New Perspectives On Virtual And Augmented Reality Finding New Ways To Teach In A Transformed Learning Environment Linda Daniela
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- 6. New Perspectives on Virtual and Augmented Reality New Perspectives on Virtual and Augmented Reality discusses the possibilities of using virtual and augmented reality in the role of innovative pedagogy, where there is an urgent need to find ways to teach and support learning in a transformed learning environment. Technology creates opportunities to learn differently and presents challenges for education. Virtual reality solutions can be exciting, create interest in learning, make learning more accessible and make learning faster. This book analyses the capabilities of virtual, augmented and mixed reality by providing ideas on how to make learning more effective, how existing VR/AR solutions can be used as learning tools and how a learning process can be structured. The virtual reality (VR) solutions can be used successfully for educational purposes as their use can contribute to the construction of knowledge and the development of metacognitive processes. They also con- tribute to inclusive education by providing access to knowledge that would not otherwise be available. This book will be of great interest to academics, researchers and post- graduate students in the field of educational technology. Linda Daniela is Professor, Chair of the Council for PhD Defense in Education, Dean of the Faculty of Education, Psychology and Art at the University of Latvia in Riga, Latvia.
- 7. Perspectives on Education in the Digital Age Series Editors: David Kergel and Birte Heidkamp The process of digitalization is leading to a fundamental social change affecting all spheres of social life. In the pedagogical field, there is a need for re-structuring key concepts such as learning, teaching and education that consider socio- economic and cultural changes. Perspectives on Education in the Digital Age explores the process of coming to terms with socio-economic and socio-cultural shifts arising from digitalization and discusses this process with reference to its effects on education. The series provides a forum for discussion of critical, integrative analyses of social trans- formations in the digital age, drawn from different fields such as the humanities, social sciences and economics. The aim of the series is to analyse the implica- tions of cultural change on education in the digital age by bringing together interdisciplinary dialogue and different theoretical approaches. The Hidden Curriculum of Online Learning Understanding Social Justice through Critical Pedagogy Murat Oztok Communication and Learning in an Age of Digital Transformation Edited by David Kergel, Birte Heidkamp, Ronald Arnett and Susan Mancino Pedagogies of Digital Learning in Higher Education Edited by Linda Daniela Epistemological Approaches to Digital Learning in Educational Contexts Edited by Linda Daniela New Perspectives on Virtual and Augmented Reality Finding New Ways to Teach in a Transformed Learning Environment Edited by Linda Daniela
- 8. New Perspectives on Virtual and Augmented Reality Finding New Ways to Teach in a Transformed Learning Environment Edited by Linda Daniela
- 9. First published 2020 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2020 selection and editorial matter, Linda Daniela; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Linda Daniela to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record has been requested for this book ISBN: 978-0-367-43211-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-00187-4 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd.
- 10. Contents List of figures viii List of tables xi Preface: Why do we need new ways to teach? Virtual reality perspective xiii LINDA DANIELA List of contributors xvii PART I Virtual reality in humanities and social sciences 1 1 Virtual reality learning experience evaluation tool for instructional designers and educators 3 LANA FRANČESKA DREIMANE 2 The educational perspective on virtual reality experiences of cultural heritage 22 LINDA DANIELA AND YIPAER AIERKEN 3 The potentials of virtual reality in entrepreneurship education 38 MARKO OREL 4 Mixed Reality applied theatre at universities 49 JOSHUA A. FISHER 5 Development of professional skills in higher education: Problem-based learning supported by immersive worlds 64 E. FERNÁNDEZ-AHUMADA, J. MONTEJO-GÁMEZ, P. SÁNCHEZ-ZAMORA, M. BENLLOCH-GONZÁLEZ, L. ORTIZ-MEDINA, M. C. BEATO AND E. V. TAGUAS
- 11. 6 Virtual reality and augmented reality in educational programs 82 TOMAS BLAZAUSKAS AND DAINA GUDONIENE 7 An exploration of the impact of augmented and Virtual Reality within compulsory education 95 OLI HOWSON PART II Concepts of virtual reality 111 8 Transcendent learning spaces 113 NEUS LORENZO GALÉS AND RAY GALLON 9 Enhancing trust in virtual reality systems 132 DAVIDE SALANITRI, GLYN LAWSON AND BRIAN WATERFIELD 10 Simulation data visualization using mixed reality with Microsoft HoloLensTM 147 MICHAEL SPITZER, MANFRED ROSENBERGER AND MARTIN EBNER 11 A+Ha!: Combining tactile interaction with augmented reality to transform secondary and tertiary STEM education 163 GREGORY QUINN AND FABIAN SCHNEIDER 12 The use of fuzzy angular models and 3D models on a construction method assessment on The Great Wall of China in Jinshanling as a case study of the history and heritage of civil engineering in education 182 JIN RONG YANG, FABIAN HADIPRIONO TAN AND ADRIAN HADIPRIONO TAN PART III Virtual reality in sciences and medical education 201 13 Virtual Reality for teaching clinical skills in medical education 203 CHARLES HAND, RAPHAEL OLAIYA AND MOHAMED ELMASRY 14 Virtual photoreality for safety education 211 HAI CHIEN PHAM, ANH-TUAN PHAM-HANG AND THI-THANH-MAI PHAM vi Contents
- 12. 15 Encouraging immersion in the Soil Sciences through virtual conferences where ideas are shared among avatars to improve the educational background of young scientists 224 E.V. TAGUAS, E. FERNÁNDEZ-AHUMADA, L. ORTIZ-MEDINA, S. CASTILLO-CARRIÓN, M.C. BEATO, P. ALARCÓN RAMÍREZ, J.J. MARTÍNEZ MOLINA, C. PÉREZ MARTÍNEZ, M.C. DEL CAMPILLO, A.M. TARQUIS, J. MONTEJO-GÁMEZ AND J.E. GUERRERO-GINEL 16 Educational technologies in the area of ubiquitous historical computing in virtual reality 240 GIUSEPPE ABRAMI, ALEXANDER MEHLER, CHRISTIAN SPIEKERMANN, ATTILA KETT, SIMON LÖÖCK AND LUKAS SCHWARZ 17 Virtual and augmented reality applications for environmental science education and training 261 YUSUF SERMET AND IBRAHIM DEMIR 18 ViMeLa: An interactive educational environment for the mechatronics lab in virtual reality 276 TOOMAS TIKK, RAIN ERIC HAAMER, DOROTA KAMIŃSKA, ANNA FIRYCH-NOWACKA, SLAWOMIR WIAK, NAJMEH REZAEI, MARCIN LEFIK, GRZEGORZ ZWOLIŃSKI, TOMASZ SAPIŃSKI, GOGA CVETKOVSKI, LIDIJA PETKOVSKA, PAOLO DI BARBA, MARIA EVELINA MOGNASCHI, MIHAIL DIGALOVSKI, MAJA CELESKA AND GHOLAMREZA ANBARJAFARI Lessons learnt from virtual reality in education 287 LINDA DANIELA Index 293 Contents vii
- 13. Figures 1.1 Instructional strategies for VR adopted from Kapp and O’Driscoll (2010). 6 1.2 Framework of the evaluation tool. 11 2.1 Results of the evaluation. 27 5.1 Samples of the material used and the result work of the students: layout, measurements and work units of the project of replacement of the pipeline and representation in the virtual world and works of technicians and companies available in the Moodle platform. 73 6.1 Methods for using VR and AR in education. 85 6.2 An example of the educational game based on VR. 88 6.3 Mental method of learning history based on AR. 89 6.4 A wreckage of the plane depicted in a game. 90 6.5 Real historical objects to drag and drop in a game. 91 8.1 Hybrid interactions in VR and AR involve higher-level regions of the socio-cognitive learning space. 117 9.1 Example of a car model displayed in the JLR CAVE. 136 9.2 Scatter-dot plot of the interaction between SUS and trust. 139 9.3 Scatter-dot plot of the interaction between technology acceptance and trust. 140 9.4 Scatter-dot plot of the relationship between ITC-SOPI and trust. 141 10.1 Pinned browser window above the test bed. 148 10.2 Learning approaches. 150 10.3 Test bed CAD. 153 10.4 VR mode of the test bed. 154 10.5 VR mode placed above the real-world test bed. 155 10.6 AR mode. 156 10.7 Information visualization with mixed reality. 156 11.1 State-of-the-art review of teaching aids for structural mechanics. 165 11.2 ‘Over-engineered’ and pre-set kits for individual learning objectives. 171
- 14. 11.3 The physical components of the system are assembled to represent (e.g. structural) systems that are removably docked into a back panel-cum-projection surface. Here the user is iteratively exploring various ways to stabilise a frame. 174 11.4 A plethora of custom assemblies can be created by the user facilitating explorative design and problem solving. 175 11.5 A key innovation is that the physical components closely resemble their schematic symbols used in pedagogy. 175 11.6 Four different assemblies displaying four different layers of augmentation. 176 11.7 Left: The object bodies as defined by the digital twin correlate with the physical components. Right: the finite element discretisation of the digital twin is also replicated in the physical components. 177 11.8 The system facilitates pedagogically scripted learning objectives. 178 11.9 The hand-held wand ensures simple and deliberate interaction with the physical components; this is accurately replicable in the simulation. The wand is tracked via IR LED. 179 12.1 On-site photos of the Great Wall in Jinshanling. 186 12.2 Construction sequence of the towers. 188 12.3 Fuzzy angular model. 191 12.4 VR walkthrough of the towers in Unity. 196 13.1 PRISMA flow diagram showing number of records identified, screened and deemed eligible and the final number of papers included in the analysis. 206 14.1 Research methodology. 213 14.2 VP-based learning framework. 214 14.3 Photoreality prototype application. 214 14.4 Construction Hazard Investigation (CHI) and Construction Safety Performance (CSP) modules. 215 14.5 VP prototype development. 216 14.6 Evaluation scheme. 218 14.7 System evaluation. 219 14.8 Learning method evaluation. 220 15.1 Steps to prepare and interpret impact measurements (left) and questions included in Block B (right). 229 16.1 VAnnotatoR: Multimodal objects can be visualized, positioned and linked with each other in the virtual environment. 246 16.2 VAnnotatoR uses a database for representing and managing multimodal information units. It can use external tools to extend its functionality. 247 16.3 Processing of an external resource (URL) within a virtual browser. 251 Figures ix
- 15. 16.4 To fulfil Requirement (B), a network component for the simultaneous communication and collaboration among users is needed. 251 16.5 A portal represents a hyperlink to an object within the virtual environment and displays a preview of it in a circle, which can be positioned anywhere in the virtual space. 254 16.6 VAnnotatoR enables the creation of virtual surfaces at any position in the virtual space. 255 17.1 System-level architecture for an immersive disaster management and education framework. 265 17.2 Screenshots from Flood Action VR game for Samsung Gear VR. 266 17.3 A snapshot of HoloFlood placed on a conference room table. 267 17.4 (a) Smartphone-based stream stage measurement (b) AR layers for visualizing nearby sensors on a smartphone. 269 17.5 A screenshot from the Android application to show AR overlays for power line inspection. 269 17.6 a) A snapshot of an educational hydrological simulation environment b) A screenshot of panoramic imagery augmented with realistic flood visualization. 270 18.1 Structure and key elements of mechatronics. 277 18.2 Factory hall created in ViMeLa project using VR. 278 18.3 Switched reluctance motor in VR environment. (a) Components of the motor parts in VR look. (b) Partly assembled motor. 279 18.4 An overview of the waste sorting scenario for the ViMeLa project. 281 18.5 Actuators on the conveyor line. (a) Capacitive sensor with adjustable parameters (b) Framework of the Evaluation tool Results of the evaluation. 285 x Figures
- 16. Tables 1.1 Cross-analysis of the learning theories and approaches of the 20th and 21st centuries. 7 1.2 Relation to learning in VR. 9 1.3 First macro criterion ‘purpose’. 12 1.4 Second macro criterion ‘instructional strategy’. 13 1.5 Third macro criterion ‘VR learning experience design’. 14 1.6 Preliminary cross-analysis. 17 Annex 1 ‘Evaluation tool’ 17 4.1 Dayna Galloway’s interactions for interactive documentary. 54 4.2 Interaction domain summaries. 54 4.3 Classifications of mixed reality interactions paired with participatory performance methods. 55 5.1 Summary of the main aspects of the project. 68 5.2 Time planning and student groups for the activities carried out in the subject of Sociology and Forest Policy. 70 5.3 Time planning and student groups for the activities carried out in the subject of Engineering Projects. 72 5.4 Time planning and student groups for the activities carried out in the subject of Didactics of Numbers, Operations and Measurement. 74 5.5 Descriptive statistics associated with the degree of confi- dence and degree of success for the accomplishment of tasks in the subject of Sociology and Forest Policy. 77 5.6 Descriptive statistics associated with the degree of confi- dence for the accomplishment of tasks in the subject of Engineering Projects. 78 5.7 Descriptive statistics associated with the degree of confi- dence for the accomplishment of tasks in the subject of Didactics of Numbers, Operations and Measurements. 78 9.1 VR experience demographic data. 138 9.2 List of regression performed. 139
- 17. 9.3 Coefficients of the regression with usability, technology acceptance and presence as independent variable and trust as a dependent variable. 141 10.1 Alternative learning support. 159 11.1 State-of-the-art review of teaching aids for structural mechanics. 166 12.1 Method 1 of the Great Wall in Jinshanling construction. 187 12.2 Second and third construction methods on the Great Wall in Jinshanling. 189 12.3 The likelihood of the first proposed construction sequence on the towers. 193 12.4 The likelihood of the first proposed construction sequence on the walls. 194 13.1 Studies found searching PubMed, Embase, ERIC, CINAHL, Web of science and Scopus using search terms: virtual “reality”, “education”, “teaching” and “simulation” and whether they demonstrated a difference between trad- itional teaching methods and VR. 207 13.2 User written feedback comments from a qualitative study conducted by Olaiya et al 2017. 207 14.1 Learning outcome results. 220 14.2 Paired samples test. 220 15.1 Summary of the work stages carried out to prepare the vir- tual conference. 226 15.2 Minimum requirements for users of Windows. 228 15.3 Participation data for the period 2015–2017. 230 15.4 Characterization of the participants for the period 2015– 2017 232 15.5 Survey about learning aspects and opinions of the impact of the session. 233 16.1 Overview of the projects and their fulfilment of the requirements defined in Section Virtual environments and historical education. 250 xii Tables
