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Operations Management
for Construction
Construction sites are challenging operations to run. From the setting up
of the site to deciding the method of construction and the sequence of
work and resourcing, construction managers find their skills and experience
thoroughly tested.
This book explains the principles of operations management for
construction, and how those principles work in practice. Procurement of
materials, subcontractors and supply chain management are also carefully
assessed, while explanations of contract planning, site organisation and work
study provide further insights. With regulations increasingly impacting on
the way sites are managed, relationships with third parties and the methods
of successfully administering safety, quality and environment protection are
spelt out.
Chris March has a wealth of practical experience in both the construction
industry and teaching students. His down-to-earth approach and mixture of
theory and real-life evidence from personal experience show just how to run
a successful construction site operation.
Chris March is a graduate from Manchester University. He worked for John
Laing Construction and later for John Laing Concrete where he became
Factory Manager. On entering higher education he worked in both the UK
and Hong Kong before joining the University of Salford becoming Senior
Lecturer and then the Dean of the Faculty of the Environment. He is a
former winner of the Council for Higher Education Construction Industry
Partnership Award for Innovation.

Operations
Management for
Construction
Chris March

First published 2009
by Taylor & Francis
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Taylor & Francis
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Taylor & Francis is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2009 Chris March
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the
accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal
responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
March, Chris.
Operations management for construction / Chris March.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Building – Superintendence. 2. Business logistics. I. Title.
TH438.M307 2009
690.068´5–dc22 2008037922
ISBN10: 0-415-37112-0 (hbk)
ISBN10: 0-415-37113-9 (pbk)
ISBN10: 0-203-92803-2 (ebk)
ISBN13: 978–0–415–37112–4 (hbk)
ISBN13: 978–0–415–37113–1 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978–0–203–92803-5 (ebk)
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
ISBN 0-203-92803-2 Master e-book ISBN

Contents
List of figures viii
List of tables x
Introduction 1
1 Site organisation 4
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Site boundaries 5
1.3 Access roads 5
1.4 Provision of services 9
1.5 Accommodation for contracting staff, sub‑contractors
and client’s representatives 10
1.6 Material storage and handling 12
1.7 Waste disposal 14
1.8 Site logistics 15
1.9 The location of fixed plant 15
1.10 Hoardings 17
1.11 Communications 18
1.12 Security 19
2 Contract planning 22
2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 Stages of planning 23
2.3 Planning and producing a programme 26
2.4 Bar charts and linked bar charts 27
2.5 Networks 29
2.6 Resourcing networks 40
2.7 Cost resourcing networks 42
2.8 Ladder diagrams 44
2.9 Precedence diagrams 45
2.10 Line of balance 47

vi Contents
3 Work study 57
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Method study 59
3.3 Work measurement 73
3.4 Activity sampling 81
4 Health and safety 85
4.1 Introduction 85
4.2 Definitions 85
4.3 Legal obligations – background 86
4.4 Financial costs of an accident 87
4.5 Moral obligations 88
4.6 Self-preservation 89
4.7 The impact of an accident on others 90
4.8 What is the problem? A statistical analysis 91
4.9 Key legislation and regulations for the construction
industry 94
4.10 Health and safety plans 105
4.11 Health and safety file 105
4.12 Managing safety in the construction industry 106
4.13 Safety committees 114
4.14 Instruction and training 116
4.15 Risk assessment 117
5 Waste management 120
5.1 Introduction 120
5.2 The cost of waste 121
5.3 Defining waste 123
5.4 Causes of waste 123
5.5 Waste arising outside the contractor’s organisation 126
5.6 Construction site waste 129
5.7 Waste recycling and re-use 130
5.8 Implementing a waste minimisation policy 131
5.9 Disposal of special waste 134
6 Stock control and materials management 136
6.2 Types of materials 137
6.3 Stages of stock control 137
6.4 Problems of excessive stock 139
6.5 The storage function 139
6.6 Just in time deliveries (JIT) 142
6.7 Communications 144

Contents vii
7 Supply chain management 145
7.2 What is supply chain management? 146
7.3 Supply chain network 147
7.4 Sub-contract or in-house? 148
7.5 Location of outsourcing suppliers and sub-contractors 151
7.6 Forecasting 152
7.7 Managing the supply chain 153
8 Quality management 159
8.2 Quality control 159
8.3 Quality assurance and management 160
8.4 The eight key principles of TQM 162
8.5 An alternative view of TQM 165
8.6 ISO 9001:2000 and 9004:2000, the process and
implication to the construction industry 167
Index 207

Figures
1.1 Positioning of tower cranes 16
2.1 Linked bar chart 28
2.2 Arrow diagram 30
2.3 Arrows with nodes 30
2.4 Connecting activities 30
2.5 Several connecting activities 30
2.6 Network with dummy activity 31
2.7 Network with two dummy activities 32
2.8 Network with durations 33
2.9 Latest finishing times 34
2.10 The node or event 34
2.11 Types of float 35
2.12 Critical path 36
2.13 Network 37
2.14 Network with EST and LFT 38
2.15 Bar line including float 39
2.16 Network: C is critical and both A and B each have float 40
2.17 Bar line converted from network analysis data 40
2.18 Bar line resourcing 41
2.19 Resources programme 41
2.20 Plant resourcing 42
2.21 A simple network 42
2.22 Ladder diagram 44
2.23 Precedence activity box 45
2.24 Precedence diagram 45
2.25 Storage duration 48
2.26 Storage capacity 49
2.27 Change to production 49
2.28 Monitoring progress 50

List of figures ix
2.29 Production activities 50
2.30 Network for typical house 51
2.31 Cumulative graph of the contract 52
2.32 Using buffer times 52
2.33 Reason for deducting one house 55
3.1 Work study 59
3.2 Flow diagram 62
3.3 Travel chart 63
3.4 Multiple activity chart 63
3.5 Causes of delay 64
3.6 Plan of precast concrete wall manufacturing batteries 69
3.7 Multiple activity chart 71
3.8 Learning curve 72
3.9 Plan of production 72
3.10 Display panel 74
3.11 Time study sheet – fly back time 75
3.12 Time study sheet – cumulative time 76
3.13 Summary sheet 79
3.14 Field study activity count 83
3.15 Activity during the working day 83
3.16 Activity during the working week 84
4.1 The accident pyramid showing relationships of accidents 92
4.2 Key elements of successful health and safety management 107
4.3 Safety lines of communication 109
5.1 Flow of materials from source to landfill 122
5.2 Waste on building sites 124
5.3 Flow diagram of production process 133
5.4 Flow diagram of the production of a one-brick-thick wall 133
6.1 Communication: the control of materials 144
7.1 Supply side 147
7.2 Demand side for a retail development 148
7.3 Supply network 149
7.4 Modified supply network 149
7.5 Factors affecting future workload 152
7.6 Flow of materials in supply chain 154
8.1 The family of ISO 9000 standards 161
8.2 Components of Total Quality Management 166

Tables
1.1 Materials categories 13
2.1 Stages of planning 24
2.2 Activity duration calculation 27
2.3 Activity precedence 31
2.4 Activities for Figure 2.7 32
2.5 Activity data for network drawn in Figure 2.13 37
2.6 Network analysis sheet 38
2.7 Costs of reducing durations 43
2.8 Appearance of arrow and precedence diagrams 46
2.9 Precedence data 46
2.10 Precedence relationships 47
2.11 Activities and durations 51
2.12 Line of balance calculation 53
2.13 Starting and finishing times calculation 55
3.1 Flow chart symbols 61
3.2 Examination questions 66
3.3 Uses of work measurement 73
4.1 Causes of fatal accidents in maintenance work 93
4.2 Types of falls during maintenance 93
4.3 Pre-tender plan 102
4.4 Contract phase plan 103
4.5 Typical hazards on a construction site 117
4.6 Criteria for assessing risk 118
4.7 Priority of risk 119
5.1 UK construction waste 131
7.1 Advantages and disadvantages of in-house and outsourcing
of work 150
7.2 Advantages and disadvantages of single and multi-sourcing 155

List of tables xi
8.1 The main clauses in BS EN ISO 9001:2000 168
8.2 SMART objectives 175
8.3 Auditing procedures 199

Introduction
This book is one of three closely related texts, Operations Management
for Construction, Finance and Control for Construction and Business
Organisation for Construction; the reason for writing these books was
the increasing awareness of the shortage of new texts covering the whole
range of construction management. There are plenty of good recent texts
appropriate for primarily final-year and postgraduate students, but they
tend to be subject specific and assume a certain level of knowledge from the
reader. It also means students find this cost prohibitive and tend to rely upon
the library for access. (The research selectivity exercises have encouraged
authors to write books based upon their research, for which credit has
been given in the assessment, whereas none has been given to those writing
textbooks.) The purpose of these three books is an attempt to give students
the management vocabulary and understanding to derive greater value from
these specialist texts.
The original intention was to write this with construction management
undergraduate students in mind, but as the project developed it became clear
that much of the subject matter was appropriate for all the construction
disciplines. In more recent times the industry, being undersupplied with good
construction graduates, has turned to recruiting non-cognate degree holders
and many of these are and will study on Masters courses in construction
management. These texts are ideally suited to them as background reading
in giving a broad base of understanding about the industry.
Rather than having a large number of references and bibliographies at the
end of each chapter, generally I have limited these to a few well-established
texts, some referenced in more than one chapter, so the reader is directed
to only a few if wishing to read further and in more depth on the subject.
The chapters vary in length considerably depending upon the amount of
information I believe is relevant at this level.
The aim of the book is to address the main issues associated with the site
production activity, from setting up the site, planning the works, looking

