, N., Hariharan, G.N., Balaji, P.,
2005. Occurrence of non-obligate microfungi inside lichen thalli.
Sydowia 57, 120–130.
Suryanarayanan, T.S., Venkatachalam, A., Thirunavukkarasu, N., et al.,
2010. Internal mycobiota of marine macroalgae from the Tamilnadu
coast: distribution, diversity and biotechnological potential. Bot. Mar.
53, 457–468.
Tang, Y., Lian, B., Dong, H., Liu, D., Hou, W., 2012. Endolithic bacte-
rial communities in dolomite and limestone rocks from the Nanjiang
Canyon in Guizhou Karst area (China). Geomicrobiol. J. 29, 213–225.
Tariq, M., Dawar, S., Mehdi, F.S., 2008. Studies on the rhizosphere myco-
flora of mangroves. Turkish J. Bot. 32, 97–101.
Taylor, T.N., Krings, M., Taylor, E.L., 2015. Fungal diversity in the fossil
record. In: McLaughlin, D.J., Spatafora, J.W. (Eds.), The Mycota, vol.
VII part B, 2nd ed. Systematics and Evolution Springer Verlag, Berlin,
Heidelberg, pp. 259–278.
Tedersoo, L., Bahram, M., Põlme, S., Kõljalg, U.,Yorou, N.S.,Wijesundera,
R., et al., 2014. Fungal biogeography. Global diversity and geography
of soil fungi. Science 346 (6213), 1256688. Available from: http://
dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1256688.
Thirunavukkarasu, N., Suryanarayanan, T.S., Girivasan, K.P.,
Venkatachalam, A., Geetha, V., Ravishankar, J.P., et al., 2012. Fungal
symbionts of marine sponges from Rameswaram, southern India: spe-
cies composition and bioactive metabolites. Fungal Divers. 55, 37–46.
Thom, C., Church, M.B., 1926. The Aspergilli. Williams & Wilkins,
Baltimore, MD.
Thom, C., Raper, K.B., 1945. Manual of the Aspergilli. Williams &
Wilkins, Baltimore, MD.
Thomas, G.M., Poinar Jr, G.O., 1988. A fossil Aspergillus from Eocene
Dominican amber. J. Paleontol. 62, 141–143.

Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics

New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering. Aspergillus System Properties and Applications 1st Edition Vijai G. Gupta

The Project Gutenberg eBook of Curly: A Tale
of the Arizona Desert

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.
Title: Curly: A Tale of the Arizona Desert
Author: Roger Pocock
Release date: November 23, 2012 [eBook #41447]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
Credits: Produced by D Alexander, Mary Meehan and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
(This
file was produced from images generously made
available
by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CURLY: A TALE
OF THE ARIZONA DESERT ***

CURLY
A TALE OF THE ARIZONA DESERT

By ROGER POCOCK
Author of "A Frontiersman," etc.
Boston
Little, Brown, and Company
Copyright, 1904,
By Roger Pocock.
Copyright, 1905,
By Little, Brown, and Company.
All rights reserved.
Published May, 1905.
Printers
S. J. Parkhill & Co., Boston, U.S.A.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. Apaches 1
II. Lord Balshannon 9
III. Holy Cross 16
IV. The Range Wolves 27
V. Back to the Wolf Pack 37
VI. My Range Whelps Whimpering 44
VII. At the Sign of Ryan's Hand 52
VIII. In the Name of the People 65
IX. War Signs 69
X. Storm Gathering 78
XI. The Gun-fight 89
XII. The City Boiling Over 106
XIII. The Man-hunt 118
XIV. The Frontier Guards 126
XV. Mostly Chalkeye 138
XVI. Arranging for more Trouble 145
XVII. The Real Curly 156
XVIII. The White Star 167
XIX. A Marriage Settlement 184
XX. The Marshal's Posse 200
XXI. A Flying Hospital 212
XXII. Robbery-under-Arms 222
XXIII. A House of Refuge 234
XXIV. The Saving of Curly 254
XXV. A Million Dollars Ransom 272