- 18. Preface Why do we need new ways to teach? Virtual reality perspective Technological advances and the opportunities created by digitalization are transforming the educational environment by creating different types of transformations. Technology creates opportunities to learn differently and presents challenges for education, as it is necessary to ensure the acquisition of competencies that are essential in today’s world and to ensure that the fascination with technology does not take precedence over learning goals. Virtual reality solutions can be exciting, create interest in learning, make learning more accessible and make learning faster. In this volume, researchers have sought to analyse the capabilities of virtual, augmented and mixed reality by providing ideas on how to make learning more effective, how existing VR/AR solutions can be used as learning tools, and how a learning process can be structured. VR/AR and haptic solutions can provide opportunities to acquire knowledge and competencies that would otherwise be impossible or difficult to acquire. There are a number of reasons VR solutions can be used successfully for educational purposes: i) their use can contribute to the construction of knowledge and the development of metacognitive processes; ii) they may help to reduce barriers to otherwise inaccessible places, either because of changes in the historical period or because it is necessary to preserve historical and natural values from human influence; iii) they can help to ensure that abstract learning becomes concrete by helping to master complex concepts; iv) they can contribute to inclusive education by providing access to knowledge that would not otherwise be available; v) they can serve as facilitators of sustainable development by addressing virtual reality and vi) they can help to visualize things that are impossible in reality. These opportunities can and should be used to make learning more effective. The next steps educational researchers need to take are to analyse learning outcomes and offer specific learning strategies, as VR/ AR solutions also have educational shortages that can result from under- achievement, neglected skills and an inability to distinguish the real world from virtual reality. Researchers are currently looking at various ways to use VR/AR solutions in education to make the education process more efficient, modern and
- 19. diverse. They are also looking for technical solutions that can make VR more accessible and technically and aesthetically pleasing. Organization of the book The present book consists of 18 chapters, in which the authors try to explain different approaches using VR and AR possibilities. Some of the authors analyse these possibilities from the perspective of knowledge gain; some take the perspective of the effectiveness of the learning process and others point out the need for changes to traditional learning and the necessity to change attitudes to VR. One chapter proposes ideas on how the learning process should be organized and its outcomes evaluated; another introduces a tool for how VR/AR solutions can be evaluated from the educational perspective. There are also ideas on how to organize a safer learning process and how to analyse historical events and historical achievements. A brief description of each of the chapters follows. Lana Frančeska Dreimane, in her chapter Virtual reality learning experi- ence evaluation tool for instructional designers and educators, presents a VR learning experience evaluation tool that highlights the pivotal aspects that should be considered by instructors and educators who wish to successfully design and/or apply VR learning experiences. Gregory Quinn and Fabian Schneider, in their chapter A+Ha!: combining tactile interaction with augmented reality to transform secondary and tertiary STEM education, claim that the effectiveness of, accessibility to and engagement in teaching and learning STEM subjects can be significantly improved by 1) making use of novel technologies that combine haptic inter- action with pedagogically strategic digital augmentation; 2) exploiting the benefits of the ‘haptic bond’ between visual and auditory stimuli; 3) the applica- tion of gamification techniques and 4) facilitating active learning and explorative design. Neus Lorenzo Galés and Ray Gallon, in Transcendent Learning Spaces, claim that the emerging technologies of augmented and virtual reality can be used to model daily life situations that learners have to face in the digital world. Transcendent learning spaces can be extremely powerful for a variety of learner populations, including, as the case studies show, populations at risk of exclusion or in educational crisis. Linda Daniela and Yipaer Aierken, in the chapter The educational per- spective on virtual reality experiences of cultural heritage, discuss the possibilities of VR experiences for educational purposes and propose an evaluation tool that was developed to evaluate VR applications from the educational perspective. The chapter How to enhance the trustworthiness of virtual reality sys- tems, by Davide Salanitri, Glyn Lawson and Brian Waterfield, describes a study to validate trust in a VR model, where usability, technology acceptance and xiv Preface
- 20. presence are theorized to be the factors influencing trust. The results are a starting point for validating the model, which, when fully demonstrated, could shape the design of VR technologies to enhance users’ trust in the system and, consequently, improve the human-system interaction and the effectiveness of the technology. Joshua A. Fisher, in his chapter Applied theatre with mixed reality on university campuses, puts forward instructional concepts for the use of mixed reality (MR) as part of an applied theatre class on a university campus. Participatory performance tactics from Augusto Boal’s Theatre of the Oppressed, an applied theatre practice, are connected to MR’s interaction design patterns to develop a lesson plan. In the chapter Development of professional skills in higher education: Problem-based learning supported by immersive worlds, Elvira Fernán- dez-Ahumada and her co-authors provide results from developing professional competencies in the areas of engineering and mathematics teaching, using environments recreated in immersive worlds. Charles Hand, Raphael Olaiya and Mohamed Elmasry, in their chapter Virtual reality for teaching clinical skills in medical education, explore the application of VR in healthcare education and whether it is more effective than traditional methods of teaching clinical skills to medical students. Michael Spitzer, Manfred Rosenberger and Martin Ebner, in the chapter Simu- lation data visualization using mixed reality with Microsoft HoloLensTM , introduce the HoloLens app and a CAD/simulation workflow to visualize CAD models, sensors and the simulation data of a test run on an air conditioning system test bed. They implemented examples coloured the temperature or pressure changes of the test bed parts as MR overlays. The main purpose of the HoloLens app is to reduce the learning effort and time required to understand such simulations and test bed settings. In the chapter Towards a virtual photoreality for construction safety education, Hai Chien Pham, Anh-Tuan Pham-Hang and Thi-Thanh-Mai Pham propose an innovative Virtual Photoreality (VP)-based learning approach for improving construction safety education. A VP prototype is developed and validated, derived from case studies of accidents that often happen on real construction sites. Encarnación V. Taguas and her co-authors, in their chapter Encouraging immersion in the soil sciences through virtual conferences where ideas are shared among avatars to improve the educational back- ground of young scientists, present a teaching experience where an immersive virtual conference was set up to hold participative meetings on the soil sciences between senior researchers and young scientists. Giuseppe Abrami, Alexander Mehler, Christian Spiekermann, Attila Kett, Simon Lööck and Lukas Schwarz, in Educational technologies in the area of ubiquitous historical computing in virtual reality, explain the use of VAnnotatoR, which is a versatile framework for the creation and use of Preface xv
- 21. virtual environments that serve to model historical processes in historical education. The chapter describes the building blocks of VAnnotatoR and describes its applications in historical education. Jin Rong Yang, Fabian Hadipriono Tan and Adrian Hadipriono Tan, in the chap- ter he use of fuzzy angular models and 3D models on a construction method assessment on the Great Wall of China in Jinshanling as a case study of the history and heritage of civil engineering in education, intro- duce three possible construction methods that were likely to have been imple- mented during the building of the walls and towers of the Jinshanling section of the Great Wall of China during the Ming Dynasty. Fuzzy angular models were selected and employed to determine the most likely and feasible construction methods and sequences. The results can be displayed in VR with or without the fuzzy logic methodology, which is suitable for teaching in primary, second- ary and/or university classroom settings. The chapter Virtual and augmented reality applications for environ- mental science education and training by Ibrahim Demir and Yusuf Sermet presents seven case studies to demonstrate the potential benefits of XR as an educational tool in the environmental sciences for K-12 and college-level stu- dents, as an exhibit for community outreach to increase awareness about environment and to present data resources in an engaging way, as a decision support system for environmental planning and disaster management and as a training platform for technical staff and first responders. Marko Orel, in The potentials of virtual reality in entrepreneurship education, explores the various possibilities of VR for entrepreneurship education that could provide future entrepreneurs with necessary skills and functional knowledge. In the chapter ViMeLa: Interactive educational environment for mechatronics lab in virtual reality, a blended-learning method using theory classes and VR as an experimentation tool is presented by Toomas Tikk and his co-authors The main objective is to create a virtual mechatronic laboratory for learning and teaching students in mechatronics. Tomas Blazauskas and Daina Gudoniene in Virtual reality and augmented reality in educational programs present the educational fields of VR and AR and discuss their implementation in educational programs by using different tech- nologies and practices related to medicine, sport, military science and history. Finally, Oli Howson, in his chapter An exploration of the impact of aug- mented and virtual reality within compulsory education, explores the uses of AR and VR in the education of those within the age range of 5 to 18. I am very grateful to all the authors for their efforts in the preparation of their chapters and for sharing their ideas. I hope that the book will contribute to the field and open up new lines of research, new ideas and new concepts. Professor Linda Daniela University of Latvia, Latvia xvi Preface
- 22. Contributors Giuseppe Abrami is a scientific assistant in the Text Technology Lab (TTLab) at Goethe-University in Frankfurt. He is responsible for the various technological developments of the working group, and his research interests include the opportunities of collaborative virtual and augmented realities for the use of multicodal information and the creation of virtual annotation environments. Yipaer Aierken is a Design, Environment and the Arts (History, Theory and Criticism) Ph.D. student and teaching assistant at Arizona State Uni- versity supervised by professor Claudia Brown. Currently, she works on ethnicity and identity in Chinese art and artificial intelligence storytelling in virtual worlds. Her master’s thesis is titled Ethnicity and Identity in the Art of Giuseppe Castiglione. Yipaer Aierken’s previous research of includes visual reality in art history and museums applications, ancestor portraits in Chinese art, Japanese emaki, the art and culture of Sogdian and the Silk Road map. Purificación Alarcón Ramírez studied Architecture at the University of Seville and in the University of Rome La Sapienza, and earned the master’s degree Representation and Design in Engineering and Architecture in the Univer- sity of Córdoba. She has worked as an architect in Spain and Germany and has collaborated in research works at the universities of Cordoba and Sev- ille. Currently she works as a mathematics teacher. Gholamreza Anbarjafari is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Paolo Di Barba is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Maria Benlloch-González is an agricultural engineer at the Agronomy Department of the Higher School of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering
- 23. (University of Cordoba). She belongs to a teaching group related to crop production and currently is immersed in the research of topics related to future scenarios associated to climate change. Tomas Blazauskas holds a doctoral degree in the Technological sciences, Informatics Engineering field. He is the head of Software Engineering Department at Kaunas University of Technology. His areas of interest include software engineering solutions, virtual reality technologies and applications. M.C. del Campillo - Agriculture engineer expert on bioavailability of crit- ical nutrients such as phosphorus, iron and zinc, in soils of the Mediterra- nean area and in the synthesis of new sustainable and economic fertilizers. M.C. is motivated by new technologies in teaching, especially those that promote creativity, imagination, curiosity, research and knowledge. María del Carmen Beato is forest engineer at the University of Cordoba. She earned a master’s degree in Representation and design in engineering and architecture at the University of Cordoba. She specialized in 3D design and is currently Councillor Delegate of Lucena City Council, Cordoba. Sebastián Castillo-Carrión has finished his studies in computer engineering developing a virtual reality platform. Since then, he is involved in diverse research projects, but most of all virtual worlds, specifically Opensim, designing and implementing scenarios for conferences, learning and teach- ing environments, among other areas. Maja Celeska is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co- funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Goga Cvetkovski is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Linda Daniela is professor, Chair of the Council for PhD Defence in Edu- cation and Dean of the Faculty of Education, Psychology and Art at the University of Latvia. Her expertise spans Technology-enhanced learning, Smart Pedagogy, Smart Education, Educational technologies for learning, Educational robotics, etc. Professor Daniela is an author and co-author of more than 80 publications about processes in all dimensions of education. She has been involved in more than 30 research projects, editing books and journals on technological aspects in education. Ibrahim Demir is an assistant professor in the Civil and Environmental and Electrical and Computer Engineering departments at the University of Iowa. Dr. Demir’s research focuses on hydroinformatics, environmental xviii Contributors