2 Introduction
at productivity issues, the increasingly important issue of waste, managing
suppliers and sub-contractors and total quality assurance.
Of the two related books, the first, Finance and Control for Construction
is concerned with tracking through each stage of the process, the control
of finance, with consideration taken of sustainability and the environment
whilst Business Organisation for Construction is concerned with the running
of the business. There is inevitably overlap in all three books, so I have cross-
referenced from one book to another and within each subject, with the hope
of aiding readers.
On a personal note I believe that there is no definitive way of managing
and, as Mike Stoney, the Managing Director of Laing used to say to students,
‘Don’t copy me, it may not suit your personality, but watch and listen to other
successful mangers and pinch the bits from them that suit you’. I totally agree
and, for what it is worth, I have added some other comments and thoughts of
other people that have influenced my way of thinking over the years.
My head master, Albert Sackett, who taught me to assume that everything
was wrong until I could prove it correct. He would set an essay on say
‘define the difference between wit and humour’. After he had marked it he
would sit you in front of the class and then debate with you your answer.
Having convinced you that he was right and you were wrong, would then
reverse role and argue back the opposite way.
Godfrey Bradman, Chairman of Rosehaugh plc and now Chairman of
Bradman Management services, reinforced my views from school of not
simply accepting any thing you are told, but, in his case, also to have the
ability to ask the right questions, usually simple ones such as ‘why not?’
My father who taught me to accept failure was a fact of life and not to
hide the fact, but to accept and admit it and get on with life having learnt
from the experience. I also have found that by admitting it, ‘the punishment’
was always less than being found out. When in the precast factory it was
always easier to advise the site manager that the load of components was
going to be late or not delivered that day than await the angry phone call
demanding to know what had happened. It also made sense because, although
disappointed, they had more time to rearrange their own schedule of work.
Dorothy Lee, retired Deputy Director of Social Services in Hong Kong
responsible for the Caritas operated Kai Tak East Vietnamese refugee camp
who advised the small group I led in developing a self-build solution for
refugees, which after many weeks of hard work was no longer required,
said ‘I know you will be disappointed, but remember you have grown a little
more as a result.’
John Ridgway, explorer and outside activities course organiser, had at his
School of Adventure, based in Sutherland, Scotland, the adage of positive

Introduction 3
thinking, self-reliance and to leave people and things better than you find
them. He also made a very clear impression on me of the importance when
in charge, to have the ability to stand outside the circle and view the problem
from outside and allocate tasks without becoming too closely involved.
Don Stradling, the Personnel Director of Laing and senior negotiator with
the Federation of Civil Engineers Employees with the very simple piece of
advice that ‘you should always keep the moral high ground’. How right he is.
It is surprising the number of people that don’t, and when confronted with
one that does they almost invariable fail in the negotiation. It also results in
having respect from those they have contact with, as they believe in your
integrity and accept what you say is meant in an honourable way.
Finally Dennis Bate, member of the main board of Bovis Lend Lease who
told me that he, throughout his life from leaving school at sixteen to become
an apprentice joiner, strove to do whatever he did to the best of his ability
and better than anybody else.
I wish to acknowledge the support and help given by so many in putting
together these three books. From the construction industry, staff from Bovis
Lend Lease, Laing O’Rourke and Interserve in particular, who have spent
many hours discussing issues and giving advice. It was at Plymouth University
that the idea to produce these texts was formulated and where colleagues gave
me encouragement to commence, and then when at Coventry University, not
only was this continued, but also doors were always open whenever I wished
to consult on an idea or problem. My years at Salford, from 1987 onwards,
when the we started the Construction Management degree, were of great
significance in developing ideas on the needs of construction management
students and this would not have been possible without the assistance and
guidance from my colleagues there at the time, especially Tony Hills, John
Hinks and Andy Turner, as well as the many supporting contractors always
on hand to give advice, ideas and permit access to other colleagues in their
organisations. There was a major contribution on the chapter on quality
management by David Balkwell.
Permission to reproduce extracts from various British Standards is granted
by the British Standards Institute.
Finally, to my wife Margaret who has to suffer many hours on her own
whilst I locked myself away in the study, but never ceased to give her support
and encouragement throughout.
Chris March

1
CHAPTER
Site organisation
1.1 Introduction
It is often said that if you get the blinding level correct at the onset of the
construction of the building, then the rest of the building will be built
correctly. So it is with site organisation. Get the basics in place and the
contract stands a much better chance of being managed well. The problem is
that often the time available, especially in traditional types of procurement,
from the contract being awarded to the contractor being on site, there is only
a limited time to think this process through properly. It is important that due
attention is given to site organisation issues during the estimating process.
In other forms of procurement, where the contractor or project manager
are brought in during the design process, there is further opportunity to get
these issues right as part of the continuous thinking process.
The prime areas of concern are those of:
• site boundaries
• access roads, on and off the site
• provision of services
• accommodation for contracting staff, sub-contractors and client’s
representatives
• material storage and handing
• waste disposal
• site logistics
• location of fixed plant
• hoardings
• communications
• security.
In all of the above, the most important document is the site plan, which
shows existing services, the site boundary and the footprint of the building.

Site boundaries 5
Other information needed includes elevation drawings, floor plans and
other drawings which show the way the building is to be constructed, the
quantities of bulk materials, component schedules, client’s requirements such
as staff accommodation and phased hand-overs, restrictions to work, maps
showing roads to and around the site, and the programme for the contract.
The majority, if not all, should be available in the preliminaries section of
the contract documents (Finance and Control for Construction, Chapter 9).
Finally a site visit is required to obtain a real understanding of the site and
surrounding area, road congestion and so on.
1.2 Site boundaries
Where the site boundaries are and the position of existing buildings relative
to the site of operations needs to be established. Any encroachment onto
a third party’s land can lead to dispute and extra costs. Since the ruling
on Woollerton and Wilson v Richard Costain (1970), tower cranes over-
flying neighbours’ properties can be considered an act of trespass unless the
deeds permit it. If not, then permission has to be sought. It is not unusual
for the owner of the affected land to request financial compensation in
return. To avoid this and the delays and cost incurred in challenging the
claim, alternative methods of construction might have to be considered, or
the crane might have to be repositioned or changed to another type, such as
one with a luffing jib.
The condition of buildings in close proximity to the works needs to be
inspected and recorded before work commences, as contractors need to
protect themselves against claims and only accept redress sought for further
deterioration caused by the construction works. Equally, steps need to be
taken to ensure that trees close to the border are not damaged, especially if
they have a tree preservation order placed on them.
1.3 Access roads
Properly positioned and appropriately constructed access roads are essential
to the successful running of the contract, as they are an integral part of the
production process. They are the artery for the flow of materials during
the construction process and, if they fail, the consequences to the site
programme can be significant. They should be considered as early as possible
in the process and certainly at the tender stage as there can be considerable
financial implications. For example, when building a five-mile stretch of
motorway, do you put a temporary road the full length to ensure access

6 Site organisation
throughout its length or do you use existing roadways to access the various
structures being built, such as bridges and other parts of the site? On award
of the contract the issue should be re-visited, as the information on which
decisions were made at the tender stage may have to be amended as more
detail becomes available.
Access roads are not just confined to the site, but also include those to
be used in bringing materials and people to the site. When constructing the
Rakewood Viaduct on the M62, large, heavy steel-plate girders had to be
taken along a narrow winding road to access the site. In places this road
was not strong enough to cope with these heavy vehicles and had to be
strengthened. If any out-sized, long, high, wide or heavy component has to
be brought to the site, a route has to be determined. The roads around the
site may have restrictions in terms of parking and off-loading, which can
have both cost and production implications. Depending on the site activity,
it may be necessary to provide wheel-washing facilities to prevent vehicles
leaving the site and dirtying the public highway. The public, especially those
on foot, need to be protected from being splashed or getting their clothes
and footwear dirty when walking past the site.
Consideration should be given to the needs of the personnel working
on the contract. It is useful to establish what public transport is available
and, for those travelling by car, the parking facilities provided in the local
area and on site. If access by public transport is difficult travelling by car is
more likely. If car-parking areas are to be provided as part of the contract,
consideration should be given to constructing them earlier rather than later.
These can also be used for site accommodation and to clean materials storage
if the area is large enough.
Other construction work in the close vicinity can have an effect on access
to the site. For example, the football stadium in Coventry was awarded
to Laing O’Rourke, but the adjoining road works were given to Edmund
Nuttall Ltd. Besides delaying normal road users, diversions put in place
could impact on deliveries to the stadium unless consultation between the
two companies took place.
The police need to be consulted to discover whether others have made
any arrangements during the period of construction that would result in
access being difficult or impossible. For example marathon runs, festivals,
parades, demonstrations and marches.