XXVI. The Stronghold 290
XXVII. A Second-hand Angel 314

CHAPTER I
APACHES
Back in Old Texas, 'twixt supper and sleep time, the boys in camp
would sit around the fire and tell lies. They talked about the Ocean
which was bigger than all the plains, and I began to feel worried
because I'd never seen what the world was like beyond the far edge
of the grass. Life was a failure until I could get to that Ocean to
smell and see for myself. After that I would be able to tell lies about
it when I got back home again to the cow-camps. When I was old
enough to grow a little small fur on my upper lip I loaded my pack
pony, saddled my horse, and hit the trail, butting along day after day
towards the sunset, expecting every time I climbed a ridge of hills to
see the end of the yellow grass and the whole Pacific Ocean shining
beyond, with big ships riding herd like cowboys around the grazing
whales.
One morning, somewheres near the edge of Arizona, I noticed my
horse throw his ears to a small sound away in the silence to the left.
It seemed to be the voice of a rifle, and maybe some hunter was
missing a deer in the distance, so I pointed that way to inquire. After
a mile or so I heard the rifle speaking again, and three guns
answered, sputtering quick and excited. That sounded mighty like a
disagreement, so I concluded I ought to be cautious and roll my tail
at once for foreign parts. I went on slow, approaching a small hill.
Again a rifle-shot rang out from just beyond the hill, and two shots
answered—muzzle-loading guns. At the same time the wind blew
fresh from the hill, with a whiff of powder, and something else which
made my horses shy. "Heap bad smell!" they snuffed. "Just look at
that!" they signalled with their ears. "Ugh!" they snorted.
"Get up!" said I; and charged the slope of the hill.

Near the top I told them to be good or I'd treat them worse than a
tiger. Then I went on afoot with my rifle, crept up to the brow of the
hill, and looked over through a clump of cactus.
At the foot of the hill, two hundred feet below me, there was
standing water—a muddy pool perhaps half an acre wide—and just
beyond that on the plain a burned-out camp fire beside a couple of
canvas-covered waggons. It looked as if the white men there had
just been pulling out of camp, with their teams all harnessed for the
trail, for the horses lay, some dead, some wounded, mixed up in a
struggling heap. As I watched, a rifle-shot rang out from the
waggons, aimed at the hillside, but when I looked right down I could
see nothing but loose rocks scattered below the slope. After I
watched a moment a brown rock moved; I caught the shine of an
Indian's hide, the gleam of a gun-barrel. Close by was another
Indian painted for war, and beyond him a third lying dead. So I
counted from rock to rock until I made out sixteen of the worst kind
of Indians—Apaches—all edging away from cover to cover to the
left, while out of the waggons two rifles talked whenever they saw
something to hit. One rifle was slow and cool, the other scared and
panicky, but neither was getting much meat.
For a time I reckoned, sizing up the whole proposition. While the
Apaches down below attacked the waggons, their sentry up here on
the hill had forgotten to keep a look-out, being too much interested.
He'd never turned until he heard my horses clattering up the rocks,
but then he had yelled a warning to his crowd and bolted. One
Indian had tried to climb the hill against me and been killed from the
waggons, so now the rest were scared of being shot from above
before they could reach their ponies. They were sneaking off to the
left in search of them. Off a hundred yards to the left was the sentry,
a boy with a bow and arrows, running for all he was worth across
the plain. A hundred yards beyond him, down a hollow, was a
mounted Indian coming up with a bunch of ponies. If the main body
of the Apaches got to their ponies, they could surround the hill,