- 24. information systems, scientific visualization, big data analytics, intelligent systems and information communication. Mihail Digalovski is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Lana Frančeska Dreimane is a PhD candidate and a lecturer at the Univer- sity of Latvia. Her research expertise is educational applications of immersive technology for learning, spanning from immersive technologies for learning, to cognitive pedagogy, instructional design strategies, transversal competences and technology enhanced learning. She has authored several publications on the topic of immersive learning, and transversal competences and developed a Master’s course on educational applications of immersive technology for learning. Lana is also a member of the Immersive Learning Research Net- work (iLRN)’s State of XR and Immersive Learning Expert Panel. Martin Ebner is currently the head of the Department of Educational Tech- nology at Graz University of Technology and is therefore responsible for all university wide e-learning activities. He is an Adjunct Professor on media informatics (research area: educational technology) and works also at the Institute for Interactive Systems and Data Science as senior researcher. His research focuses strongly on seamless learning, learning analytics, open educational resources, maker education and computer science for children. Mohamed Elmasry is a general surgery registrar at Oxford University Hos- pitals, and a PhD student at the University of Liverpool. He has obtained his bachelor’s degree in medicine and surgery from Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt in 2008, and has started his surgical training in the UK in 2011. Mohamed’s area of interest is Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary (HPB) sur- gery, alongside general surgery and medical education. Mohamed’s research work focuses on liver regeneration after surgical resec- tion, and he has been the author and co-author of several published articles in peer-reviewed journals. Elvira Fernández-Ahumada is assistant professor in the Department of Mathematics of the University of Cordoba. Her main research deals with mathematical competence of pre-service teachers, problem solving and modelling in mathematics teaching, use of immersive virtual worlds for educational purposes and multivariate analyses of different types of data. Anna Firych-Nowacka is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Joshua A. Fisher, Ph.D. is an expert in participatory, community-focused platforms for XR storytelling and experiences. Fisher has published through Contributors xix
- 25. a variety of conferences including ACM Multimedia, International Confer- ence on Interactive Digital Storytelling, Virtual Reality 4 Good, CHI-Play and IEEE VR. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Immersive Media at Columbia College Chicago. Ray Gallon is president and co-founder of the Transformation Society, which promotes digital transformation and organizational learning, and currently teaches at the universities of Barcelona and Strasbourg. He is co- chair of the Transformation and Information 4.0 Research and Develop- ment group of the World Federation of Associations for Teacher Education (WFATE). Earlier, Ray was an award-winning radio producer and was programme manager of New York's public radio station, WNYC-FM. Since 1992 Ray has focused on the convergence of communication, cul- ture, and technology, He is a speaker at conferences and events throughout the world, and has contributed to many books, journals and magazines. He currently serves as president of the Information 4.0 Consortium. Daina Gudoniene has a doctoral degree in the Technological sciences, Informatics Engineering field. Since 2010, she works on the Informatics faculty at the Kaunas University of Technology as a lecturer in the dis- tance study program. Areas of interest include learning object design and models for technologies enhanced learning, virtual reality and applications for education. José Emilio Guerrero-Ginel has Ph.D. in Agricultural Engineering and is a Full Professor at the University of Córdoba, Coordinator and teacher of several courses of initial and continuing training in Spain, Europe and Latin America on animal production, environment and rural development. He is also the author of more than 150 publications on topics related to animal production, environment and regional development, is responsible for R & D projects and supervises numerous masters and doctoral theses. Rain Eric Haamer is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Charles Hand is a neurosurgical trainee at Southmead Hospital in Bristol, UK. He has a background in academia and his interests include virtual reality for use in medical education and clinical neurosurgical research. He believes that virtual reality will have a large part to play in the future of medical education and will be especially relevant to surgical trainees. Oli Howson is an experienced teacher of Computer Science at Secondary, Post-16 and Higher Education levels. As a teacher, he believes that virtual reality has as much potential to improve educational provision as the BBC Micro did in the 1980s. xx Contributors
- 26. Dorota Kamińska is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Attila Kett chose Computer Science as his second study at the Goethe- University Frankfurt after his music studies and will soon start his Computer Science Master. He is especially interested in virtual reality and the visualiza- tion of data. Glyn Lawson is a Chartered Ergonomist and Human Factors Specialist and has spent his career researching the human factors of virtual reality technolo- gies for applications such as health and safety training and vehicle design. Marcin Lefik is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Stra- tegic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Simon Lööck studied Computer Science at the Goethe University in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, from 2016 to 2019 where he wrote his bachelor’s thesis at the Text Technology Lab. For this thesis, he devel- oped the network capability and usability of the virtual reality application ‘StolperwegeVR’. Neus Lorenzo Galés is an Inspector of Education and cofounder of the Transformation Society, which promotes digital organizational learning. She is the former Subdirector General of Educational Transformation in Catalo- nia (Spain), and Co-Chair of the ‘Transformation Society and Information 4.0’ Research and Development Group of the World Federation of Associ- ations for Teacher Education (WFATE). She teaches at the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), is a member of the Information 4.0 Con- sortium and has been researcher and assessor for the Education Commission of the European Parliament, the Council of Europe, Pestalozzi Programmes, Erasmus +, etc. She is an international speaker and also presents webinars and online seminars. Juan José Martínez Molina is a Forest engineer at the University of Cor- doba; he earned a master’s degree in Representation and design in engineering and architecture in the University of Cordoba. He specialized in 3D design and calculation of structures and currently works calculating and designing metal structures in a company in Alicante, Spain. Alexander Mehler is a Professor of Computational Humanities/Text- technology at Goethe University Frankfurt where he heads the Text Technol- ogy Lab (TTLab). Alexander Mehler is a member of the executive committee of the Center for Digital Research in the Humanities, Social Sciences and Edu- cation Sciences (CEDIFOR). He is a founding member of the German Soci- ety for Network Research (DGNet). His research interests include quantitative Contributors xxi
- 27. analysis, simulative synthesis and formal modelling of textual units in spoken and written communication. To this end, he investigates linguistic networks based on contemporary and historical languages (using models of language evo- lution). A current research interest concerns 4D text technologies based on VR, AR and Augmented Virtuality. Maria Evelina Mognaschi is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Jesús Montejo-Gámez is an Assistant Professor at the department of Math- ematical Education of the University of Granada, researcher of the Spanish Society of Research on Mathematics Education and a member of the Edu- cation Committee of the Spanish Royal Mathematical Society. He is focused on collaborative learning supported by ICT, mathematics teacher formation and mathematical modelling in problem solving. Raphael Olaiya is currently an acute and emergency medicine resident doctor at the Central London Deanery Hospitals and the director of the Lewisham and Greenwich Hospital's Health Data Science Group, a team that focuses on the research and application of machine learning to clinical medicine. He achieved his medical degree at University of Liverpool and his Masters of Data Science post-graduate degree at University College London. He has lead several UK based commercial and academic oriented health innovation implementation projects utilising virtual reality and machine learning. Raphael’s research and work focuses on translating state of the art emerging technologies towards improving healthcare. Marko Orel is an assistant professor at the University of Economics, Prague qualitative researcher specializing in the exploration of the changing nature of the global workplace and research of digital age that presents major new challenges to entrepreneurs. He is exploring projects and operational networks of influences, community engagement moderation and its inter-relational participation within flexible workspaces. Leovigilda Ortiz-Medina is an agronomist attached to the Unit of Pro- duction Systems Engineering, in the Higher School of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering (University of Cordoba). Since 2002, she has mainly worked in the management of post-graduate programs and in projects for the improvement of teaching quality, especially in the field of employ- ment and business creation. She is also involved in projects related to innovation in the agroforestry sector. Cristina Pérez Martínez is an architect and currently works as a secondary school teacher. She was born on 20 February 1988 in Jaén (Spain). In 2016 Cristina obtained two Masters: in Representation and Design in Engineering and Architecture and another in Teaching. After her degree in 2012, she worked as xxii Contributors
- 28. an architect in numerous places (such as Antwerp in Belgium and in Valen- cia, Córdoba, Jaén and Madrid in Spain) until the year 2019, when she started working as a secondary teacher in the specialty of Mathematics. Lidija Petkovska is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Anh-Tuan Pham-Hang is currently a student of the School of Computer Science and Engineering at the International University, Vietnam. His research interests consist of virtual reality, augmented reality and photore- ality, focusing on computer-assisted pedagogical tools. Hai Chien Pham received his Ph.D. in Construction Engineering and Man- agement from Chung-Ang University, Seoul, South Korea. His research interests consist of Building Information Modeling (BIM), Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, Photoreality and mobile computing, focusing on technology-enhanced application for construction education, training and management. He is currently the Head of the Department of Construction Engineering and Management (DCEM) of Faculty of Civil Engineering at Ton Duc Thang University, Vietnam. He has taught many construction management courses for undergraduate and graduate students and guided a large number of Ph.D. and master’s students. Furthermore, he has coordin- ated and participated in several research projects. Thi-Thanh-Mai Pham is currently a lecturer of Faculty of International Trade, College of Foreign Economic Relation, Vietnam. She has taught many international trade and business management courses for under- graduate and graduate students, as well as participated in several research projects. Her research interests focus on assessing the innovative pedagogy methods for improving learning outcome. Gregory Quinn: As course leader for Architectural Engineering at the Swinburne University of Technology, Gregory Quinn pursues innovation by navigating between the arts and sciences in all of his professional pur- suits. His research strengths lie in research through design, lightweight architecture, education and computation. Najmeh Rezaei is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Manfred Rosenberger holds a Bachelor of Education from Pädagogische Hochschule Steiermark and received his MSc in Software Engineering Leadership from campus02 in Graz in 2016. His work is focused on Requirements Engineering in research und software projects. Contributors xxiii
- 29. Davide Salanitri achieved his Ph.D. in Human Factors at The University of Nottingham in 2018. Davide is a Human Factors researcher, a specialist in the study of Human Factors in Virtual Reality. Pedro Sánchez-Zamora (Córdoba, 1984) is Lecturer at the Department of Agricultural Economics, Sociology and Policy at ETSIAM-University of Cordoba (Spain). He was trained as agricultural engineer (2009) and has a Ph.D. in Rural Development (2014) from the University of Cordoba. His areas of expertise are focused on the study of territorial dynamics and territorial resilience in rural areas and the analysis and evaluation of Public Policies for rural areas. Tomasz Sapiński is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Fabian Schneider is a researcher and computational architect exploring the boundaries between practice, design and human interface. His research focus lies with multi-platform interfacing, computational design and visualisations. Lukas Schwarz has been studying Computer Science at the Goethe Univer- sity Frankfurt since 2014. His work as a student assistant at the Text Tech- nology Lab mainly consists of creating virtual 3D models of real-world buildings and assisting other students in creating these models. Yusuf Sermet is a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Iowa, while working as a Graduate Research Assistant at the IIHR—Hydroscience & Engineering. His research focuses on next-generation environmental knowledge gener- ation and communication. Christian Spiekermann has been studying Computer Science at the Goethe University Frankfurt since 2014. There he has focused on computer graphics and mixed reality, especially in his position as student assistant at the TTLab. Michael Spitzer received his MSc in Information and Computer Engineer- ing from Graz University of Technology in 2015. As his master’s thesis, he implemented a collaborative sketch tool (Teamsketch) for iPads to train in collaborative work with primary school pupils. Since then he has focused his work on technology-enhanced learning (TEL). In 2016 he started the Ph.D. program at Graz University of Technology as a researcher in the field of technology-enhanced learning with augmented reality. Encarnación V. Taguas works as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Rural Engineering of the University of Cordoba. She is a Ph.D. Forest Engineer, and her specific fields are ‘Innovative teaching techniques in xxiv Contributors