Access roads 7
1.3.1 Design and location of temporary roads
There are several considerations when planning, designing and locating
access roads on site. These include:
• One-way flow is preferred to two-way, because the road can be made
narrower if passing places at key unloading points are provided. All
vehicles enter at the same place and can be checked to see that the load
is as stated before being directed to the correct part of the site.
• It was always argued there should be an exit and entrance to the site so if
either became blocked the direction of flow could be reversed. However,
having only one gate into and out of the site improves security.
• The entrance to the site needs to be positioned to minimise the
interruption to the general flow of traffic on the main highways.
• The route should be as short and direct as possible. Factors affecting this
are the likelihood of the road being dug up to permit the positioning of
underground services or any overhead obstructions, such as a temporary
electrical or telephone supply. The phasing of construction can also
influence the decision, for example if certain areas of the site have to be
handed over completely before the rest of the contact is finished.
• They should be designed so water drains naturally through the
thickness of the material, or permits water to run off. The latter could
mean the provision of some form of drainage. In any case excess water
must be removed or it can combine with soil deposited by vehicular
traffic making the road impassable. It should be noted that with the
exception of ‘tipper’ lorries used for disposing of excavation spoil,
the majority of vehicles coming onto site are articulated and have
difficulty moving over muddy roads, so temporary roads have to be
kept relatively clean.
• The design must be sufficient to support the point loads caused by the
trailers of articulated vehicles, if these are left on site without the prime
mover (the lorry part). On large contracts, concrete may be mixed on
site, in which case the hard standings on which the aggregates and sand
are stored should be sufficiently strong to support the high point load
caused when the vehicle tips its load.
• If the roads to be constructed for the contract are conveniently positioned
to coincide with the construction programme, the road foundation could
be used instead. Obvious examples of this are on low-rise residential
estates.
• From a safety point of view it may be necessary to provide temporary
lighting.

8 Site organisation
• If tower cranes are being used, the temporary road should run within
the lifting radius of the crane (section 1.9) so components can be lifted
directly into the building or into storage areas.
• Storage areas need to be located adjacent to the access road so goods can
be unloaded and stored safely.
• If the site is on either side of a public road and it is necessary to move
plant across, it may be necessary to provide traffic control manually or
with automatic traffic lights.
Access to the site is not always by road. On rare occasions there is a rail
line connected to the main network running into the site, such as at the
naval base Marchport at Portsmouth where the navy loaded much of the
task force ships on their way to the Falklands. After the war, it was extended
enabling the contractor to bring in certain bulk materials by rail. Containers
can also be used to deliver materials over longer distances by rail provided
the supplier and the site are within approximately an hour of their respective
Freightliner depots. The majority of the precast concrete structure and
cladding of Gartnavel Hospital in Glasgow was manufactured on the north
side of Manchester and about 40 tons was shipped by this means overnight
to arrive on site for work the following morning. This was approximately 8
per cent cheaper than using roads.
In Hong Kong barges brought in the aggregate and sand used for some of
the large structures constructed on the waterfront. In one case, because of
the restricted site space, the mixer set up was also constructed on a moored
barge and the mixed concrete brought ashore on conveyors and distributed
with concrete pumps.
1.3.2 Materials of construction
There are various materials that can be considered for the construction of
temporary roads. Much depends on the frequency of traffic on the road,
the type of soil on the site, the climate and the availability of materials.
In extremely hot climates, for example, the natural soil may be perfectly
adequate for moving vehicles. There is a problem only when there is
torrential rain that may occasionally occur, such as during the monsoons.
Providing construction only takes place during the dry months, this may be
a perfectly adequate solution. Often when it is raining, the precipitation is so
great, that construction ceases in any case.
Concrete, sometimes reinforced, whilst expensive, is ideal where the
passage of vehicles is excessive. This would be used where the distance is
small, such as access from the public road when the footprint of the building

Provision of services 9
covers most of the site as well as around a mixer set up. Hardcore and
quarry bottoms (effectively waste material from the quarry of various sizes
and shapes that cannot be used for structural purposes) are commonly used
for temporary roads.
In areas where there is significant demolition of brick buildings, broken
brick can be used. This is a diminishing market in the UK due to the lack of
housing replacement, compared with the slum clearance programme of the
1960s, but also because bricks, especially facing bricks, are being recycled.
Geotextiles are also used to strengthen the road base, providing the edges
can be restrained. Notably, the fabric Terram allows the passage of surface
water through it but prohibits the vertical movement of the soil beneath.
Hardcore is then placed on top to complete the roadway.
In severe soft and weak ground conditions, large slabs of expanded
polystyrene have been used as a means of cushioning the load, but this would
be an exceptional solution. Timber railway sleepers were used in the 1960s as
a result of the reductions made to the rail network after the Beeching Report
(1961), but today sleepers are usually made from pre-stressed concrete that
are unsuitable for access roads. However, there are still parts of the world
where they are readily available. Finally, in case of emergencies the Army uses
metal roadways. These are in roll-form housed on the back of the vehicle.
The leading edge comes over the cab and is laid by driving the lorry forward
over it, thereby unrolling the metal sheeting.
1.4 Provision of services
Usually the construction process requires water, electricity, telephone and
sewerage services. Other services such as gas and cable services for television
may be required for the completed building. These services can come from
existing services running close to or adjacent to the site, be brought in by
the statutory authorities, or provided by the contractor. Those requiring
excavation during instalation will cause some disruption, but if this is
planned for it should be minimal, being early in the contract programme.
Water is required for the temporary offices, general use and for the
wet construction processes such as the production of mortar, plaster and
concrete. In the case of the latter, if mixed on the site, the quantities involved
can be considerable and if the rate of supply to the site is inadequate, it
may be necessary to have storage facilities on site to guarantee the volume
and speed of flow required. On sites were there is no provision, it will be
necessary to bring water in tankers or bowsers and store it on site.
Waste water and sewerage disposal can be accomplished by connecting to
the existing mains or with the provision of portable lavatory and washing

10 Site organisation
facilities. On a large site the volume to be disposed of is considerable, so access
to the mains is highly desirable and may well determine the positioning of
this facility, providing adequate fall can be achieved and the existing system
is capable of coping with the extra load.
Electricity is required for the offices, to power the plant, equipment and
hand tools. For large fixed machines such as tower cranes, this can require
a 400-volt three-phase supply which has to be brought in specially by the
statutory authority. Generators will have to be provided where local power
sources are not available. It should be noted that because of safety, the supply
used on the site should be 110-volts single-phase only. For site buildings
and fixed lighting a 230-volt single-phase can be used. See the IEE Wiring
Regulations, BS7671.
The sophistication of communication methods is changing rapidly and
covers a wide range of options from the provision of telephone landlines,
mobile phones and broadband. Precisely what is required depends on the
size of the contract, the types of management systems in use, whether or
not these are site-based or linked to the head office, and the number of
personnel working in the site offices.
1.5 Accommodation for contracting staff,
sub‑contractors and client’s representatives
For accommodation there are two prime requirements to be satisfied: first,
the minimum construction regulation requirements; and second, to be able
to function efficiently as an organisation in managing the contract. The
Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996 Regulation 22
Schedule 6 cites the welfare facilities to be provided on a construction site.
It includes regulations on the provision of sanitary conveniences, washing
facilities, drinking water, accommodation for clothing, facilities for changing
and the facilities for rest, which would be used for meals, boiling water and
a place to go in the event of inclement weather causing a cessation of work.
The location on the site of the accommodation may be limited by the
amount of space available and alternative solutions have to be considered.
Typical points are:
• Ideally the operatives’ accommodation for eating and changing should be
as close to the workplace as possible to minimise the loss of productivity
due to travelling between the two. For example, if it takes 5 minutes to
get to and from each, at the beginning and end of the day, two tea breaks
and lunch, the total loss would be 40 minutes.

Accommodation for contracting staff 11
• On restricted sites, contractors can look for accommodation close to the
contract. Although there will be no view of the site, all the services are
connected, the space may be greater than can be provided on site and
the costs may be less than providing on-site accommodation.
• Many of the hired units can be stacked two units high to save on-site
space.
• Providing permission is granted, accommodation can be constructed
over the public footpath; but steps must be taken to ensure the safety of
the public, the main issue being the supports holding up the building.
• Due to security issues, it is normal to have a security gate and office at
the entrance to the site. If the contractor is employing site operatives
directly, this is an ideal place to locate the signing on and off clock.
• The cost of installation is a significant proportion of the overall
cost of providing accommodation, so once erected it should not
have to be moved unless there is no other alternative. Sometimes
the site is so restricted that this has to occur. Site staff could use, for
example, an underground car park that would usually have minimal
services, leaving an area relatively free from continuing construction
work.
• Often there are size and shape limitations to the on-site office areas, but
bearing in mind the team may be together for some time, it is worthwhile
taking account of the needs of the various functions and the frequency
at which communication occurs between each. Clearly the higher the
frequency, the closer they should be to each other.
• Accommodation may have to be provided for the client’s staff such
as resident engineers, clerks of works on large prestigious contracts,
entertainment and public relation facilities.
Each function has different needs. Without going into all the functions
listed, but to give a flavour:
• Planners require a lot of wall space to post their programmes.
• Site managers spend much of their time meeting others, so they should
have an office for themselves with an adjoining conference/meeting
room or a combination of the two areas.
• Site engineers require a lot of desk space to spread out several drawings
at a time and need to access the site quickly and not bring mud on their
boots through the whole of the accommodation complex.
• Site managers sometimes prefer to have a view of the site, but this is not
a high priority in carrying out their function and is very much a personal
decision.