charge, and gather in my scalp. I did not want them to take so much
trouble with me.
Of course, my first move was to up and bolt along the ridge to the
left until I gained the shoulder of the hill. There I took cover, and
said, "Abide with me, and keep me cool, if You please!" while I
sighted, took a steady bead, and let fly at the mounted Indian. At
my third shot he came down flop on his pony's neck, and that was
my first meat. The bunch of ponies smelt his blood and stampeded
promiscuous.
The Apaches, being left afoot, couldn't attack me none. If they tried
to stampede they would be shot from the waggons, while I hovered
above their line of retreat considerably; and if they stayed I could
add up their scalps like a sum in arithmetic. They were plumb
surprised at me, and some discouraged, for they knew they were
going to have disagreeable times. Their chief rose up to howl, and a
shot from the waggons lifted him clean off his feet. It was getting
very awkward for those poor barbarians, and one of them hoisted a
rag on his gun by way of surrender.
Surrender? This Indian play was robbery and murder, and not the
honest game of war. The man who happens imprudent into his own
bear-trap is not going to get much solace by claiming to be a warrior
and putting up white flags. The game was bear-traps, and those
Apaches had got to play bear-traps now, whether they liked it or
not. There were only two white folks left in the waggons, and one
on the hill, so what use had we for a dozen prisoners who would lie
low till we gave them a chance, then murder us prompt. The man
who reared up with the peace flag got a shot from the waggons
which gave him peace eternal.
Then I closed down with my rifle, taking the Indians by turns as they
tried to bolt, while the quiet gun in the waggon camp arrested
fugitives and the scary marksman splashed lead at the hill most
generous. Out of sixteen Apaches two and the boy got away intact,
three damaged, and the rest were gathered to their fathers.

When it was all over I felt unusual solemn, running my paw slow
over my head to make sure I still had my scalp; then collected my
two ponies and rode around to the camp. There I ranged up with a
yell, lifting my hand to make the sign of peace, and a man came
limping out from the waggons. He carried his rifle, and led a yearling
son by the paw.
The man was tall, clean-built, and of good stock for certain, but his
clothes were in the lo-and-behold style—a pane of glass on the off
eye, stand-up collar, spotty necktie, boiled shirt, riding-breeches with
puffed sleeves most amazing, and the legs of his boots stiff like a
brace of stove-pipes. His near leg was all bloody and tied up with a
tourniquet bandage. As to his boy Jim, that was just the quaintest
thing in the way of pups I ever saw loose on the stock range. He
was knee-high to a dawg, but trailed his gun like a man, and looked
as wide awake as a little fox. I wondered if I could tame him for a
pet.
"How d'ye do?" squeaked the pup, as I stepped down from the
saddle.
I allowed I was feeling good.
"I'm sure," said the man, "that we're obliged to you and your friends
on the hill. In fact, very much obliged."
Back in Texas I'd seen water go to sleep with the cold, but this man
was cool enough to freeze a boiler.
"Will you—er—ask your friends," he drawled, "to come down? I'd like
to thank them."
"I'll pass the glad word," said I. "My friends is in Texas."
"My deah fellow, you don't—aw—mean to say you were alone?"
"Injuns can shoot," said I, "but they cayn't hit."

"Two of my men are dead and the third is dying. I defer to your—er
—experience, but I thought they could—er—hit."
Then I began to reckon I'd been some hazardous in my actions. It
made me sweat to think.
"Well," said I, to be civil, "I cal'late I'd best introduce myself to you-
all. My name's Davies."
"I'm Lord Balshannon," said he, mighty polite.
"And I'm the Honourable Jim du Chesnay," squeaked the kid.
I took his paw and said I was proud to know a warrior with such
heap big names. The man laughed.
"Wall, Mister Balshannon," says I, "your horses is remnants, and the
near fore wheel of that waggon is sprung to bust, and them Apaches
has chipped your laig, which it's broke out bleeding again, so I
reckon——"
"You have an eye for detail," he says, laughing; "but if you will
excuse me now, I'm rather busy."
He looked into my eyes cool and smiling, asking for no help, ready
to rely on himself if I wanted to go. A lump came into my throat, for
I sure loved that man from the beginning.
"Mr. Balshannon," says I, "put this kid on top of a waggon to watch
for Indians, while you dress that wound. I'm off."
He turned his back on me and walked away.
"I'll be back," said I, busy unloading my pack-horse. "I'll be back," I
called after him, "when I bring help!"
At that he swung sudden and came up against me. "Er—thanks," he
said, and grabbed my paw. "I'm awfully obliged, don't you know."
I swung to my saddle and loped off for help.