- 30. Geosciences and Engineering Projects’ and ‘Soil and Water Measurements, Modelling and Conservation in olive groves’. Adrian Hadipriono Tan is a Ph.D. alumnus of the Ohio State University. He has a B.S. in Computer Science and Engineering and an M.S. and Ph.D. in Civil Engineering. Adrian’s Ph.D. work was in civil engineering with a focus on computer graphics and virtual simulation in the construction industry. Fabian Hadipriono Tan has an M.S. in structural engineering, an M.E. in construction engineering and management and a Dr. Eng. in construction engineering and management from the University of California in Berke- ley. He has worked in the areas of construction of infrastructures and build- ings, failure assessment of buildings and bridges, construction accident investigations, forensic engineering, ancient buildings, ancient bridges and the ancient history of science and engineering for over 50 years. The tools Professor Tan uses for his research include fault tree analysis, fuzzy logic, artificial intelligence and virtual reality. Ana M. Tarquis has been teaching Mathematics at UPM under different graduate programs since 1991. In addition to classroom instruction, she is mentoring students on appropriate research topics at Master and PhD programs. Toomas Tikk is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co- funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Brian Waterfield is a Specialist in Virtual Reality & High-end Visualisation Technical Lead, who has driven jaguar LandRover’s immersive development over the last 12 years. Slawomir Wiak is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Jin Rong Yang holds a B.S., M.S. and Ph.D. in Civil Engineering from The Ohio State University. He has worked as a graduate teaching associate for the Department of Engineering Education at the university, as well as a construction inspector for the City of Columbus. Dr. Yang is currently a civil engineer in the U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command. Grzegorz Zwoliński is a team member of the ViMeLa project, which has been co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union (Strategic Partnership, ViMeLa, 2017-1-PL01-KA203-038675). Contributors xxv
- 32. Part I Virtual reality in humanities and social sciences
- 34. Chapter 1 Virtual reality learning experience evaluation tool for instructional designers and educators Lana Franc ̌ eska Dreimane Introduction Virtual reality (VR) has been used for learning since the 1970s for flight simulation and military training. VR has been applied to create learning experiences in various fields that require complex conceptualisation, drill- training (repetition, automation) and complex contextual problem-solving (individuals and teams). The emerging availability of low-cost, high fidelity VR environments opened new possibilities for direct learning that is both cost effective and scalable. For the past decade, VR has transformed human-computer interface and in fact humanised it much further than ever before. Immersive experiences – either reality or fantasy based, allow us to interact with content and other people in a way that previously could only have been possible in science fic- tion. New outlooks on the prevailing importance of learning environments and technology enhanced learning strategies led by the educational and immersive technology research community offered new terminology to advance the discussion on immersive learning. Thus, the new terms – three- dimensional (3-D) virtual learning environments (VLEs) (Dalgarno & Lee, 2010) and virtual immersive experiences (VIEs) (Kapp & O’Driscoll, 2010) allowed for new opportunities to further and more effectively structure the academic discourse on the educational potential and applications of VR technology. The field of VR research can be viewed in two main categories – tech- nical solutions and applications. This study discusses technical solutions in context, but the focus of the research will be on applications, specifically VR applications for learning purposes. There is a significant body of research available on technical solutions and limitations of VR technology; however, in 2020 it is still very challenging for educators and instructional designers to find and navigate the guidelines on how VR learning experiences should be designed in order to ensure that learning objectives will be achieved. Thus, a major problem of VR learning research today seems to be the lack of understanding of the general principles that govern the process and how
- 35. they are interconnected with the existing knowledge about learning, instruc- tional strategies and curricula. With the explosive development in the field of VR learning, there is a need for systematisation of pedagogical principles that govern and facilitate learning in VR. This chapter presents a VR learning experience evaluation tool consisting of 3 macro-level criteria, 21 mezzo-level criteria and 90 sub-criteria that will highlight pivotal aspects that should be considered by instructors and educators who wish to successfully design and/ or apply VR learning experiences. As Ron Burns concluded in the Foreword for Learning in 3-D: Adding a New Dimension to Enterprise Learning and Collaboration (Burns in Kapp & O’Driscoll, 2010): ‘Now learning in context will become the most empower- ing component for learning and collaboration or humans and the human computer interface will be more naturalistic’ (p. xi). Today, with emergence of virtual learning environments, we have the opportunity to go beyond con- tent, beyond hierarchies and set environments – classrooms or desktops – and focus on the context of learning. Contrary to the general belief that VR has changed or will completely change the way we interact, entertain and learn, the author of this article argues that VR in fact offers a possibility to create more natural extensions to existing modes of interaction, entertainment and learning. This conviction also relates to the application and effectiveness of the existing approved instructional models (Bloom’s, SOLO, ADDIE, Gagne’s, 4C ID model) in the VR environment. Furthermore, this view is shared by Oral Roberts University’s (a world pioneer in the use of VR in university programmes) vice president of technology and innovation, Michael Mathews (2017). The main benefit of introducing VR into the learning process is that there is no need to change the learning objectives and strategies; VR rather aids in achieving these objectives and amplifies (deepens) the residue and speeds up the learning process. VR has already shown great potential; nevertheless, it is very new technology and there is much more to be understood and studied on how to use it effect- ively and further incorporate VR technology into our daily lives in order to harness the unique opportunities. Several authors argue that the success of VR learning relies on the quality of the chosen visualisation and interaction mode (Bryson, 1995; Erickson, 1993). The VR technology industry is exceedingly competitive and has developed with remarkable speed; nevertheless, today’s VR technologies bear several significant technical limitations, including, for some users, cybersickness or simulation sickness. Also called VR sickness, it occurs when exposure to a virtual environment causes symptoms that are similar to those of motion sickness (Kolasinski, 1995; LaViola, 2000). Other issues include the quality of lenses (including the lack of comfortable and affordable optometric solutions for VR headsets, eliminating the need to wear glasses/ lenses beneath the headset), as well as increasing need to improve the resolution and display quality and improvements in terms of latency (response) including spatial queues and haptic responses. 4 Lana Franč eska Dreimane
- 36. Why do we need an evaluation tool for VR learning experiences? Since the advent of computer technologies, various research has raised the question of whether and how technology can potentially enhance the learning process and outcomes and what value can be added to learners’ experiences. Unlike other terms, technology enhanced learning (TEL) implies a value judgement, as ‘enhanced’ suggests that something is improved or superior in some way. The proposed description itself suggests that enhancement should be understood as a value judgement meaning improved quality or added value. Thus, several academics (Chatti, Schroeder, & Jarke, 2012; Kapp & O’Driscoll, 2010; Kirkwood & Price, 2013) have raised questions such as what exactly can and should be, or in particular instances is, enhanced when technology is used for teaching and learning. How will the enhancement be achieved, and how can enhancement be determined, evaluated and monitored? Is enhancement concerned with increasing tech- nology use or improving the circumstances/environment in which educa- tional activities take place? Instructional strategies for learning approaches in VR Learning taxonomies and instructional design models present a most suitable platform for further discussion about the approaches learning in VR. A variety of field-specific (case-study) based inquiries draw on several field-specific prin- ciples (e.g. medical training, first-response teams, military, pilot, as well as navy training and engineering, manufacturing and sales); however, it is important to note that very little research is available on the general principles governing learning in VR. Chwen Jen Chen (2006) asserts that Although VR is recognized as an impressive learning tool, there are still many issues that need further investigation including, identifying the appropriate theories and models to guide its design and development, investigating how its attributes are able to support learning (…). (2006, p. 39) Her research resulted in insights to a feasible instructional design theoretical framework, as well as an instructional development framework for VR- based learning environments. Kapp & O’Driscoll (2010) combine technological knowledge with instruction and learning approaches and present a model to approach learn- ing in VR through a variety of components and levels. The model defines 7 Sensibilities; 9 Principles; 4 Macrostructures and 11 Learning Archetypes (Figure 1.1.). Evaluation tool for VR learning experiences 5
- 37. CRITICAL INCIDENT OPERATIONAL APPLICATION OTHER CONCEPTUAL ORIENTEERING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES FOR VR Kapp, O’Driscoll, 2010 Examples Understanding of a key concept This concept can be taken beyond physical perception. You can give a learner an experience of what it is like to have a mental condition like schizophrenia or a physical impairment like blurred vision or sudden dizziness Teaching people how to: Plan and react to Conduct activities that are unexpected, infrequent or considered to be dangerous 1. 2. 3. Interaction and manipulation of objects for the purpose of gaining proficiency in functionality and performance Learners are challenged to apply physical world rules to objects in the virtual world 1.Avatar Persona 2.Role Play 3.Scavenger Hunt 4. 4. Guided Tour 5. Co-Creation 6. Small Group Work Figure 1.1 Instructional strategies for VR adopted from Kapp and O’Driscoll (2010) Author’s concept. Method The first step involved constructing VR learning ecosystem and typologies, which necessitated extensive literature analysis and practical case analysis. For the purposes of this research, VR learning archetypes and typologies defined by Kapp and O’Driscoll (2010) as well as the unique characteristics and affordances of VR learning environment proposed by Dalgarno and Lee (2010) were adopted. The second step consisted of drawing comparisons through cross-analysis of the established learning theories and approaches of the 20th and 21st century in order to establish aspects and attributes that are fully or partially applicable to the process of learning in VR (see Table 1.1). The following educational theories and approaches were analysed: Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Constructivism, Generative learning, Problem-based learning, Activity theory, Significant learn- ing, Constructionism, Connectivism, Situated learning, Experiential learning and Learning as a Network (LaaN) theory. Step 3 involved highlighting aspects of the VR learning ecosystem that fit with the key aspects of each of the pedagogic and instructional design theory frameworks Table 1.2 maps out some of the aspects of the VR learn- ing ecosystem that fit with the key facets of each of the learning frameworks set out in Table 1.1. Based on the literature analysis and extensive VR learning content testing, a qualitative data analysis tool for evaluating VR learning experiences was developed. The evaluation tool included 3 macro-criteria, 21 criteria and 90 sub-criteria. The full evaluation tool template can be found in Annex 1. 6 Lana Franč eska Dreimane
- 38. Table 1.1 Cross-analysis of the learning theories and approaches of the 20th and 21st centuries. 20th century learning theories 21st century learning theories Theory/ approach Behaviourism Cognitivism Constructivism Connectivism TEACHING → LEARNING Theorists I. Pavlov, E. Thorndike, B.F. Skinner D. Merril, R. Gagne, J. Bruner L. Vygotsky, A. Bandura, J. Piaget, J. Dewey, S. Papert, M.C. Wittrock, L.D. Fink (significant learning), D.H. Jonassen Y. Engestrom, G. Siemens, S. Downes, J. Lave, D.A. Kolb, M.A. Chatti Related approaches/ theories Cognitive behaviourism Instructional theory Constructionism Generative learning approach; Problem- based learning (reflection, scaffolding); Significant learning – authentic experiential activity theory experiences + reflection, self-assessment Situated learning/ Experiential learn- ing, Active learning and learning-by- doing (such as role-play), scaf- folded, collaborative learning, Learning as a Network (LaaN) theory, actor-network theory, gamification Learner’s role Passive – reactive Reactive Active Proactive Main assumption correct instructional stimuli will elicit the desired learning outcomes, with an emphasis on practice and performance Focus on understanding of mental processes; mind as an information processor Student-centered view of the learner as an active participant in the learning process and the teacher as a facilitator; learning occurs as a result of active engagement or experience in a social context; importance of social context in which the learning occurs importance of interaction, knowledge and learning are today defined by connections; learning as a connection/ network-forming process; the half-life of knowledge is shrinking; learning consists of the ability to construct and traverse networks; understands learning as a socially (Continued )
- 39. Table 1.1 (Cont.) 20th century learning theories 21st century learning theories Theory/ approach Behaviourism Cognitivism Constructivism Connectivism TEACHING → LEARNING communication and experience; assistance of a more capable peer, scaffolding constructed process where learners interact in pursuit of a shared goal; the connections that enable us to learn are more important than our current state of knowing. Knowledge net- works, fluidity, some learning environments with no spatial and time restrictions, collective value creation, exchange of knowledge and virtual co-construction Types of learning facilitated Task-based Reasoning, problem- solving Social, hands-on, contextual Creation of knowledge through connection creating, creating collective knowledge, leveraging internal and external knowledge networks How the learning environ- ment is viewed Design of learning environment as potential facilitator of learning Learning environment is constructed as a projection of internal mental processes (schema) Authenticity of learning environment Contextual learning Technology enhanced Learning environ- ment is fundamental and can be also viewed in multiple ways – internal, external, artefacts, groups of people, information, technology, activities, etc.