The size and type of desk, chairs and filing capacity has to be looked at.
This may become a determining factor in the amount of space the office user
requires.
1.6 Material storage and handling
There is a conflict between current thinking of delivering materials ‘just in
time’ (section 6.6) and the traditional way contractors are paid for materials
delivered to site within the period of the monthly valuation (Finance and
Control for Construction, section 14.4). The trend is towards the former,
but it is unlikely the delivery of all materials will achieve this objective and
materials will still need to be stored on site either at the place of work or in
a designated storage area. Even when ‘just in time’ delivery is reached there
will still be occasions when goods will have to be stored because of inclement
weather or machine breakdown, such as the crane.
There are advantages and disadvantages of the traditional approach. If
the material is there, material control is easier and it is readily available for
use. However, the longer it is on site the more likely it is to be damaged
or to deteriorate, there is an increased risk of theft, and it may have to
be double handled because it is in the wrong place or in a centralised
secure holding point, with further transportation and the probability of
more damage, resulting in increased costs. There is also a tendency to
lose control of the stock especially because more tends to be taken than is
actually needed.
1.6.1 Methods of storage
This depends on the value of material, its vulnerability to damage and
weathering, and where and when it is required in the construction process.
Ideally, materials should be delivered to the site when needed and placed near
the operative who is fashioning or fixing it. There are many considerations
concerned with material storage and handling. There is an important
relationship between the supplier and the contractor in understanding and
agreeing the way materials are handled at the factory and how they are best
handled on the site. For example, bricks are packaged in lots of approximately
400, held together using metal or plastic strapping and stacked in such a way
that there are two horizontal parallel holes which permit the packs to be
lifted and transported using a fork lift truck. Cranes attached to the lorry
and tower cranes have similar lifting devices that permit the loads to be off-
loaded from the vehicle without the need for breaking down the loads.

Material storage and handling 13
A completed building comprises a wide range of materials and
components that require specific attention to ensure they are not wasted.
To give a flavour, Table 1.1 shows suggested categorisations of materials to
demonstrate different handling and storage issues.
Issues concerned with storage and handling include the following, all with
the aim to reduce waste:
• When unloading certain materials it is imperative to have the proper
equipment to ensure safe and secure lifting, such as using lifting beams
so vertical lifting can be assured without structurally damaging the
component.
• When transporting materials appropriate transportation methods and
plant should be used to ensure no damage occurs.
• Storage areas must be clean and level enough to permit proper storage.
• Appropriatelydesignedsupportstructures,rackingandspacers(dunnage)
should be provided.
• All goods sensitive to damage from different climatic conditions should
be protected by covers or housed in a secure cabin.
• Certain goods, such as cement, have a limited shelf life and need to be
stored in such a way as to permit the earliest delivered material to be
used first. Other goods left in store for a long time can change colour or
start to look dirty, for example the edges of vertically stacked cladding
components are exposed to the elements, as the units stacked in front
do not fully cover the face. Those at the rear of the stack can become
discoloured with pollution. When they were fixed into the building they
can look different as a result.
Table 1.1 Materials categories
Examples
Valuable (small items) Door and window furniture
Consumables Nails, tie wire, brushes, nuts and bolts, fixings
Short shelf life Cement
Medium shelf life Paint, untreated timber, reinforcement steel
Bulk Bricks, blocks, aggregates, sand, structural steel
Environmental hazards Fuel, oils
Easily damaged Plasterboard, polystyrene
Components Windows, doors, cladding panels

• Certain materials are delivered in bulk, so adequate and appropriate
storage has to be provided. This may mean silos, in the case of cement,
or constructing bays to segregate the different aggregates to stop cross
pollution.
• Certain materials, like diesel oil, are potential environmental polluters
if not stored properly. Steps must be taken to ensure that in the event
of a leak, the material can be contained without risk of pollution of the
ground and watercourses.
• Consideration should also be given to combating theft and vandalism
(section 1.12).
1.6.2 Location of storage areas
Valuable items, small consumables and materials with a short shelf life need
to be securely stored so that they can be issued when required. The size
and amount of storage provision has to be calculated to take account of the
delivery schedule. The location of the storage hut needs to be close to the
works to reduce the travelling time of operatives collecting the material and
positioned by the access road to facilitate deliveries.
Where tower cranes are in use, all significant materials within the lifting
capacity of the crane should be stored within the radius of the crane in
clearly designated, clean and properly equipped compounds, made secure if
necessary. These do not have to be adjacent to the access road, but the nearer
they are, the less time it takes for the crane to off-load from the delivery
vehicles. There is a strong case for providing a central secure storage area
from which goods are distributed in amounts needed for up to three days’
production. This helps to control waste.
1.7 Waste disposal
The subject of waste management is covered in Chapter 5. There will always
be waste because of the very nature of the work carried out on a construction
site. Previously, waste was either buried on the site or taken away in skips
and disposed of in landfill sites. In recent years as a result of increasing
environmental awareness, legislation and the costs of tipping waste, attention
has been drawn to minimising waste and recycling. To carry out the latter it
is generally accepted that the most appropriate place to segregate waste is on
the construction site.
The various elements to consider when preparing for waste management
on site include the following:

Site logistics 15
• How much and what type of waste is to be planned for?
• Where does the segregation take place?
• How are materials collected and transported to the segregation point?
This can involve the provision of chutes to take materials from the upper
storeys of a building.
• How are the materials stored on site before disposal?
• What can be recycled and by whom? Does the company have a list of
preferred organisations that will collect such waste?
• Are the waste quantity targets being met?
1.8 Site logistics
The quantities of materials delivered to a construction site are immense and
should be planned for. Once the contract programme has been produced,
the quantity and frequency of deliveries can be assessed. This, then, has to
be equated against the amount of space available for storage, the number
of vehicles the site can accommodate on the site at any one time and the
restrictions on parking on the public roads adjacent to the site. From this
information programmes can be produced to schedule the timing of the
deliveries, and suppliers and sub-contractors advised accordingly. In the
case of frequent and regular deliveries of structural elements or cladding
components it may be necessary to use a holding yard for vehicles to smooth
out variances due to traffic conditions such as rush hours. The same might
apply for deliveries over long distances.
1.9 The location of fixed plant
Spending time on the correct positioning of fixed plant on a site is well
worth doing as the costs of relocating can be prohibitive. The main fixed
plant on a site are the concrete mixers, hoists and tower cranes. In all of
these cases an electricity supply will be needed.
With the development of ready-mixed concrete it is rare to see a mixer
set up anywhere other than on large civil engineering contracts, and only
then when the costs of bringing in large quantities of concrete some distance
make it more economical to mix on site. The positioning of such set ups
depends on the type of contract. For example, a motorway contract will
probably wish to have it sited near to the middle of its length providing there
are good public access roads, whereas on tall structures where a tower crane
is used, it will be more appropriate to have the set up within the radius of the
crane’s jib. Generally, the mixers need to be positioned as close as possible

to the main uses of concrete on the contract to reduce transportation time.
However, the closer it is to the site entrance the less likely the delivery
wagons will get stuck on the access roads.
Hoists can either transport personnel or goods. In either case the
positioning is determined by two criteria: access at the base; and the efficient
movement of materials on each floor level. Ideally, on most contracts the
latter is resolved, when using only one hoist, by positioning the hoist midway
along the floor so that goods have the shortest distances to travel. If using
two hoists, they may be at the one-quarter and three-quarters points along
the length of the building. However, it may not be possible to achieve this
because of other building work such as the construction of a podium area.
Free-standing tower cranes and cranes on rails require substantial
foundations. Those tied to the building less so, but these and climbing cranes
may require structural amendments to the building to take the extra forces
exerted by the crane when lifting. Ideally the radius of the crane needs to
be such that it can lift any load that needs to be raised to all parts of the
building. One of the simplest ways to establish this is, once the weights of
components and items have been determined, is to use a sheet of Perspex
scaled to match that of the site plan and drawn with circles of different
crane radii. This can be moved over the site plan until an optimum position
is found (see Figure 1.1). It also has the advantage that once this position
has been established, access roads and storage areas can be sited relative to
the crane.
Figure 1.1 Positioning of tower cranes

Hoardings 17
1.10 Hoardings
Hoardings are the physical barrier between the public and the site activity.
Their function primarily is to stop people wandering onto the site and
potentially hurting themselves, while also stopping the site activity from
spilling over into the public domain. They also provide a first line of defence
for security purposes, and if solid, assist in preventing the passage of noise
and dust to adjoining properties. They can be used as a marketing tool
for the main contractor and, if appropriate, the developer. If there is any
danger that objects from the building can fall on the general public, the
hoardings have to be designed to give protection. In busy cities this can
mean constructing a protected tunnel over the pavement using scaffolding or
structural steel. On low-rise housing sites it is often uneconomical to provide
hoardings, which means attention to the safety of the public and security
become the key issues.
Whatever material is selected to construct the hoardings it should look
neat and tidy otherwise it sends out the wrong message to the public and
prospective clients. The materials usually chosen are chain-link fencing,
plywood attached to timber posts, prefabricated corrugated metal units,
prefabricated wire mesh units and the use of existing structures. Chain-link
and prefabricated mesh units permits passers by to see into the site so they
can report any suspicious activity out of working hours, but also permits a
thief to see what is around. On the other hand, plywood and prefabricated
corrugated metal sheets do precisely the opposite. The material used may
have already been determined by the client in the preliminaries. If plywood
is used it will have to be painted either in the company’s livery colours or
that prescribed by the developer. There have been occasions in the past when
the contractor has enlisted the help of the local art college, provided all the
paint and allowed each student to create a ‘painting’ on a plywood sheet.
This can generate good publicity and the final results become a local talking
point.
The hoardings are normally used to place the company’s logo or name
at intervals along its length and some contractors provide either windows
or observation platforms for the general public to observe the construction
process. Some developers require an artist’s impression of the final building
to be attached to the boundary, which is a good idea as the public is interested
in knowing how the building is going to affect their lives and what it is going
to look like.