CHAPTER II
LORD BALSHANNON
With all the signs and the signal smokes pointing for war, I reckoned
I could dispense with that Ocean and stay round to see the play.
Moreover, there was this British lord, lost in the desert, wounded
some, helpless as a baby, game as a grizzly bear, ringed round with
dead horses and dead Apaches, and his troubles appealed to me
plentiful. I scouted around until I hit a live trail, then streaked away
to find people. I was doubtful if I had done right in case that lord
got massacred, me being absent, so I rode hard, and at noon saw
the smoke of a camp against the Tres Hermanos Mountains. It
proved to be a cow camp with all the boys at dinner.
They had heard nothing of Apaches out on the war trail, but when I
told what I knew, they came glad, on the dead run, their waggons
and pony herd following. We found the Britisher digging graves for
three dead men, and looking apt to require a fourth for his own use.
"Er—good evening," says he, and I began to wonder why I'd
sweated myself so hot to rescue an iceberg.
"Gentlemen," says he to the boys, "you find some er—coffee ready
beside the fire, and afterwards, if you please, we will bury my dead."
The boys leaned over in their saddles, wondering at him, but the
lord's cool eye looked from face to face, and we had to do what he
said. He was surely a great chief, that Lord Balshannon.
The men who had fallen a prey to the Apaches were two teamsters
and a Mexican, all known to these Bar Y riders, and they were sure
sorry. But more than that they enjoyed this shorthorn, this
tenderfoot from the east who could stand off an outfit of hostile

Indians with his lone rifle. They saw he was wounded, yet he dug
graves for his dead, made coffee for the living, and thought of
everything except himself. After coffee we lined up by the graves to
watch the bluff he made at funeral honours. Lord Balshannon was a
colonel in the British Army, and he stood like an officer on parade
reading from a book. His black hair was touched silver, his face was
strong, hard, manful, and his voice quivered while he read from the
little book—
"For I am a stranger with Thee,
And a sojourner as all my fathers were;
O spare me a little, that I may recover my strength
Before I go hence, and am no more seen."
I reckon that there were some of us sniffing as though we had just
caught a cold, while we listened to that man's voice, and saw the
loneliness of him. Afterwards Dick Bryant, the Bar Y foreman, walked
straight up to Balshannon.
"Britisher," said he, "you may be a sojourner, and we hopes you are,
a whole lot, but there's no need to be a stranger. Shake."
So they shook hands, and that was the beginning of a big friendship.
Then Balshannon turned to the crowd, and looked slowly from face
to face of us.
"Gentlemen," he said kind of feeble, and we saw his face go grey
while he spoke, "I'm much obliged to you all for er—for coming. It
seems, indeed, ah—that my little son Jim and I have made friends
and er—neighbours. I'm sorry that you should find my camp in such
aw—in such a beastly mess, but there's some fairly decent whisky in
this nearest waggon, and er—" the man was reeling, and his eyes
seemed blind, "when we get to my new ranche at Holy Cross I—I
hope you'll—friends—aw—and——"
And he dropped in a dead faint.

So long as I stay alive I shall remember that night, the smell of the
dead horses, the silence, the smoke of our fire going up straight to a
white sky of stars, the Bar Y people in pairs lying wrapped in their
blankets around the waggons, the reliefs of riders going out on
guard, the cold towards dawn. The little boy Jim had curled up
beside me because he felt lonesome in the waggon. Balshannon lay
by the fire, his mind straying away off beyond our range. Often he
muttered, but I could not catch the words, and sometimes said
something aloud which sounded like nonsense. It must have been
midnight, when all of a sudden he sat bolt upright, calling out loud
enough to waken half the camp—
"Ryan!" he shouted, "don't disturb him, Ryan! He's upstairs dying. If
you fire, the shock will—Ryan! Don't shoot! Ryan!"
Then with a groan he fell back. I moistened his lips with cold tea.
"All right," he whispered, "thanks, Helen."
For a long time he lay muttering while I held his hands. "You see,
Helen," he whispered, "neither you nor the child could be safe in
Ireland. Ryan killed my father."
He seemed to fall asleep after that, and, counting by the stars, an
hour went by. Then he looked straight at me—
"You see, dear? I turned them out of their farms, and Ryan wants
his revenge, so——"
Towards morning I put some sticks on the fire which crackled a lot.
"Go easy, Jim," I heard him say, "don't waste our cartridges. Poor
little chap!"
Day broke at last, the cook was astir, and the men rode in from
herd. I dropped off to sleep.
It was noon before the heat awakened me, and I sat up to find the
fire still burning, but Lord Balshannon gone. I saw his waggons
trailing off across the desert. Dick Bryant was at the fire lighting his
pipe with a coal.