- 42. Three macro-criteria, 21-mezzo criteria and 90 sub-criteria The proposed VR experience evaluation tool was essentially developed to serve as a purposeful quality control or design development instrument that would inform instructional designers, educators, learners and VR content and technology professionals by providing a clear and multi-purpose framework that allows one to outline the alignment of the instructional, pedagogical and VR learning environment to ensure and strengthen the efficiency of the VR learning design and instructional strategies. These typologies were developed through analysis of 130 VR learning experience designs and then drawing similar characteristics of learning environments and strategies applied in VR, thus establishing broader types of VR learning experiences. The tool has been further developed through rigorous approbation and modifications for variant use. These types are based on the current technology and learning needs; nevertheless, this only means that these types will be evolving hand in hand with the develop- ment of VR technologies and the ever-evolving job-market appetite for knowledgeable and skilled professionals. A compact schema for the framework of the evaluation tool is provided in Figure 1.2. The first macro criterion is labelled ‘Purpose’, which includes 5 mezzo-level criteria (see Table 1.3.). PURPOSE 1) Type of Experience 2) Problem 3) Goal 4) Field (-s) of Science according to the OECD clasification 5) Solution VR LEARNING EXPERIENCE DESIGN 15) Chosen technologies 16) Tracking analytics 17) Type of VLE strategy 18) Role of VR space 19) Characteristics of VR learning environment utilised 20) Is instructor feedback availiable 21) Learning affordances of VR space INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY 6) The pedagogical perspectives that inform instruction 7) Learning Objective(s) 8) Chosen task design 9) Possible competition element involved 10) Learner’s role 11) Cognitive knowledge dimensions 12) Cognitive process dimension 13) Competences developed 14) Monitoring and assessment 2 3 1 Figure 1.2 Framework of the evaluation tool. Evaluation tool for VR learning experiences 11
- 44. The second macro criterion proposes 9 mezzo-level ‘Instructional Strategy’ criteria (see Table 1.4.). The third macro criterion proposes 6 mezzo-level criteria for evaluating VR learning experience designs (see Table 1.5.). Table 1.4 Second macro criterion ‘instructional strategy’. Macro-criterion Criterion Sub-criteria 2. Instruc- tional Strategy 6) The pedagogical perspec- tives that inform instruction Single Multiple Mixed Behaviourism Cognitivism Constructivism Connectivism 7) Learning objective(s) Single Multiple 8) Chosen task design Sequential Interrelated 9) Possible competition element Individual Ranking Team Time-count score Adjustable Other 10) Learner’s role Passive explorer – learner absorbs the experience yet has no additional control over the environment in the speed or mode of interaction Re-active – learner is actively responding to and interacting with the learning environment Proactive – learner drives and controls the learning environment 11) Cognitive knowledge dimensions Factual Conceptual Procedural Meta-cognitive 12) Cognitive process dimension Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create Knowledge Disciplinary knowledge (Continued ) Evaluation tool for VR learning experiences 13
- 45. Table 1.4 (Cont.) Macro-criterion Criterion Sub-criteria 13) Compe- tences developed Interdisciplinary knowledge Practical knowledge Skills developed Cognitive and meta-cognitive skills Social and emotional Physical and practical skills Attitudes and values Attitudes and values 14) Monitoring and assessment Learner is assessed in real-time (wright or wrong signals, score, points, levels, number of errors, completion time, other real-time metrics) Learner is assessed after completing sev- eral sessions Self-assessment No assessment is incorporated into the experience Table 1.5 Third macro criterion ‘VR learning experience design’. Macro-criterion Criterion Sub-criteria 3. VR learn- ing experi- ence design 15) Chosen technologies High compatibility (numerous headsets devices/platforms) Low compatibility Web VR friendly VR/AR/MR mode 16) Tracking analytics (e.g. attention, eye movement, facial expres- sions, EEG, ECG, EMG, EDA) Engagement, interaction Eye tracking, viewpoint monitoring Sensory tracking (facial expres- sions, EEG, ECG, EMG, EDA) Haptic interaction 17) Type of VLE strategy Individual Group Adjustable (real-time; multi-user; synchronous) Avatar persona Role play (Continued )
- 46. Conclusions and recommendations This chapter highlights a framework for ensuring an alignment between learn- ing goals (pedagogy), instructional strategy and affordances of VR technology. The VR learning experience evaluation tool aims to serve a ready-to-use and adaptable instrument for instructional designers, educators, VR technology developers and potentially learners. Perhaps the most notable contribution of Table 1.5 (Cont.) Macro-criterion Criterion Sub-criteria Scavenger hunt Guided tour Operational application Conceptual orienteering Critical incident Co-creation Small group work Group forums Social networking 18) Role of VR space (including arte- facts within the space) in achiev- ing learning objectives Primary significance – learning occurs from interaction with the space Important – not a primary driver of learning experience, yet important in conveying context- ual knowledge and cues Supportive/entertaining 19) Characteristics of VR learning environment utilised Representational fidelity Learner interaction Social fidelity (including social familiarity and social reality) Social presence Immediacy of discourse 20) Availability of instructor or feedback Yes No Statistical data (success rate, progress) Test 21) Learning affordances of VR space Spatial knowledge representation Experiential learning Engagement Contextual learning Collaborative learning Evaluation tool for VR learning experiences 15
- 47. this study is in systematising already existent yet fragmented knowledge and developing practical recommendations, as well as defining the area for further considerations and research. First conclusion and recommendation VR learning experiences can be used for all cognitive processes and know- ledge dimensions; however, if we aim to utilise the specific and unique affordances of the virtual learning environment, the most beneficial choice of learning objectives for such experiences would be, in fact, a higher cogni- tive dimensions starting with remembering factual knowledge and moving all the way to creation of metacognitive knowledge. It is especially beneficial to utilise VR learning technology in order to develop students’ ability to create and engage in critical thinking and innov- ation, as VR learning experiences allow students to express and create com- plex metacognitive concepts, as well as perfect complex procedural knowledge including where procedural and cognitive processes fuse together. Second conclusion and recommendation It is important to note that the majority of the current research on learning in VR draws a connection with learning principles of constructivism, con- structionism and connectivism; however, it often disregards other learning frameworks such as behaviourism and cognitivism. For this reason, the author argues that all of the relevant learning facets highlighted in Table 1.1 should be taken into account when approaching learning in VR from the pedagogic perspective (Table 1.2), as the teachings of each of the learning frameworks discussed in Table 1.1 should be fully leveraged in order to better understand how learning takes place in relation to affordances of VR technology and user experience. However, the author stresses that numerous aspects are unique to the VR learning ecosystem and are not covered by the existing learning frameworks, such as those included in the third macro criterion ‘VR learning experience design’ (see Table 1.5). Thus, when attempting to define the most appropriate pedagogic theory outlook, the author argues, a mixed or fused outlook should be adapted. Third conclusion and recommendation In order to avoid creating ineffective VR learning content and wasting hours and resources, it is immensely important to ensure the effective use of VR technology. Thus, it is crucial to analyse and map out the characteristics of the strategically set learning objectives and the role of the VR learning environ- ment before undertaking the creation of VR learning content (including instructional design and 3D visual and multi-media content creation). 16 Lana Franč eska Dreimane
- 48. The author proposes preliminary cross-analysis (see Table 1.6.) in order to ensure further effectiveness and successful alignment of all of the affordances involved in VR learning experience. Table 1.6 Preliminary cross-analysis. Criterion Sub-criteria Preliminary cross- analysis How the affordances of the VR environ- ment contribute to qualities of active, collaborative learning (Free form) Is (was) the learning strategy successful because of the affordances of 3D VLE? (Free form) VR user experience (What is the role of learner using the VLE?) (Free form) Does the learning experience clearly manifest the benefits of using VR as the learning mode Yes, the reasons for choosing VR as the learning mode are clear Reasons for choosing VR as the learning mode can be identified Reasons for choosing VR as the learning mode cannot be identified Annex 1 ‘Evaluation tool’ Macro- criterion Criterion Sub-criteria Title of the learning experience 1. Purpose Type of Experience 1) Type of Experience Activity Lesson Experience Interactive simulation Experience + activity Experience + lesson Immersive Virtual World 2) Problem Learning problem that has to be addressed 3) Goal Single Multiple/interdisciplinary Adjustable (Continued ) Evaluation tool for VR learning experiences 17
- 49. Annex 1 (Cont.) Macro- criterion Criterion Sub-criteria Title of the learning experience 4) Field(-s) of Science according to the OECD classification 1. Natural Sciences 2. Engineering and Technology 3. Medical and Health Sciences 4. Agricultural Sciences 5. Social Sciences 6. Humanities Primary FOS Secondary FOS (interdisciplinary) 5) Solution 2. Instruc- tional strategy 6) The pedagogical perspectives that inform instruction Single Multiple Mixed Behaviourism Cognitivism Constructivism Connectivism 7) Learning objective(s) Single Multiple 8) Chosen task design Sequential Interrelated 9) Possible competition elem- ent involved Individual Team RankingScore Time count Adjustable Other 10) Learner’s role Passive explorer – learner absorbs the experience yet has no additional control over the environment in the speed or mode of interaction Re-active – learner is actively responding and interacting with the learn- ing environment Proactive – learner drives and controls the learning environment (Continued )
- 50. Annex 1 (Cont.) Macro- criterion Criterion Sub-criteria Title of the learning experience 11) Cognitive knowledge dimensions Factual Conceptual Procedural Meta-cognitive 12) Cognitive process dimension Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create 13) Competences developed Knowledge Disciplinary knowledge Interdisciplinary knowledge Practical knowledge Skills developed Cognitive and meta- cognitive Social and emotional Physical and practical Attitudes and values Attitudes and values 14) Monitoring and assessment Learner is assessed in real time (right or wrong sig- nals, score, points, levels, number of errors, comple- tion time, other real-time metrics) Learner is assessed after completing several sessions Self-assessment 3. VR learning experience design 15) Chosen technologies High compatibility (numer- ous headsets devices/ platforms) Low compatibility Web VR friendly VR/AR/MR mode 16) Tracking analytics (e.g. attention, eye movement, facial expressions, EEG, ECG, EMG, EDA) Engagement, interaction Eye tracking, viewpoint monitoring Sensory tracking (facial expressions, EEG, ECG, EMG, EDA) Haptic interaction 17) Type of VLE strategy Individual Group (Continued )
- 51. Annex 1 (Cont.) Macro- criterion Criterion Sub-criteria Title of the learning experience Adjustable Real time Multi user Synchronous Avatar persona Role play Scavenger hunt Guided tour Operational application Conceptual orienteering Critical incident Co-creation Small group work Group forums Social networking 18) Role of VR space (including artefacts within the space) in achieving learning objectives Primary significance – learning occurs from inter- action with the space Important – not a primary driver of learning experi- ence, yet important in con- veying contextual knowledge and cues Supportive/entertaining 19) Characteristics of VR learn- ing environment utilised Representational fidelity Learner interaction Social fidelity (including social familiarity and social reality) Social presence Immediacy of discourse 20) Availability of instructor or feedback Yes No Statistical data (success rate, progress) Test 21) Learning affordances of VR space Spatial knowledge representation Experiential learning Engagement Contextual learning Collaborative learning
- 52. References Bryson, S. (1995). Approaches to the successful design and implementation of VR applications. in R. A. Earnshaw, J. A. Vince, H. Jones, eds. Virtual Reality Applica- tions. London: Academic Press Limited. p. 328. Chatti, M. A., Schroeder, U., & Jarke, M. (2012). LaaN: Convergence of knowledge management and technology-enhanced learning. IEEE Transactions on Learning Tech- nologies, 5, 177–189. Chen, C. J. (2006). The design, development and evaluation of a virtual reality based learning environment. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 22(1), 39–63. Retrieved from https://ajet.org.au/index.php/AJET/article/download/1306/678 Dalgarno, B., & Lee, M. (2010). What are the learning affordances of 3-D virtual environments? British Journal of Educational Technology, 41, 10–32. doi:10.1111/ j.1467-8535.2009.01038.x Erickson, T. (1993). Artificial realities as data visualization environments: Problems and prospects. In A. Wexelblat (Ed.), Virtual reality – Applications and explorations. London: Academic Press. p. 3–22. Kapp, K. M., & O’Driscoll, T. (2010). Learning in 3-D: Adding a new dimension to enter- prise learning and collaboration. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Kirkwood, A., & Price, L. (2013). Technology-enhanced learning and teaching in higher education: What is ‘enhanced’ and how do we know? A critical literature review. Learning, Media and Technology, 39(1), 6–36. doi:10.1080/17439884.2013.770404 Retrieved from www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17439884.2013.770404? scroll=top&needAccess=true Kolasinski, E. M. (1995). Simulator sickness in virtual environments (ARI 1027). U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, Retrieved from www.dtic. mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a295861.pdf LaViola, J. J., Jr. (2000). A discussion of cybersickness in virtual environments. ACM SIGCHI. Mathews, M. (2017). “Full Bloom with Mixed Reality”. Published in Talentquest. Retrieved August 2018: http://www.talentquest.com/full-bloom-with-mixed-real ity/ .Bulletin, 32, 47–56. doi:10.1145/333329.333344 Evaluation tool for VR learning experiences 21