1.11 Communications
Good communications are vital for the effective running of a project and
should be considered at a very early stage. Communication on site falls into
several different categories (see also Business Organisation for Construction,
Chapter 11):
• Advising how to get to the site. This will include signs on the access
roads to the site to direct plant and materials deliveries, or re-routing by
diverting site traffic away from sensitive areas, and, on the site, clearly
showing the entry points. Maps can be distributed to potential visitors
which show parking arrangements, nearest underground and train
stations and bus routes. All of these will save them time when accessing
or delivering to the site.
• Communicating with the general public. Typical examples are apologies
for any inconvenience caused, pictures and purpose of the completed
building, observation points and the names of organisations involved in
the process. These include the developer, architect, surveyors, engineers
and main contractor.
• Communication with the client and its representatives. Systems,
supported by appropriate equipment and software, need to be in place
with agreed protocols. This will involve the distribution and control of
drawings, contractual matters and points of contact. Similar issues need
to be addressed when dealing with sub-contractors and suppliers.
• Communicating to staff on site and in the head office. Accomplished
with the provision of radio or telephone handsets.
• Communicating with trades unions. Where there is union representation
on the site, lines of communication should be established and all
employees should be aware of the correct procedures.
• Electronic communication. More and more information is communicated
electronically via email, so having sufficient computer capacity to store
and send large amounts of data and an appropriate network system is
essential.
• Health and safety. Using clear signs to make any official visitor or site
employee aware of mandatory requirements, such as hard hats, goggles,
footwear, evacuation routes, the whereabouts of dangerous substances,
restricted areas, and so on.

Security 19
1.12 Security
Security is required to reduce, and hopefully prevent, theft, trespass and
protest, acts of vandalism and the risk from terrorists. There has always been
theft from construction sites and children have found them to be exciting
playgrounds. Protests, wanton vandalism and the possible threat of terrorist
action have increasingly become issues the industry has to be cognisant of.
1.12.1 Theft
Those thieving can be categorised as professional criminals, on-site staff and,
especially on housing sites, the general public. Which plant and materials
are the most vulnerable is a complex issue as the proceeds from organised
crime are dependent on black-market forces. They can target large moveable
plant, such as excavators, or materials in short supply. A few years ago there
was a significant world shortage of copper as a result of sanctions against
Rhodesia, now Zimbabwe, one of the world’s major producers. Building
houses without copper pipes was difficult as there was no satisfactory
substitute then. A local builder took reasonable precautions, but thieves
broke in and stole the fittings. When eventually the builder re-stocked, he
parked and demobilised all his plant on all four sides of the hut. The thieves
removed the roof.
The theft of wages is a risk and good reason for encouraging operatives to
be paid by cheque or directly into their bank accounts. Some of the company’s
own employees may resort to theft, for their own use or for friends. They
may sell information to organised criminals. Having every person searched
on leaving the site is expensive, with the alternative being random searches,
but in both cases there is the dilemma of how much this would act as a de-
motivator, especially if the management staff is exempted. It is important to
make it as difficult as possible by having systems in place that actively control
the release and return of portable equipment and materials, so as to prevent
these occurrences from taking place.
There are two types of theft by members of the public, those who pass by,
see something they like and take it, or the residents who live on the estate
before building work is completed. It is not unusual for some of these to
almost take it as their right to purloin materials. Cases have been cited where
residents have built their own garage, garden walls and, in one case, started
up the excavator and dumper truck to transport topsoil to their garden.
To overcome this problem a contractor posted notices to all the residents
offering a reward if a successful prosecution resulted from their reporting an
incident. The loss of materials dropped dramatically.

There is a free advice service offered by crime prevention officers, but the
quality of this advice depends on the local force and the emphasis it is given.
In some cases it could be a police constable, and in others a chief inspector
with considerably more experience. Other forces, such as the Greater
Manchester Police, have very effective architectural liaison officers who are
concerned primarily with designing crime out of buildings and estates, but
can also assist in the effectiveness of site layouts. Advice on the positioning
of storage areas, lighting and alarm systems is also part of their remit.
Solutions include using lock-ups, alarms, lighting, security patrols outside
working hours and security gates and guards during the working day and
painting equipment with forensic paint, which is a paint with a composition
unique to the purchaser.
1.12.2 Trespassers, vandals, protesters and terrorists
All unauthorised persons who access the site are trespassers. However, the
effect that each of the categories can have is different. Those intent on theft
have been discussed in section 1.12.1. Others may only use the site to sleep
at night, to take drugs, or some may be children exploring and playing
games. In all of these cases, the intention is not wittingly to cause damage
although they often do. However, if they have an accident whilst on the
site, the contractor has a common duty of care and becomes responsible for
any injury, unless it can be shown that all reasonable attempts were taken to
prevent it. So, for example, removing ladders from the scaffolding would be
a reasonable course of action, whereas it would not be if they were left in
position where a child could climb them and fall from a height.
Vandalism takes many forms on site, from graffiti, deliberately damaging
completed work and unused materials, to arson. Vandals may drive machinery
to cause damage or as a joy ride with damage resulting. Besides the costs
involved and loss of morale of personnel having to make good, certain acts
may make parts of the site unsafe for operatives the following day. In all cases
the location of the site will have an effect on the likelihood of it happening.
Some protestors will travel long distances and be prepared for a drawn-
out campaign against the development. Normally these sites are predictable
either because of potential threat from ‘eco-warriors’ and the like or because
of a build up in the local press reporting on protests about the development
long before construction takes place. The problem facing the contractor in
the former case, is that they may well be encamped before the contract has
been awarded, so the eviction process and the final securing of the site may
be a lengthy affair with the need to go through the courts and the need
to be sensitive to the opinion of the wider audience, such as occurred at

Security 21
Manchester Airport’s second runway and the Newbury bypass. This makes
pre-preparation impossible, unless considered at the development and design
stages.
In the past, terrorism has been confined mainly to existing buildings,
structures or events, such as the bombing of the Grand Hotel in Brighton
(1984) when government ministers were attending the Conservative Party
conference. Recently, though, any building being constructed, especially
a prestigious one, is vulnerable and could be targeted. Examples of these
might have been the Scottish Parliament and the Wembley Football Stadium.
Whilst the majority of construction workers are law-abiding citizens, the
transient nature of the labour force means that special vigilance needs to be
taken, not just in the security of the site, but also in the vetting processes
during recruitment.
1.12.3 Security of information
Some of the information about the building may be sensitive. Drawings
provided by the Home Office for the construction details of a prison
would fall into this category. Protection of all information required for the
management and construction of the building also needs protecting against
loss and should be considered as part of the business continuity plan (Business
Organisation for Construction, Chapter 10), as without it the construction
work cannot be properly controlled without ensuing delays and extra costs.
1.12.4 Personal security
In certain locations the personal safety of staff, especially female, may be
at risk travelling to and from the site. In these circumstances steps should
be taken to ensure they are protected against possible verbal or physical
attack.
References
Davies, W
.H. (1982) Butterworth Scientific Construction Site Production 4,
Checkbook.
Forster, G. (1995) Construction Site Studies, Production, Administration and
Personnel, 2nd edn, Longman.
Illingworth, J.R. (1993) Construction Methods and Planning, E&FN Spon.

CHAPTER
2
Contract planning
2.1 Introduction
The act of planning is not confined to industry and commerce. It is part of
everyday life, as can be seen every weekend in millions of UK households
in the preparation of the Sunday dinner of meat, two vegetables, gravy and
a pudding. The meat, vegetables and gravy all take different times to cook
and yet all have to be ready at the same time. There is a need to check the
progress of the cooking so that times can be adjusted and, on completion
of eating the main course, it is expected that the pudding will be ready. The
times allowed for each operation will either be found in a recipe or will have
been established from experience. Planning the construction of a building
follows the same basic principles, but, because of the complexity, requires
more sophisticated systems to support the process. Progress checks will also
be carried out on several occasions commencing at the development stage,
through procurement and the various stages of the construction process.
There is sometimes confusion in the interpretation of the terms planning
and programme. Planning is the process of determining the sequence of
events or activities that need to occur to complete the project. A programme
is the diagrammatic demonstration of the act of planning.
It cannot be stressed enough that a plan must be realistic and therefore
attainable, otherwise it is of no use and will fall into disrepute. Used properly
it can be a means of engaging the people involved. A managing director of
a small civil engineering compan,y whose work comprised mainly laying
long lengths of drainage, approached the author who was teaching on a
part-time Chartered Institute of Building examination programme. The MD
confessed he thought planning was a waste of time and was only taking
the course to satisfy the Institute’s examination requirements. After a few
weeks, he changed his mind and asked if planning could be introduced into
his company. After discussion, a weekly programme of works was produced
and after the first week, he returned somewhat disillusioned, as only a part