"Wall," said he, "you've been letting out enough sleep through yo'
nose to run an engine. Goin' to make this yo' home?"
"The camp's moved?"
"Sure. I've sent the Britisher's waggons down to Holy Cross. He
bought the place from a Mexican last month."
"Is it far?"
"About twenty mile. I've been down there this morning. I reckon the
people there had smelt Apaches and run. It was empty, and that's
why I'm making this talk to you. I cayn't spare my men after to-day,
and I don't calculate to leave a sick man and a lil' boy thar alone."
"I'll stay with them," said I.
"That's good talk. If you-all need help by day make a big smoke on
the roof, or if it's night just make a flare of fire. I'll keep my outfit
near enough to see."
"You reckon there'll be Indians?"
"None. That was a stray band, and what's left of it ain't feeling good
enough to want scalps. But when I got to Holy Cross this morning I
seen this paper, and some tracks of the man who left it nailed on the
door. I said nothing to my boys, and the Britisher has worries
enough already to keep him interested, but you ought to know
what's coming, in case of trouble. Here's the paper.
"'Grave City, Arizona,
"'3rd February,
1886.
"'My Lord,
"'This is to tell you that in spite of everything you could do to
destroy me, I'm safe in this free country, and doing well. I've
heard of the horrible crime you committed in driving the poor

people from your estate in Ireland, from homes which we and
our fathers have loved for a thousand years. Now I call the holy
saints to witness that I will do to you as you have done to me,
and to my people. The time will come when, driven from this
your new home, without a roof to cover you, or a crust to eat,
your wife and boy turned out to die in the desert, you will plead
for even so much as a drink, and it will be thrown in your face. I
shall not die until I have seen the end of your accursed house.
"'(Sd.) George
Ryan.'
"These Britishers," said Bryant, "is mostly of two breeds—the lords
and the flunkeys; and you kin judge them by the ways they act. This
Mr. Balshannon is a lord, and thish yer Ryan's a flunk. If a real man
feels that his enemy is some superfluous on this earth, he don't
make lamentations and post 'em up on a door. No, he tracks his
enemy to a meeting; he makes his declaration of war, and when the
other gentleman is good and ready, they lets loose with their guns in
battle. This Ryan here has the morals of a snake and the right hand
of a coward."
"Do I give this paper," said I, "to Mr. Balshannon?"
"It's his business, lad, not ours. But until this lord is well enough to
fight, you stands on guard."

CHAPTER III
HOLY CROSS
Editor's Note.—The walls of Holy Cross rise stark from the top of
a hill on the naked desert; and in all the enormous length and
breadth of this old fortress there is no door or window to invite
attack. At each of the four corners stands a bastion tower to
command the flanks, and in the north wall low towers defend
the entrance, which is a tunnel through the buildings, barred by
massive doors, and commanded by loopholes for riflemen. The
house is built of sun-dried bricks, the ceilings of heavy beams
supporting a flat roof of earth.
As one enters the first courtyard one sees that the buildings on
the right are divided up into a number of little houses for the
riders and their families; in front is the gate of the stable court,
on the left are the chapel and the dining-hall, and in the middle
of the square there is a well. Through the dining-hall on the left
one enters the little court with its pool covered with water-lilies,
shaded by palm trees, and surrounded by an arcade which is
covered by creeping plants, ablaze with flowers. The private
rooms open upon this cloister, big, cool, and dark, forming a
little palace within the fortress walls. Such is the old Hacienda
Santa Cruz which Lord Balshannon had bought from El Señor
Don Luis Barrios.
From the beginning I saw no sign and smelt no whiff of danger
either of Apaches or of Mr. Ryan. When Balshannon was able to ride
I gave him Ryan's letter, watched him read it quietly, but got nary
word from him. He looked up from the letter, smiling at my glum
face.