- 53. Chapter 2 The educational perspective on virtual reality experiences of cultural heritage Linda Daniela and Yipaer Aierken Introduction Learning from personal experience is widely accepted as a powerful tool to con- struct knowledge, to develop a deeper understanding of different concepts, and to develop new competencies, and Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Real- ity (AR) can support such learning by providing tools to widen possibilities (hereafter, the authors will use the generic term VR for AR as well, as it is a sub-branch of VR). The use of VR, including in the educational environ- ment, has been growing rapidly in recent years, but as Fowler (2015) has pointed out, in most cases, the technological perspective is at the forefront. Cur- rently, VR solutions are offered in a wide variety of applications where VR simulations can be used to master skills and develop competencies needed for specific purposes, the development of which can be dangerous in real situations if dealing with hazardous substances or located in war zones. VR simulations can reduce financial expenditure to ensure the possibility for each student to practice (as it can be resource-intensive in real-life situations), and it can make the impossible possible from a technological point of view; VR simulations of the human body allow one to enter various human organs or reproduce histor- ical situations that are impossible to experience because of the time-lapse. VR can support sustainability from different perspectives – for instance, as a tool for preserving cultural, historical and natural heritage by preventing the damage that can be inflicted by big masses of touristic flows. VR can also serve as a tool for sustainability from the perspective of inclusive education by reducing some of the barriers to education. It can also serve as a tool for knowledge transfer. In this chapter, the authors will focus on the use of VR learning in cultural heri- tage and offer an evaluation tool (rubric) for analyzing VR experiences from an educational perspective. The objective of this research is to develop and test the evaluation tool, not to evaluate all possible VR experiences, and the decision to evaluate four experiences was based on Virzi (1992), who says that four experi- ences are enough to test usability problems and that more subjects are less likely to reveal new information. Such an evaluation tool can be used by educators to enable them to select and use the most appropriate VR learning experiences
- 54. and be able to plan their pedagogical activities to enhance the learning experi- ences of students and cover the learning gaps that can exist in VR experiences. The proposed tool can also be useful for the developers of VR experiences who are eager to make them engaging and useful for learning purposes, since the fas- cination effect is usually short-term and students may switch their attention to other activities that bring new fascination. The tool can also help museums ensure that the VR experiences they provide serve as ladders for learning sup- port. The proposed tool will make it possible to structure the VR experiences offered for teaching cultural heritage, but it should be borne in mind that with the rapid development of technology, which also affects the field of VR, this tool can be refined, adapted and supplemented by other criteria. More about the developed tool will be described in the methodology section, and the tool itself can be found in Appendix 2.1. VR cultural heritage experiences and possibilities VR techniques are prevalent in diverse scientific fields, businesses, museums, educational settings, art, medicine, military fields, etc. Many companies, like Samsung and Sony, are putting VR onto their smartphones, making it available for the general public. VR techniques require an interface between hardware and software, goggles and gloves, and all of this works together to create a new world to feel, touch, smell and see (Gerard, 2005). VR techniques include headsets, multi-projected environments and physical environments to produce real-life images, sounds and other sensa- tions (Zyda, 2005). VR extends the possibilities of discovery and explor- ation (Regian, Shebilske, & Monk, 1992) and supports the sense of self; the death of distance; the power of presence; the sense of space; the cap- ability to co-create; the pervasiveness of practice; and the enrichment of experience (Kapp & O’Driscoll, 2010). Craig and colleagues define it as a medium composed of interactive com- puter simulations that sense the participant’s position and actions, providing synthetic feedback to one or more senses, giving the feeling of being immersed or present in the simulation (Craig, Sherman, & Will, 2009). Slater (2017) says that there are at least five reasons VR may contribute to education: transforming the abstract into the concrete; doing rather than only observing; the infeasible or impossible becoming practical; exploring the manipulation of reality; and going beyond reality with a positive advan- tage. VR experiences can serve as learning agents (Bickmore, Pfeifer, & Schulman, 2011; Daniela & Strods, 2018) helping students find deeper meaning in content while developing critical observation skills; they can be transferred when students visit or otherwise study historically significant locations in the physical world (Sweeney, Newbill, Ogle, & Terry, 2018). Educational perspective on VR experiences 23
- 55. Other documents randomly have different content
- 56. Few girls would have been so hard-hearted as to let such a handsome young fellow as Jim die of grief, and Clara had no intention of hastening his demise by excessive cruelty on her part. So she assented, though with the proper degree of maidenly hesitation, and they began merrily to map out plans for the coming week. Joe, seated with Mabel on one side and his mother on the other, had also been enjoying himself hugely through the dinner, while Reggie and Mr. Matson found plenty to talk about in discussing the events of the day. The time passed all too swiftly and before they knew it they had to begin preparations for the journey. “Let’s look at the weather probabilities for to-morrow,” said Joe, buying an evening paper at the newsstand as they passed through the Grand Central Terminal. “Um—cloudy and unsettled,” he read. “That means that we’ll have to get busy and win in the first five innings before the rain comes,” laughed Jim. “It ought to be a good day to pitch Markwith,” returned Joe. “With a cloudy day and that blinding speed of his they won’t be able to see the ball.” The two young athletes saw their party to their car, and after a few moments of pleasant chat bade them good-night and repaired to the Pullmans that had been reserved for the Giant team. All were in a most jovial mood and filled with highest hopes for the morrow. Joke and banter flew back and forth, until the watchful McRae asserted the claims of discipline and sent them all to their berths. The next morning when they drew the curtains, they found that the weather man’s prognostications had been correct. Dull, leaden- colored clouds chased each other across the sky and a bleak wind came from the east.
- 57. “Looks like soggy weather, sure enough,” commented Jim, as he met Joe in the lavatory. “It certainly does,” assented Joe. “Hope it holds off till after the game. It may cut down the attendance.” “No danger of that unless it rains cats and dogs,” rejoined Jim. “Boston is the best baseball city in the country, and it’ll take more than a few clouds or even a drizzle to keep the crowds away.” They breakfasted in the dining car, and then Joe’s party adjourned to the hotel where rooms had been reserved. There was not much time for sight seeing, but they all had a pleasant little stroll on the Common and in the wonderful Botanical Gardens, before their duties called the young men away to the baseball grounds. The weather still continued threatening, but as Jim had prophesied, this did not affect the attendance. Boston was as wild over the Series as New York, and long before noon Commonwealth Avenue and Gaffney Street were packed with the oncoming throngs. By the time the game started the enormous Braves Field was packed to its utmost capacity. Personally, McRae welcomed the overcast sky. It was a pitcher’s day, a day that called for speed, and speed as everybody knew was Markwith’s “long suit.” “Smoke ’em over, Red,” was McRae’s admonition, when he told Markwith he was slated to pitch. “If we can only put this game on the right side of the ledger, the world’s flag is as good as won. Give us a lead of two games and it will take the spine out of those birds. They’ll never catch up.” “I get you, Mac,” grinned the pitcher. “I’ll zip ’em over so fast they’ll have to use glasses to see ’em.” For four innings it looked as though his prophecy would be fulfilled. His companions played like fiends behind him, and although the Bostons got to him for three bingles, they were scattered ones, and not a man got as far as third base.
- 58. “Looks as though Red had their goat, John,” Robson remarked to McRae. “He’s doing fine,” McRae returned, “and our boys seem to be getting to Banks pretty freely.” The Giants had, in fact, got a pretty good line on Banks, the port flinger of the Red Sox, and had accumulated three runs, which, with Markwith going as he was, seemed a very comfortable lead. But the glorious uncertainty of the national game was demonstrated in the next inning. The Giants had been disposed of in their half with a goose egg, and the Red Sox came in to bat. The first man up was given a base on balls. The next hit a sharp bounder to Denton, who ought to have made an easy out either at first or second, but he juggled the ball and both men were safe. The error seemed to unnerve Markwith, and he gave another pass, filling the bases. “Get to him, boys!” screamed the Boston coacher on the side lines near first base. “He’s got nothing on the ball but his glove and a prayer.” Walters, the slugging center fielder, caught the second ball pitched right on the seam and sent it on a line between left and center for the cleanest of home runs, clearing the bases and denting the rubber himself for the fourth run. In jig time, the Red Sox had wiped out the Giants’ advantage and taken the lead. The crowd went wild and the “Tessie” song swelled up from the stands. McRae, with his brow like a thunder cloud, beckoned Red from the box and called in Jim, who, as a matter of precaution but with little idea of being called upon, had been warming up in a corner of the grounds. “It’s up to you, Barclay,” he said as he handed him the ball. “Let’s see now what stuff you’re made of.”
- 59. Joe gave Jim an encouraging pat on the shoulder. “Steady does it, old man,” he said. “They’re only one run ahead and the bases are empty. Hold them down and our boys will hand you enough runs to win out.” It was a trying position for a young and comparatively new pitcher, but Jim was a “comer” and had already proved in other games that he had both skill and nerve. “Knock this one out of the box, too,” came from the stands. “Sew up the game right now!” “Eat him up!” “He’ll be easy!” “Oh, you Red Sox!” Jim wound up and shot one over for a strike. “Easy, is he?” came back from the Giant supporters. “Just watch that boy’s smoke.” Another strike followed, and the stands sobered down a little. “You’re out,” called the umpire, as a third strike split the plate. Shouts of delight and encouragement came from the Giants’ bench, and McRae’s face lightened somewhat. The next man went out on a high foul, and the inning ended when Stock popped an easy fly to the box. “Bully for you, old man!” came from his mates, as Jim walked in from the mound. “Knock out some runs now, you fellows,” admonished McRae. “Barclay can’t do it all. And do it in a hurry, too. I don’t like the way those clouds are coming up.” The sky was blackening rapidly, and the wind, coming from the east in strong gusts, told that a storm was on the way.
- 60. The Giants knew the need of haste, and they went at their work fiercely. Larry started proceedings with a rattling two bagger. Denton sacrificed him to third. Willis lined out a single, bringing in Larry and reaching second himself a moment later on a passed ball. Becker sent one to right that scored Willis and netted two bags for himself. Iredell went out on an infield catch, but Mylert came to the rescue with a sizzling hit that brought Becker to the plate amid frantic shouts from the New York rooters. Three runs had been scored and New York was again in the lead by six to four. Two men were out. But now rain began to fall, although at first it was only a drizzle, and McRae, frenzied with anxiety, ordered Burkett to strike out. Now, of course, it was the Bostons’ cue to delay the game. If they could prevent the sixth inning from being fully played out before the rain stopped proceedings, the score would revert to what it was at the end of the fifth inning and Boston would be declared the winner. They came in slowly from the field, stopping frequently to talk to each other. Then when at last they were at their bench, the first batter took unusual pains in selecting his bat. And all the time the rain was falling more heavily. McRae rushed at the umpire. “Can’t you see what they’re doing?” he demanded. “Make them play ball.” The umpire turned sternly to the batter. “Hurry up there,” he commanded. “None of your monkey tricks or I’ll forfeit the game to the New Yorks.” Thus adjured, the batter sauntered as slowly as he dared to the plate. Jim put over a strike. “That wasn’t a strike,” argued the Boston captain. “It didn’t come within six inches of the plate.”
- 61. “No argument,” snapped the umpire, who saw through the tactics. “Go ahead there,” he called to Jim. Jim put over two more. The batter did not even offer at them. He had figured that with an occasional ball switched in it would take more time to put him out on strikes than if he gave a fielder’s chance. But there were no balls and he was declared out. The second man crawled like a snail to the plate. It was pouring now and the bleachers were black with umbrellas. The Giants were fairly dancing up and down with impatience and apprehension. Jim pitched like lightning, not waiting to wind up. But before he could dispose of the batsmen, the heavens opened and the rain came down in torrents.
- 62. THE HEAVENS OPENED AND THE RAIN CAME DOWN IN TORRENTS. Play was impossible. The umpire called the game and everybody scurried for shelter. Old Jupiter Pluvius had taken a hand in the game.