Stages of planning 23
of the target had been accomplished. We performed an analysis of the causes
for the deficiency of progress and identified some reasons so they could be
anticipated in the future. Within a few weeks he was achieving his targets,
but not only that, the foreman was now ringing him up and chasing him to
ensure deliveries arrived on time otherwise he would not be able to meet
the plan.
A good project manager will be able to look at a set of drawings and
sketch out an overall programme for the contract, using perhaps only
10 to 20 key activities, but identifying each activity’s completion date.
The planner will then flesh out the programme and incorporate further
sub-activities. Experienced managers argue that the advantage of their
programme is that it focuses the rest of the team on key completion dates
they have to achieve and that too many activities can distract from this
requirement.
2.2 Stages of planning
Planning takes place throughout the process, with the stages and detail
depending on the size and complexity of the project:
• the development phase
• the tender stage
• the pre-construction stage
• the construction stage within which there can be various different levels
of planning.
Table 2.1, adapted from Griffith et al., (2000), gives an overview of
when formal planning is likely to take place. The most common planning
techniques used are developed in sections 2.4 and 2.5.
2.2.1 Development planning
When the developer is calculating the financial viability of a potential
project (Finance and Control for Construction, Chapter 3), a key factor is
the duration of the project design and the construction phases, as during
these periods no income is being generated and interest has to be paid on
the loans taken out to pay for these activities. Further, in retail development,
the potential income generation is directly related to the time of year. For
example, the run up to Christmas is generally the most profitable part of the
year. Who carries out the planning depends on the type of procurement being

24 Contract planning
adopted for the project. In a traditional form the quantity surveyor is the
most likely person, and in management contracting, the project management
team would provide this service. The programme would be compiled from
limited information, but based on the programmer’s experience and the
general information available, it is possible to produce a reasonably accurate
timescale to complete the project. If this demonstrates that the project as
conceived cannot be constructed in the given timescale, modifications to the
design can be enacted, the project delayed or abandoned.
2.2.2 Pre-tender planning
This is to assist the tendering process. It is essential the estimator knows
whether or not the contract can be built in the prescribed period stated by the
client, because if not, then management may consider the project too great
a risk and decide not to proceed with the tender. The timing of activities in
the programme is required when asking sub-contractors and suppliers to
quote, since they need to know what is expected of them before submitting
their price. The method on which the programme is based is important as
Table 2.1 Stages of planning
Development
programme
Pre-tender
programme
Master
or
contract
programme
Medium
(3
months)
programme
Short-term
(1
month)
programme
Weekly
programme
Small project
Complex • • •
Not complex • •
Medium sized
project
Long duration • • • • • •
Short duration • • • •
Complex • • • • • •
Not complex • • • •
Large project
Long duration • • • • • •
Short duration • • • •
Complex • • • • • •
Not complex • • • • •

Stages of planning 25
it provides the basis of calculating the activities and preliminaries. It is used
at the final tender review meeting to provide information about the cash
flow of the project, the amount of risk involved in meeting the programme
requirements and any offers that can be made to complete the project earlier
than the client has asked.
The prime inputs to the process are from the design team, who produce the
drawings, specifications, bills of quantities and contract details, and from the
contractor who has the production management expertise and productivity
data. This enables the contractor to produce method statements (Finance
and Control for Construction, Chapter 10) that assist in the production of
the programme, site layouts (Chapter 1), the programme and the completed
tender documents (Finance and Control for Construction, Chapter 10)
The programme will not necessarily be the final outcome as many things
can change between this process and the contract being awarded. The design
may change and new methods adopted in the light of having more time for
consideration.
2.2.3 Master or contract planning
This is sometimes referred to as pre-contract planning as it is produced when
the contract has been awarded and prior to the work starting on site. At
this point the personnel to run the contract have been selected and may
have more developed views on how the works should be executed. This is
because they have more information than at the pre-tender stage and can
bring different ideas to the table.
They have at their disposal the tender documentation, additional project
details from the design team, their own expertise, more accurate data from
suppliers and sub-contractors about delivery capabilities and the time they
need to complete their part of the work, and the information provided from
their site visit. In conjunction with this, schedules of when information is
required and key dates for when resources are needed can be established so
that orders can be placed with suppliers, sub-contractors and for the package
contracts. At the same time delivery schedules of materials and components
can be processed. Method statements used for the planning process can be
adapted for health and safety purposes (Chapter 4). In doing all of this, the
contractor has the opportunity to develop good relationships with all the
parties concerned with the construction of the project. Failure to do so could
store up trouble for the future because of break-downs in communication.

2.2.4 Contract planning
Throughout the duration of the contract, the planner will continually
monitor progress and update the programme as changes in design and delays
occur. As indicated in Table 2.1 the length of the contract and its complexity
will determine the frequency of producing shorter-term programmes. On
long and complex projects, programmes will be produced for three-month
periods and updated every two months, and for areas of work that are
either complex or critical, programmes of one month and one week will
be produced. Whilst there may be valid contractual reasons for the delays
permitting extensions to the overall programme, the reality is that many
contractors will strive to finish the contract within the original timescale if
at all possible to satisfy the client’s needs. There may be cost implications in
doing this which will have to be resolved with the client.
2.3 Planning and producing a programme
Whatever technique is employed there remain certain fundamentals.
The planner has to understand the sequence of operations and their
interdependency, compare different methods for accomplishing the tasks in
a safe manner, be able to establish the duration of an activity and resource it
efficiently. The techniques employed are a function of the complexity of the
project. Most important is to remember that the programme is a means of
communication to others. Many of the techniques used for planning purposes
are almost impossible to interpret by the layman and have to be converted
into a readily understandable format. The most usual being a simple bar line
(sections 2.4 and 2.5.5).
2.3.1 Calculation of the durations
The planner will establish the duration of the activities from a variety of
sources. In the case of the sub-contractor, from their tender document that
gives the duration they expect to be on site and amount of notice required
before commencement. Alternatively, they will use their own experience
based on years of observing similar activities on other contracts or by
calculation using standard production outputs and measuring the quantities
of materials for each of the defined activities. The latter is not done to the
accuracy a quantity surveyor would do when producing bills of quantities,
but is accomplished as quickly as possible either by taking the overall
dimensions or scaling off from the drawing if not available. Quantities can

Bar charts and linked bar charts 27
also be taken from the bills of quantities, but the planner would normally
only use the main quantities and ignore the detail. The standard production
output data would be sourced from the company’s own library of synthetic
data (Chapter 3).
Table 2.2 shows a typical calculation for the brickwork from ground floor
to first floor level of a detached house assuming an external skin of facing
brick, an internal skin of block work with 50mm thick cavity insulation.
In other words, in round figures, it would take one gang one week to
complete the first lift of brickwork to this house. Using two gangs could
reduce this to half a week, but there is a limit to the number of gangs that
could be used in such a limited work area as they could get in each other’s
way and reduce productivity. One of the planner’s skills is to understand
this. How many gangs are selected to do the work is determined by the
necessity or otherwise to complete the activity faster. For example, there
is little point in excavating every foundation on a housing estate within a
couple of weeks when the overall contract period is one year as many of the
excavations would fill with water and the sides collapse as they weathered,
requiring remedial action to be taken.
2.4 Bar charts and linked bar charts
With the exception of line of balance, the majority of programmes will be
shown in the format of a bar chart even though many of them will have been
underpinned by other planning techniques. They are sometimes referred to
as Gantt charts after Henry L. Gantt (1861–1919) who developed them in
the 1910s for major infrastructure projects in the USA, such as the Hoover
Dam and interstate highways.
These types of presentations used to be produced by the planners using
their experience and knowledge. They would calculate how long it would
take to carry out each activity, work out the labour required, decide on the
Table 2.2 Activity duration calculation
Item Quantity Rate Duration
Overall area, less openings 73m2
Labour rate, 2 bricklayers, 1 labourer 0.5 gang hours/m2
*
Quantity × rate 36.5 gang hours
* Note the rate includes all the labour costs associated with producing one square metre of wall. It
includes for the inner and external skin, the insulation and is inclusive of the laying operation, fixing
the insulation and wall ties, fetching and carrying materials, and mixing the mortar.

sequence of events, consider the time delay necessary before an overlapping
activity could start, and then sketch out the programme. They would then
establish the amount of labour required in each week and readjust the
programme to ensure there was a relatively constant use of the different
types of labour. In those days over half the labour was directly employed by
the main contractor. They would take the sub-contract activity duration from
the sub-contractor and insert it. This method gave an overall idea of how
the contract would run, but was fraught with difficulty because of the lack
of serious logical thought underpinning the operation. However for small
contracts where the data are well known, they can work very effectively and
be used to monitor progress with some certainty.
Figure 2.1 shows a simple bar chart. The activities are listed sequentially,
the first activity being at the top. The bar lines are drawn to scale, the
duration having been ascertained as discussed in section 2.3.1. Where
activities cannot start before another activity is completed they can be linked
together as shown. Where this linkage is used the chart is referred to as a
linked bar chart.
Shading in the bar lines each week proportional to the amount of work
done is used to monitor progress. By drawing a vertical line, shown in the
figure by a broken line, at the current date demonstrates whether or not an
activity is behind, on schedule or ahead of programme. In practice simply
moving a length of string along the date line can do this.
A traditionally constructed bar line is limited by the fact that it is not easy
to reschedule if something needs to be changed as it takes many man-hours
to carry it out. The number of activities that can be used is also limited. It
will normally from 30 to 60, although sometimes they are produced with as
many as 100.
Activities
Time
Figure 2.1 Linked bar chart