"Chalkeye," said he, "couldn't we snare a rabbit for Jim to play
with?" He and the kid and me used to play together like babies, and
Jim was surely serious with us men for being too young.
In those days Balshannon took advice from Bryant, our nearest
neighbour, whose ranche was only one day's ride from Holy Cross.
Dick helped him to buy good cattle to stock our range, and two
thoroughbred English bulls to improve the breed. Then he bought
ponies, and hired Mexican riders. So I began to tell my boss and his
little son about cows and ponies—the range-riding, driving, and
holding of stock; the roping, branding, and cutting out; how to judge
grass, to find water, to track, scout, and get meat for the camp. The
boss was too old and set in his ways to learn new play, but Jim had
his heart in the business from the first, growing up to cow-punching
as though he were born on the range.
Besides that I had to learn them both the natural history of us
cowboys, the which is surprising to strangers, and some prickly.
Being thoroughbred stock, this British lord and his son didn't need to
put on side, or make themselves out to be better than common folks
like me.
After the first year, when things were settled down and the weather
cool, Lady Balshannon came to Holy Cross, and lived in the garden
court under the palm trees. She was a poor invalid lady, enjoying
very bad health, specially when we had visitors or any noise in the
house. She never could stand up straight against the heat of the
desert. On the range I was teacher to Jim; but in the house this lady
made the kid and me come to school for education. We used to race
neck and neck over our sums and grammar of an evening. I guess I
was the most willing, but the kid had much the best brains. He beat
me anyways.
Sometimes I got restless, sniffing up wind for trouble, riding around
crazy all night because I was too peaceful and dull to need any
sleep. But then the boss wanted me in his business, the lady needed
me for lessons and to do odd jobs, the kid needed me to play with

and to teach him the life of the stock range; so when I got "Pacific
Ocean fever" they all made such a howl that I had to stay. Stopping
at Holy Cross grew from a taste into a habit, and you only know the
strength of a habit when you try to kill it. That family had a string
round my hind leg which ain't broken yet.
The boss made me foreman over his Mexican cowboys, and major-
domo in charge of Holy Cross. In the house I was treated like a son,
with my own quarters, servants, and horses, and my wages were
paid to me in ponies until there were three hundred head marked
with my private brand. Some people with bad hearts and forked
tongues have claimed that I stole these horses over in Mexico. I
treat such with dignified silence and make no comment except to
remark that they are liars. Anyway, as the years rolled on, and the
business grew, Mr. Chalkeye Davies became a big chief on the range
in Arizona.
When the kid was fourteen years old he quit working cows with me,
and went to college. Balshannon missed him some, for he took to
straying then, and would go off in the fall of the year for a bear-
hunt, in the winter to stay with friends, and the rest of the time
would hang around Grave City. I reckon the desert air made him
thirsty, because he drank more than was wise, and the need for
excitement set him playing cards, so that he lost a pile of money
bucking against the faro game and monte. He left me in charge of
his business, to round up his calves for branding, and his beef for
sale, to keep the accounts, to pay myself and my riders, and ride
guard for his lady while she prayed for his soul, alone at Holy Cross.
When Jim wanted money at college he wrote to me. In all that time
we were not attacked by Indians, Ryans, or any other vermin.
Upon the level roof of Holy Cross there was space enough to handle
cavalry, and a wide outlook across the desert. There we had lie-
down chairs, rugs, and cushions; and after dinner, when the day's
work was done, we would sit watching the sunset, the red afterglow,
the rich of night come up in the east, the big stars wheeling slowly
until it was sleep-time. But when the boy was at college, and the

Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade
Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.
Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and
personal growth!
textbookfull.com

New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering. Aspergillus System Properties and Applications 1st Edition Vijai G. Gupta

More Related Content

Similar to New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering. Aspergillus System Properties and Applications 1st Edition Vijai G. Gupta (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering. Aspergillus System Properties and Applications 1st Edition Vijai G. Gupta