- 63. CHAPTER XIII A GALLANT EFFORT It is needless to paint the exasperation on the faces of McRae and Robson and the rest of the Giant team, as they saw victory taken from them just as they were tightening their grip upon it. “Talk about luck,” growled McRae. “Those fellows have got hogsheads of it.” “Why couldn’t that rain have held off for ten minutes more?” groaned the rotund Robson. “It may let up even yet enough to let the game go on,” remarked Larry, though without much conviction. “Such a chance,” grunted Willis. “Why, you could take a swim at second base already.” There was, indeed, little hope of resuming the game, although in accordance with the rules, if the rain ceased in half an hour and the grounds were in condition for play, the umpires could call the teams back to the field. But the rain was blinding, and to wait around any longer was only a matter of form. Joe and Jim had worked their way through the crowds to the box in which their party sat. In the neat, gray, traveling uniforms that set their athletic figures off to perfection, the girls thought they looked handsomer than ever. All gave them a hearty welcome and gladly made room for them. It was, of course, only by a coincidence that Joe found himself next to Mabel while Jim sat close to Clara.
- 64. “I’m so glad your side won, Joe,” said motherly Mrs. Matson, beaming lovingly on her son and heir. “But we didn’t, Momsey,” Joe laughed a little ruefully. “Why, I kept count of the runs,” said his mother in surprise, “and your side made six while the others had only four.” “That’s right, but our last three don’t count,” explained Joe. “If we could only have finished out this last inning, we’d have won. But it wasn’t finished, and so the score went back to the end of the fifth inning when the Bostons were ahead four to three.” “I think that’s a shame!” exclaimed his mother, with as near an approach to indignation as her kindly nature was capable of feeling. “Those old Bostons were just horrid to try to delay the game that way,” declared Clara. “It wasn’t a bit sportsmanlike,” declared Mabel, warmly. Joe favored Jim with a solemn wink. Both knew that the Giants would have done precisely the same thing if positions had been reversed. It was a legitimate enough part of the game if one could “get away with it.” “Yes,” assented Joe, keeping his face straight. “It didn’t seem exactly the thing.” “I don’t wonder Mr. McRae was angry,” said Mabel. “I’m sure he wouldn’t have done a thing like that.” Joe had a sudden choking fit. “Well,” he said, “there’s no use crying over spilt milk. We ought to have made those runs earlier in the game, that’s all.” “I felt so sorry for poor Mr. Markwith,” said Mrs. Matson. “It must have been very mortifying to have to give up before so many people.” “Poor Red,” said Joe. “It was too bad, especially when he got away to such a splendid start. But every pitcher has to take his medicine
- 65. some time. Pitchers are very much like race horses. One day no one can beat them and another day any one can beat them.” “I think you did splendidly, Mr. Barclay,” said Clara, shyly. “Oh, I didn’t have much to do,” said Jim. “Just the same,” he added, dropping his voice a trifle, “I’d rather hear you say that than any one else I know.” The flush that made Clara look like a wild rose deepened in her cheeks not only from the words but the quick look that accompanied them. “Don’t you think it might clear up yet?” she asked, changing the subject. Jim followed her gaze reluctantly. He had something better to look at than the weather. “The clouds do seem to be breaking away a little,” he assented. “But the base paths are a sea of mud, and the outfield is a perfect quagmire. There go the umpires now to look at it.” Those dignitaries (there were four of them that officiated at each game, one behind the plate, one at the bases and the two others at the foul lines in right and left field, respectively) were, as a matter of fact, solemnly stalking out on the field. From the stands went up a thunderous roar: “Call the game! Call the game!” The Boston rooters were taking no chances and were perfectly willing to go without further baseball that afternoon, now that their favorites had the game won. But their exhortations were unnecessary. Even McRae, clinging desperately to the last chance, could not in justice to his common sense urge that play should be continued. It was clearly impossible, and would have degenerated into a farce that would have risked the limbs of his athletes, to say nothing of the harm it would work to the game.
- 66. So there was no protest when the game was formally and finally declared off, and the disgruntled New Yorks gathered up their bats and strode from the field. “Never mind, boys,” comforted McRae. “We can beat the Red Sox but we can’t beat them and the rain together. Better luck next time.” “That listens good,” grumbled “Robbie,” who refused to be consoled. “But now we’ve lost the jump on them and it’s all to be done over again.” “Well, we’re no worse off than they are, anyway,” returned the Giant manager. “If we could only pitch Matson every day, the Series would be a cinch,” mused Robson. “A copper-riveted cinch,” agreed McRae. “But I was mightily encouraged at the way young Barclay mowed them down. The ball didn’t look any bigger than a pea as it came over the plate.” “He certainly had lots of stuff on the ball,” admitted Robson. “I wonder if he can stand the gaff for a full game.” “I don’t know whether he’s seasoned enough for that yet,” said McRae, thoughtfully. “But it’ll stand a lot of thinking about. We’ll see first though how Hughson’s feeling when we get back to New York.” The return journey to New York was not by any means so joyful as the trip out had been. Still, there was no discouragement in the Giants’ camp. They had played good ball and with the lead they had and the way Jim was pitching would probably have won if it had not been for the rain. And on the theory that the good and bad luck of the game usually struck an average, they felt that they were due to have the break in their favor the next time. As for Joe and Jim, although, of course, they shared the chagrin of their mates, their cloud had plenty of silver lining. They had played their own parts well so far in the Series, and had no painful recollections to grow moody about. And then, too, were they not in
- 67. the company of the two girls whom they devoutly believed to be the most charming in the world? They made the most of that company in the quiet Sunday that followed. Mr. and Mrs. Matson smilingly declined Reggie’s cordial invitation, on the ground that they were feeling the need of rest after the excitement. The young people bundled into the car and they had a delightful ride through the woods of Westchester, whose trees were putting on their autumn tints of scarlet and russet and gold. A supper at the Claremont put the finish to a day in which the blind god with his bow and arrows had been extremely busy, and the drive home through the twilight was something none of them ever forgot. The next morning, Joe, scanning the paper, gave a delighted exclamation. “What’s the matter?” asked Jim, disturbed in a pleasing reverie that had nothing to do with baseball. “Matter enough,” returned Joe, handing him the paper. “Hughson’s going to pitch. McRae must have fixed it up with him yesterday.” “Gallant old scout!” cried Jim, his eyes kindling. “I was sure he’d get into the scrap somewhere. The only way you could keep that old war horse out of the World Series would be to hit him with an axe!”
- 68. CHAPTER XIV MORE HARD LUCK “Won’t this make Boston feel sore!” Baseball Joe exulted. “You bet it will,” chuckled Jim. “That’s the one thing they were banking on more than anything else. With Hughson out, they thought we didn’t have a chance.” “Let’s get through breakfast in a hurry and run up and see the old boy,” cried Joe. Jim needed no urging and they were soon in a taxicab and on their way to Hughson’s home. They were met at the door by Mrs. Hughson, who greeted them with a pleasant smile and ushered them into the living room, where they found the great pitcher stretched out at his ease and running over the columns of the morning paper. He jumped to his feet when he saw who his visitors were, and there was a hearty interchange of handshakes. “So Richard is himself again,” beamed Joe. “Best news we’ve had in a dog’s age,” added Jim. “Yes, I guess the old salary wing is on the job again,” laughed Hughson. “How’s it feeling?” asked Joe, eagerly. “Fine as silk,” Hughson responded. “I’ve been trying it out gradually, and I don’t see but what I can put them over as well as ever I did. It hurts me a little on the high, fast ones, but everything else I’ve got in stock seems to go as well as I could ask.”
- 69. “What does the doctor say about your pitching?” asked Jim. “Oh, he’s dead set against it,” was the answer. “Tells me it isn’t well yet by any means, and that it may go back on me any minute. But you know how those doctors are. They always want to make a sure thing of it. But McRae and I have been talking it over, and we’ve concluded that in the present condition of things it might be well to take a chance.” “That head of yours is all right, anyway, you old fox,” laughed Joe. “You’ve always pitched with that as much as with your arm. You’ll outguess those fellows, even if you have to favor your arm a little.” “We’ll hope so, anyway,” was the reply. “That was hard luck the boys had in Boston on Saturday, wasn’t it? Pity we couldn’t have had it played here that day. It didn’t rain a drop in New York.” “We were surely up against it,” replied Joe. “But to-day’s another day and we’ll hope it tells a different story.” “By the way,” grinned Hughson, “an old friend of yours was up here yesterday.” “Is that so?” asked Joe. “Who was it?” “‘Bugs’ Hartley.” The two young men gave vent to an exclamation of surprise. “He’s a great friend of mine,” said Joe, dryly. “He met me on the street the other night and showed me that I was as popular with him as a rattlesnake at a picnic party.” “He certainly is sore at you,” Hughson laughed. “He started in to pan you but I shut him up in a hurry. I told him that you’d always done everything you could to help him, and I hinted to him that we knew pretty well who drugged your coffee that day you pitched against the Phillies. He swore, of course, that he didn’t do it.” “I know that he did,” Joe replied. “But still I’ve never felt so sore against poor old Bugs as I would have felt against any one else who did such a thing, because I knew that he was a little queer in the
- 70. head. Even now I’d gladly do him a favor if I could. What did he come here for?” “He wanted to get on to Boston but didn’t have the price,” answered Hughson. “He thought that if he could see Rawlings he might get a chance with the Braves for next season. And he might, at that. You know what Rawlings has done with a lot of cast-offs from other teams, and if he could keep Bugs from kicking over the traces he might get something out of him next year. You know as well as I do what Bugs can do in the pitching line if he’ll only brace up and cut out drink. So I coughed up enough to send him on and I hope he’ll get another chance.” “I hope so,” rejoined Joe, heartily. “There are mighty few teams that can beat him when he’s right.” “But keep your eyes open, Joe, just the same,” counseled Hughson. “He’s holding a grudge against you in that old twisted brain of his, and you’d be as safe with him as if you were on a battlefield.” “I guess he’s done his worst already,” Joe laughed carelessly. They talked a few minutes longer, and then, as the rubber came in to give Hughson’s arm its daily massage, they took their way downtown. The whole city was alive with excitement at the news that the famous standby of the Giants was to be in the box that afternoon. Yet mingled with this was an under current of anxiety. Was he in shape to pitch? Would that mighty arm of his hold out, so soon after his injury? If wild and long-continued cheering could have won the game, it would have been won right at the start when Hughson came out on the field a little while before the gong sounded. It was a tribute of which any man might have been proud. For more than a dozen years he had been the mainstay of the team. His record had never been approached in baseball history.
- 71. Year in and year out he had pitched his team to victory. Several times they had won the pennant of the National League, and even when they failed they had always been up among the contenders. And more than to any single man, this had been due to Hughson’s stout heart and mighty arm. And the affection showered upon him was due not only to his prowess as a twirler, but to his character as a man. He was a credit to the game. The fines and discipline, so necessary in the case of many brilliant players, had never been visited upon him. He had steered clear of dissipation in any form. He was sportsmanlike and generous. Players on opposing teams liked him, the umpires respected him, his mates idolized him, and the great baseball public hailed him with acclamations whenever he appeared on the field. And to-day the applause was heartier than ever because of the importance of the game and also in recognition of his gameness in coming to the help of his team so soon after a serious accident. “They’re all with you, Hughson,” smiled McRae, as the bronzed pitcher lifted his cap in response to the cheers that rose from every quarter of the field. “They seem to be, John,” replied Hughson. “Let’s hope they won’t be disappointed.” As the game went on, it seemed as though the hopes of the spectators were to be gratified. The veteran pitched superbly for seven innings. His twirling was up to the standard of his best games. He mowed the opposing batsman down one after the other, and as inning after inning passed with only two scratch hits as the Bostons’ total, it began to look as though it would be a shutout for the visitors. “They’ve got holes in their bats,” cried McRae, gleefully, as he brought his hand down on Robson’s knee with a thump. “It sure looks like it!” ejaculated Robbie. “But for the love of Mike, John, go easy. That ham of yours weighs a hundred pounds.”
- 72. But the Boston pitcher, stirred up by the fact that he was pitted against the great Hughson, was also “going great guns.” Larry and Burkett had been the only Giants so far to solve his delivery. Each had hammered out a brace of hits, but their comrades had been unable to bring them in from the bags on which they were roosting. “Get after him, boys,” raged McRae. “You’re hitting like a bunch from the old ladies’ home. Split the game wide open.” They promised vehemently to knock the cover off the ball, but the Red Sox pitcher, Landers, was not a party to the bargain and he obstinately refused to “crack.” In the first half of the eighth, Cooper, of the Bostons, knocked up an infield fly that either Larry or Denton could have got easily. But they collided in running for it and the ball fell to the ground and rolled out toward center. Iredell, who was backing up the play, retrieved it, but in the mix-up, Cooper, by fast running, reached second. Though both men had been shaken up by the collision they were not seriously injured, and after a few minutes play was resumed. But in the strained condition of the players’ nerves, the accident had to some degree unstrung them. So that when Berry chopped an easy roller to Denton that the latter ordinarily would have “eaten up,” he juggled it for a moment. Then, in his haste to make the put- out at first, he threw wild and the ball went over Burkett’s head. Before he could get it back, Cooper had scored and Berry was on third. The Boston rooters howled like wild men, and their hats went sailing into the air. Hughson, cool as an iceberg, brought his fadeaway into play and whiffed the next man up. Then Hobbs rolled one to the left of the box. Hughson made a great reach for it and got it, though he slipped and fell as he did so. He snapped the ball, however, to Mylert, nipping Berry at the plate.