Networks 29
2.5 Networks
Networks were first developed in the United States in the 1950s when the
U.S. Navy Special Projects Office and its consultants devised a new planning
scheme for special weapons systems. The outcome was the Program
Evaluation Review Technique now known as PERT. Since the duration of
many of the activities needed in designing new systems were unknown this
system was particularly concerned with assessing the probability of how long
they might take. In construction, activities are more readily defined so their
duration is predictable, so PERT was found not to be appropriate in the
industry. However, a new activity-oriented system was developed for the
industry called the Critical Path Method (CPM) or Critical Path Analysis
(CPA).
These were first introduced into the UK construction industry during
the 1960s to take advantage of the computer technology being bought by
the large construction companies. Unfortunately, these computers were
relatively slow, the input was laborious and often the output was a network
diagram that stretched around the walls of the planner’s office and was
incomprehensible to all but a few and of little use as a control document to
those on site. Now that computers are powerful and fast, large quantities of
data can be stored, manipulated and modified at an instant to produce many
different outputs, such as the programme and resource implications.
The concept behind the production of networks is establishing the logic
of a sequence of events. With bar charts there is a tendency to start with the
first activity and decide which activities follow. However, this is not the case
with networks. It is a golden rule to remember that ‘Which activity comes
next?’ is irrelevant in producing networks. To ensure the logic is correct the
question must always be: ‘What activity or activities have to be completed
before this activity can commence?’
There are two main ways of producing a network. These are called arrow
diagrams and precedence diagrams. Each has advantages and disadvantages,
but produce the same outcome so the choice is personal.
2.5.1 Arrow diagrams
An activity can be a combination of smaller activities such as ‘reinforced
concrete frame’, which includes several operations such as form kickers, fix
reinforcement, fix and strike formwork and pour concrete. What is included
depends on the detail necessary. An arrow is used to represent an activity
or operation each of which must have a clearly defined start and finish, as
shown in Figure 2.2.

The length of the arrow is not related to the duration of the activity. Indeed
it is not unusual to find long arrows representing rather short durations and
vice versa. At the two ends of the arrow is a point in time. These are referred
to as nodes or events and are represented by circles, as shown in Figure 2.3.
A
Figure 2.3 Arrows with nodes
Figure 2.4 demonstrates a simple example of the construction of a network.
In this case activity B commences when activity A has been completed.
A B
Figure 2.4 Connecting activities
Not all activities are dependent on the completion of just one other. In
Figure 2.5 activities B and C can only commence when both activities A and
D have been completed.
A
B
C
D
Figure 2.5 Several connecting activities
Note also that activities B, C and D are drawn with part of the arrow
horizontal and the description, in this case B, C and D, written adjacent to it.
Whilst this is not mandatory, it is recommended as it eliminates confusion with
‘dummy’ activities (Figure 2.6), which would normally be drawn at an angle.
Figure 2.2 Arrow diagram
Pour concrete A

Networks 31
With arrow diagrams a problem occurs when, as shown in Figure 2.6,
activity E can only commence when activities B and C are completed. To
overcome this problem the ‘dummy’ activity is introduced. In this case it is
shown between the end of activities B and C drawn at an angle and with a
broken line so as to distinguish it from an activity arrow. A dummy has no
duration and is used purely as a mechanism to permit the logic to be shown.
The information from which the network is drawn is shown in Table 2.3.
In Figure 2.7, activity F can only commence when activities B and D are
completed, and activity G when B and E are completed. The information to
draw this network is shown in Table 2.4.
An analogy that sometimes assists those learning how to draw arrow
diagrams is to imagine that the network represents water pipes, with the
water flowing from the start to the finish, the nodes acting as valves. When
a valve is opened water can flow, so in the example above, water enters pipe
F from both D and B, and enters G from B and E. Therefore the network is
drawn correctly.
A
B
C
D
E F
G
Figure 2.6 Network with dummy activity
Table 2.3 Activity precedence
Activity Preceding activity(s)
A Start
B Start
C A
D B
E B and C
F E
G D

2.5.2 Definitions
Duration
This is the time that an activity is calculated to take to complete (section
2.3.1). It may be necessary to change the time of this duration when the
network is being resourced (section 2.7), normally by reducing the time it
takes by increasing the labour content, working overtime or changing the
method of work.
Earliest starting time (EST)
This is the earliest time an activity can start within the network. The first
activity in network is at the start, so the EST is zero unless the network is
being produced for a later part of the contract when it would be from that
point in time. For the following activities the earliest the activity can start
is the earliest the longest previous activity that it is dependent on can start,
plus each duration. So, in Figure 2.8 if the EST for activity A is 0 and its
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Figure 2.7 Network with two dummy activities
Table 2.4 Activities for Figure 2.7
Activity Preceding activity(s)
A Start
B Start
C Start
D A
E C
F B and D
G B and E

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Ueber die ursprüngliche Bedeutung des Passahfestes u. s. w., Tübinger
Zeitschrift f. Theol. 1832, 1, s. 90 ff. ↑
Ut sup. s. 167 ff. ↑
Sieffert, ut sup. s. 144 ff.; Lücke, s. 628 ff.; Theile, zur Biogr. Jesu, § 31; De
Wette, exeg. Handb. 1, 3, s. 149 ff.; comp. Neander, L. J. Chr., s. 580 ff.
Anm. ↑
Fritzsche, in Matth., p. 763; Kern, über den Urspr. des Ev. Matth. in der Tüb.
Zeitschrift, 1834, 2, s. 98. ↑
Comp. Suicer, thesaur. 2, s. 613. ↑
Another view as to the cause of the error in the fourth gospel is given in the
Probabilia, s. 100 ff.; comp. Weisse, die evang. Gesch. 1, s. 446 f. Anm. ↑
Paulus, 3, b, s. 499; Olshausen, 2, s. 294. ↑
Lücke, 2, s. 484 f.; Neander, L. J. Chr., s. 583, Anm. ↑
Olshausen, ut sup. ↑
Sieffert, über den Urspr., s. 152. ↑
Bibl. Comm. 2, s. 310, 381 f. ↑
Paulus, exeg. Handb. 3, b, s. 497. ↑
Meyer, Comm. über den Joh., in loc. ↑
L. J. Chr., s. 587, Anm. ↑
Sieffert, s. 152 ff. ↑
Comp. Lücke, s. 468. ↑
Die Hauptthatsachen der evang. Gesch. Tüb.
Zeitschr. 1836, 3, s. 12. ↑
Hase, L. J., § 133; Kern, Hauptthatsachen, s. 11; Theile, zur Biographie Jesu, §
31. ↑
Sieffert, s. 153; Paulus and Olshausen, in loc. For the opposite opinion comp.
De Wette, 1, 1, s. 222, 1, 2, s. 107. ↑
Vol. II. § 83. ↑

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The conjecture as to the origin of this anecdote in the Probabilia, s. 70 f. is too
far-fetched. ↑
Comp. De Wette, in loc. ↑
Ueber den Lukas, s. 275. ↑
Olshausen, 2, s. 380. ↑
Thus Lücke, Paulus, Olshausen. ↑
Kuinöl, in Matth., p. 707. ↑
This is Olshausen’s expedient, 2, s. 402. Against it see Sieffert, s.
148. f. ↑
Ut sup. s. 147 ff. ↑
Comm. über die Gesch. des Leidens und Todes Jesu, in loc. ↑
See De Wette, in loc. ↑
Vid. Lücke and Tholuck, in loc. ↑
P. 62: reliqui quidem narrant evangelistæ servatorem scivisse
proditionis consilium, nee impedivisse; ipsum vero excitâsse Judam
ad proditionem nemo eorum dicit, neque convenit hoc Jesu. ↑
Paulus, exeg. Handb. 3, b, s. 538. L. J. 1, b, s. 192. Hase, L. J., § 137. ↑
Comp. Lightfoot and Paulus, in loc. ↑
Comp. on this subject especially, Lightfoot, horæ, p. 474 ff., and Paulus,
exeg. Handb. 3, b, s. 511 ff. ↑
Süskind, in the treatise: Hat Jesus das Abendmahl als einen mnemonischen
Ritus angeordnet? in his Magazin 11, s. 1 ff. ↑
Paulus, exeg. Handb. 3, b, s. 527. ↑
Ueber das Abendmahl, s. 217 ff. ↑
Kaiser, bibl. Theol. 2, a, s. 39; Stephani, das h. Abendmahl, s. 61. ↑
Vol. II. § 81. ↑
Paulus, ut sup. s. 519 ff.; Kaiser, ut sup. s. 37 ff. ↑