- 73. Mylert returned the ball to Hughson who took his position in the box and began to wind up. But almost instantly his hand dropped to his side. He tried again but fruitlessly. McRae ran out to him in consternation.
- 74. CHAPTER XV FLEMING TURNS UP AGAIN “What’s the matter, Hughson?” McRae cried. “The old arm won’t work,” replied the pitcher. “Guess I hurt it in the same old place when I fell.” His fellow players crowded around him, and the umpire, who had called time, came up to ascertain the damage. The club doctor also ran out from his seat in the stands near the press box and made a hurried examination. “You’ve strained those ligaments again,” he remarked, “and as far as I can tell now one of them is broken. I told you that they weren’t healed enough for you to pitch.” McRae groaned in sympathy with Hughson and in dismay for himself and his team. He had been congratulating himself that with Hughson in the fine form he had showed that afternoon the world’s pennant was as good as won. “It’s too bad, old man,” he said to Hughson. “You never pitched better. You were just burning them over.” “I’m fearfully sorry,” Hughson answered. “I did want to be in the thick of the fight with the rest of the boys. But I guess all I can do from now on is to root for them.” He took off his glove and walked over to the bench, amid a chorus of commiserating shouts from the stands. McRae beckoned to Joe.
- 75. “Jump in, Joe,” he directed briefly, “and hold them down. They’ve only got one run. I’m depending on you to see that they don’t get any more.” Joe went into the box and tossed two or three to Mylert to get the range of the plate. He had a greeting from the fans that warmed the cockles of his heart. There were two men out and Hobbs was dancing around first. Joe saw out of the corner of his eye that he was taking too big a lead, and snapped the ball like a bullet to Burkett. Hobbs tried desperately to get back but was nipped by a foot. Joe had finished putting out the side without pitching a ball. “Some speed that,” came from the stands. “I guess Matson’s slow.” “We don’t have to pitch to beat you fellows,” piped a fan and the crowd roared. But nothing could hide the fact that the Red Sox were ahead. McRae brought all his resources into play and sent two pinch hitters to the plate. But though one of them, Browning, knocked out a corking three-bagger, the inning ended without results. In the ninth, Joe had no trouble in disposing of the men who faced him. His slants and cross fire had them “buffaloed.” One went out on a foul, another was an easy victim at first, and he put on the finishing touch by striking the third man out. McRae tore round among his men like an elephant on a rampage as they came in for their half of the ninth. They, however, needed no urging. They were as wild to win as he was himself, and they were almost frantic as they saw victory slipping from them. They did do something, but not enough. By the time two men were out, there was a Giant on first and another on second. Larry, the slugger of the team, was at the bat. He picked out a fast one and sent it hurtling on a line to left. It looked like a sure hit, but
- 76. Stock, the shortstop, leaped high into the air and speared it with his gloved hand, and the shout that had gone up from the stands ended in a groan. Three games of the Series had been played and the Red Sox had won two of them! It was a disgruntled band of athletes who went under the shower in the Giant clubhouse that afternoon, and when Joe and Jim joined their party at the Marlborough in the early evening, the air of jubilation they had worn on the day of the first game was conspicuous by its absence. “If you had that band here you were talking about Friday, what do you suppose they would play?” Joe asked of Mabel, after the first greetings were over. “They ought to play the ‘Dead March in Saul,’” Jim volunteered. “Not a bit of it,” denied Mabel, cheerily. “There’s a better day coming and dinna’ ye doubt it, So just be canty wi’ thinking about it,” she quoted, flashing a sunny smile at Joe that made him feel more cheerful at once. “It was too bad,” comforted Mrs. Matson. “But, anyway, Joe, it wasn’t your fault,” she added, beaming fondly on her son. “Call it misfortune then, Momsey,” Joe smiled back at her. “But it surely was that. We lost the game, we lost it on our own grounds, we were whitewashed, and worst of all Hughson is out for the rest of the Series.” “That’s enough for one day,” acquiesced Jim. “Stop your grouching, you fellows,” admonished Reggie. “You’ll have plenty of chances to even things up.” “Oh, we’ll fight all the harder,” agreed Joe. “There isn’t a streak of yellow in the whole Giant team. The boys will fight like wildcats and
- 77. never give up until the last man is out in the deciding game. We’re looking for revenge to-morrow.” “And maybe revenge won’t be sweet!” chimed in Jim. “Who is going to pitch for your side to-morrow?” asked Mr. Matson. “McRae gave me a tip that I was to go in,” Joe answered. “Then we might as well count the game as good as won,” declared Mabel. “That certainly sounds good,” laughed Joe. “But suppose I should be batted out of the box? I wouldn’t dare show my diminished head among you folks then.” “We’re not worrying a bit about that,” put in Clara, looking proudly at her idolized brother. But the question was not to be settled on the morrow, for when the day dawned in Boston the rain was falling steadily, and the weather predictions were that the rain would continue for the greater part of the day. For once, at least, the much maligned weather prophet was right, for at noon the rain had not abated, and, much to the disgust of the expectant public, the game was declared off. By the rules that had been made to cover such an event, the teams were to stay in Boston until the first fair day should permit the game to be played. The different members of Joe’s party were rather widely scattered, when the sun finally peeped out in the course of the afternoon. Reggie had taken his sister out to a country club where he had a number of acquaintances. Mrs. Matson and Clara were doing some shopping in the Boston stores and Mr. Matson had gone out for a stroll. Joe and Jim had been downtown with the rest of the team having a heart-to-heart talk with McRae and Robson about the strategy to
- 78. be adopted in the forthcoming games. By four o’clock the sun was shining gloriously and the roads were beginning to dry out. Just the day, Joe thought, to hire a runabout just big enough for two and take Mabel out for a spin. He conjectured that by the time he got the car and reached the hotel Mabel would have returned from her trip with Reggie and be ready for him. “Come along, Jim, and help me to pick out the car,” he said. They went to a neighboring garage and selected one which both agreed was a good one. “Jump in, Jim,” said Joe, “and I’ll give you a ride as far as the hotel.” They were bowling rapidly along, when an automobile passed them, moving at a rate of speed that was almost reckless. Joe saw that a man and a woman were the only occupants. He glanced carelessly at the man and was startled when he saw that it was Beckworth Fleming. But he was still more startled when his eyes passed to the face of Fleming’s companion. It was Mabel! Jim, too, was staring as though he could not believe his eyes. For a moment Joe saw red and his blood boiled with rage. He stopped the car and looked back. Then his rage turned to alarm, for Mabel was looking back and waving to him frantically, while her companion seemed to be trying to draw her back. She was in peril! Instantly, Joe turned his car and tore away in pursuit.
- 80. CHAPTER XVI A CAD’S PUNISHMENT The hotel at which Mabel had been stopping with the rest of the party was in a quiet residential section not far from the suburbs, and Joe had almost reached it at the time of the encounter. There was little traffic here to interfere with the chase, and in a few minutes pursuer and pursued had cleared the outskirts and were in the open country. Joe caught a glimpse of Fleming looking back and saw that the latter knew he was being followed, a knowledge which was followed by a sudden quickening in the pace of Fleming’s car. It was, evidently, a powerful machine, and despite Joe’s utmost efforts the gap between the two cars kept constantly widening. Joe had had a good deal of experience in handling automobiles during his big league career, and was a cool and skilful driver. But the utmost exertion of his skill could avail little when he had an inferior car pitted against one which greatly exceeded it in horse power. His heart was in his mouth as he saw how recklessly Fleming was speeding. His car seemed to be on two wheels only as he took the curves in the road. How Mabel came to be in that car was a question that could wait for an answer till later. The only thing that mattered now was that she was there with a man she dreaded and despised, and her frenzied waving told Joe that she was in mortal fear and looked for him to help her.
- 81. Jim sat perfectly still without saying a word. Nothing must distract Joe for a second from that car and the view of the road ahead. He knew what nerves of steel were back of the sinewy hand that clutched the wheel. He had grasped the meaning of the chase, and he shared with his friend the determination that the cad in the car ahead should pay dearly for this escapade. Suddenly Joe gave an exultant cry. As they turned a curve, he saw that a railroad crossing lay ahead and that the gates were down, while a long freight train was lumbering leisurely by. Fleming could not get past till the gates were raised, and by that time Joe would be upon him. There was no cross road between him and the track into which Fleming’s car could escape. His enemy was trapped. “You’ve got him, Joe!” exclaimed Jim, with a thrill of exultation in his voice. “Yes,” Joe gritted between his teeth. “I’ve got him.” And his tone would not have reassured Beckworth Fleming. Fleming’s car had halted and Fleming himself had jumped out and run wildly to the gate, looking up the track to see if the train was nearly by. He saw at a glance that it would not have passed before Joe would be upon him. From the other side of the car, Mabel had leaped as soon as it had stopped. She came running back up the road, and Joe, who had stopped, rushed forward and took her in his arms. She was sobbing with fright and excitement, and Joe held her close as he tried to soothe her. Fleming saw that the game was up and promptly darted off into the wood at the side of the road. “After him, Jim!” cried Joe. “Don’t let him get away!”
- 82. Jim darted after the fugitive. Fleming put on all possible speed, but he was no match for the seasoned athlete, and a moment later Jim’s muscular hand had him by the collar. “Let me go,” snarled the wretch, struggling desperately. “Come along,” growled Jim, dragging him to the spot in the road where Joe was comforting Mabel, who was gradually getting back some of her self-control. The tender look in Joe’s eyes was replaced by one of a different character as he looked at the flushed, dissipated face of the man who stood before him, still held by Jim. “Now, Mr. Beckworth Fleming, I have an account to settle with you.” Fleming shrank back as far as Jim’s grip would let him before the steely look in Joe’s eyes. “Don’t be afraid,” said Joe, contemptuously. “I’m not going to thrash you in the presence of a lady.” Relief came into Fleming’s face. “It was only a lark,” he began, but Joe cut him short. “I don’t care for any explanations,” he said. “I want you to go down on your knees in the road and beg Miss Varley’s pardon.” Fleming looked around for some means of escape but found none. His furtive glance at Mabel fell before the scorn in her eyes. “I apologize,” he jerked out sullenly. “Down on your knees, I said,” remarked Joe with dangerous calmness. Fleming hesitated before this last humiliation, but Jim’s knuckles in his neck decided him. “I beg your pardon,” he muttered, getting down on his knees and scrambling again to his feet as hastily as possible.
- 83. “And now, Jim,” Joe continued, “if you’ll just take Mabel up the road a little way around that curve, I’ll finish this little account with Mr. Fleming.” Fear sprang into Fleming’s eyes. “You said you wouldn’t,” he began. “I said I wouldn’t thrash you in the presence of a lady, and I’m going to keep my word,” said Joe, imperturbably. “Please, Jim.” He relinquished Mabel to his friend, and Jim assumed the responsibility with a cheerful grin. “Don’t hurt him, Joe,” Mabel urged, hesitatingly. “I won’t kill him, Mabel,” Joe answered. “I only want to impress a few things on his memory so firmly that he’ll never forget them.” Jim gently urged Mabel out of sight beyond a curve two hundred feet away. When they had vanished, Joe turned to Fleming. “Take off your coat,” he ordered curtly. “What are you going to do?” asked Fleming, fearfully. “I warn you that if you hit me——” “Take off your coat,” repeated Joe, setting him the example. As Fleming still hesitated, Joe reached over and slapped his face lightly. “You seem to need a stimulant to get you going,” he taunted. Even a rat will fight when cornered, and Fleming, with an exclamation of rage, threw off his coat and rushed furiously at Joe. The latter met him with an uppercut that shook him from head to foot. Then he sailed into Fleming and gave him a most thorough thrashing. Nor did he let up until Fleming with a highly decorated face lay helpless in the road, sobbing with shame and rage and whining for mercy.
- 84. “I guess that’s enough for the present,” said Joe, who had not a mark on him, as he resumed his coat. “You’d better get into that car of yours and drive home before your eyes are entirely closed. And remember that this isn’t a circumstance to what you’ll get if you ever dare to speak to Miss Varley again.” He turned his back upon the discomfited cad, and, jumping into the runabout, drove around the curve where he rejoined Mabel and Jim. “Did you impress those things on his memory?” asked Jim with a grin. “I don’t think he’ll forget them in a hurry,” Joe laughed, though rather grimly. “And this time, luckily, there was no policeman handy.”
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