RETIREMENT TO THE MOUNT OF OLIVES, ARREST,
TRIAL, CONDEMNATION AND CRUCIFIXION OF
JESUS.
[Contents]
§ 125.
AGONY OF JESUS IN THE GARDEN.
According to the synoptical narratives, Jesus, immediately after the
conclusion of the meal and the singing of the Hallel, it being his
habit during this feast time to spend the night out of Jerusalem
(Matt. xxi. 17 ; Luke xxii. 39 ), went to the Mount of Olives, into a
garden χωρίον (in John, κῆπος) called Gethsemane (Matt. xxvi. 30 ,
36 parall.). John, who gives the additional particular that the
garden lay over the brook Kedron, does not represent him as
departing thither until after a long series of valedictory discourses
(xiv. –xvii. ), of which we shall hereafter have to speak again.
While John makes the arrest of Jesus follow immediately on the
arrival of Jesus in the garden, the synoptists insert between the two
that scene which is usually designated the agony of Jesus.
Their accounts of this scene are not in unison. According to Matthew
and Mark, Jesus takes with him his three most confidential disciples,
Peter and the sons of Zebedee, leaving the rest behind, is seized
with tearfulness and trembling, tells the three disciples that he is
sorrowful even unto death, and admonishing them to remain
wakeful in the mean time, removes to a distance from them also,

that he may offer a prayer for himself, in which, with his face bent to
the earth, he entreats that the cup of suffering may pass from him,
but still resigns all to the will of his Father. When he returns to the
disciples, he finds them sleeping, again admonishes them to
watchfulness, then removes from them a second time, and repeats
the former prayer, after which he once more finds his disciples
asleep. For the third time he retires to repeat the prayer, and
returning, for the third time finds the disciples sleeping, but now
awakes them, in order to meet the coming betrayer. Of the number
three, which thus doubly figures in the narrative of the two first
Evangelists, Luke says nothing; according to him, Jesus retires from
all the disciples, after admonishing them to watch, for the distance
of about a stone’s cast, and prays kneeling, once only, but nearly in
the same words as in the other gospels, then returns to the disciples
and awakes them, because Judas is approaching with the multitude.
But, on the other hand, Luke in his single scene of prayer, has two
circumstances which are foreign to the other narrators, namely, that
while Jesus was yet praying, and immediately before the most
violent mental struggle, an angel appeared to strengthen him, and
that during the agony ἀγωνία which ensued, the sweat of Jesus was
as it were great drops of blood falling to the ground. [636]
From the earliest times this scene in Gethsemane has been a
stumbling-block, because Jesus therein appears to betray a
weakness and fear of death which might be considered unworthy of
him. Celsus and Julian, doubtless having in their minds the great
examples of a dying Socrates and other heathen sages, expressed
contempt for the fear of death exhibited by Jesus;1 Vanini boldly
extolled his own demeanour in the face of execution as superior to
that of Jesus;2 and in the Evangelium Nicodemi, Satan concludes
from this scene that Christ is a mere man.3 The supposition resorted

to in this apocryphal book, that the trouble of Jesus was only
assumed in order to encourage the devil to enter into a contest with
him,4 is but a confession of inability to reconcile a real truth of that
kind with the ideal of Jesus. Hence appeal has been made to the
distinction between the two natures in Christ; the sorrowfulness and
the prayer for the removal of the cup having been ascribed to the
human nature, the resignation to the will of the Father, to the
divine.5 As however, in the first place, this appeared to introduce an
inadmissible division in the nature of Jesus; and in the second place,
even a fear experienced by his human nature in the prospect of
approaching bodily sufferings appeared unworthy of him: his
consternation was represented as being of a spiritual and
sympathetic character—as arising from the wickedness of Judas, the
danger which threatened his disciples, and the fate which was
impending over his nation.6 The effort to free the sorrow of Jesus
from all reference to physical suffering, or to his own person,
attained its highest pitch in the ecclesiastical tenet, that Jesus by
substitution was burthened with the guilt of all mankind, and
vicariously endured the wrath of God against that guilt.7 Some have
even supposed that the devil himself wrestled with Jesus.8
But such a cause for the trouble of Jesus is not found in the text; on
the contrary, here as elsewhere (Matt. xx. 22 f. parall.), the cup
ποτήριον for the removal of which Jesus prays, must be understood
of his own bodily sufferings and death. Moreover, the above
ecclesiastical opinion is founded on an unscriptural conception of the
vicarious office of Jesus. It is true that even in the conception of the
synoptists, the suffering of Jesus is a vicarious one for the sins of
many; but the substitution consists, according to them, not in
[637]Jesus having immediately borne these sins and the punishment
due to mankind on account of them, but in a personal suffering

being laid upon him on account of those sins, and in order to
remove their punishment. Thus, as on the cross, it was not directly
the sins of the world, and the anger of God in relation to them,
which afflicted him, but the wounds which he received, and his
whole lamentable situation, wherein he was indeed placed for the
sins of mankind: so, according to the idea of the Evangelists, in
Gethsemane also, it was not immediately the feeling of the misery of
humanity which occasioned his dismay, but the presentiment of his
own suffering, which, however, was encountered in the stead of
mankind.
From the untenable ecclesiastical view of the agony of Jesus, a
descent has in more modern times been made to coarse
materialism, by reducing what it was thought hopeless to justify
ethically, as a mental condition, to a purely physical one, and
supposing that Jesus was attacked by some malady in Gethsemane;9
an opinion which Paulus, with a severity which he should only have
more industriously applied to his own explanations, pronounces to
be altogether unseemly and opposed to the text, though he does not
regard as improbable Heumann’s hypothesis, that in addition to his
inward sorrow, Jesus had contracted a cold in the clayey ground
traversed by the Kedron.10 On the other hand, the scene has been
depicted in the colours of modern sentimentalism, and the feelings
of friendship, the pain of separation, the thoughts of parting, have
been assigned as the causes which so lacerated the mind of Jesus:11
or a confused blending of all the different kinds of sorrow, selfish
and sympathetic, sensual and spiritual, has been presupposed.12
Paulus explains εἰ δυνατόν ἐστι, παρελθέτω τὸ ποτήριον (if it be
possible, let this cup pass from me) as the expression of a purely
moral anxiety on the part of Jesus, as to whether it were the will of
God that he should give himself up to the attack immediately at

hand, or whether it were not more accordant with the Divine
pleasure, that he should yet escape from this danger: thus
converting into a mere inquiry of God, what is obviously the most
urgent prayer.
While Olshausen falls back on the ecclesiastical theory, and
authoritatively declares that the supposition of external corporeal
suffering having called forth the anguish of Jesus, ought to be
banished as one which would annihilate the essential characteristics
of his mission; others have more correctly acknowledged that in that
anguish the passionate wish to be delivered from the terrible
sufferings in prospect, the horror of sensitive nature in the face of
annihilation, are certainly apparent.13 With justice also it is
remarked, in opposition to the reproach which has been cast on
Jesus, that the speedy conquest over rebellious nature removes
every appearance of sinfulness;14 that, moreover, the shrinking of
physical nature at the prospect of annihilation belongs to the
essential conditions of life;15 nay, that the purer the human nature in
an individual, the more susceptible is it in relation to suffering and
annihilation;16 that the conquest over suffering intensely appreciated
is greater than a stoical or even a Socratic insensibility.17 [638]
With more reason, criticism has attacked the peculiar representation
of the third gospel. The strengthening angel has created no little
difficulty to the ancient church on dogmatical grounds,—to modern
exposition on critical grounds. An ancient scholium on the
consideration, that he who was adored and glorified with fear and
trembling by all the celestial powers, did not need the strengthening
of the angel, ὅτι τῆς ἰσχύος τοῦ ἀγγέλου οὐκ ἐπεδέετο ὁ ὑπὸ πάσης
ἐπουρανίου δυνάμεως φόβω καὶ τρόμῳ προσκυνούμενος καὶ
δοξαζόμενος, interprets the ἐνισχύειν ascribed to the angel as a

declaring strong, i.e. as the offering of a doxology;18 while others,
rather than admit that Jesus could need to be strengthened by an
angel, transform the ἄγγελος ἐνισχύων into an evil angel, who
attempted to use force against Jesus.19 The orthodox also, by
founding a distinction between the state of humiliation and privation
in Christ and that of his glorification, or in some similar way, have
long blunted the edge of the dogmatical difficulty: but in place of
this a critical objection has been only so much the more decidedly
developed. In consideration of the suspicion which, according to our
earlier observations, attaches to every alleged angelic appearance, it
has been sought to reduce the angel in this narrative first into a
man,20 and then into an image of the composure which Jesus
regained.21 But the right point in the angelic appearance for criticism
to grapple with, is indicated by the circumstance that Luke is the
only Evangelist from whom we learn it.22 If, according to the
ordinary presupposition, the first and fourth gospels are of apostolic
origin; why this silence as to the angel on the part of Matthew, who
is believed to have been in the garden, why especially on the part of
John, who was among the three in the nearer neighbourhood of
Jesus? If it be said: because sleepy as they were, and at some
distance, and moreover under cover of the night, they did not
observe him: it must be asked, whence are we to suppose that Luke
received this information?23 That, assuming the disciples not to have
themselves observed the appearance, Jesus should have narrated it
to them on that evening, there is, from the intense excitement of
those hours and the circumstance that the return of Jesus to his
disciples was immediately followed by the arrival of Judas, little
probability; and as little, that he communicated it to them in the
days after the resurrection, and that nevertheless this information
appeared worthy of record to none but the third Evangelist, who yet

received it only at second hand. As in this manner there is every
presumption against the historical character of the angelic
appearance; why should not this also, like all appearances of the
same kind which have come under our notice, especially in the
history of the infancy of Jesus, be interpreted by us mythically?
Gabler has been before us in advancing the idea, that in the
primitive Christian community the rapid transition from the most
violent mental conflict to the most tranquil resignation, which was
observable in Jesus on that night, was explained, agreeably to the
Jewish mode of thought, by the intervention of a strengthening
angel, and that this explanation may have mingled itself with the
narrative: Schleiermacher, too, finds it the most probable that this
moment, described by Jesus himself as one of hard trial, was early
glorified in hymns by angelic appearances, and that this
embellishment, [639]originally intended in a merely poetical sense,
was received by the narrator of the third gospel as historical.24
The other feature peculiar to Luke, namely, the bloody sweat, was
early felt to be no less fraught with difficulty than the strengthening
by the angel. At least it appears to have been this more than
anything else, which occasioned the exclusion of the entire addition
in Luke, v. 43 and 44 , from many ancient copies of the gospels.
For as the orthodox, who according to Epiphanius25 rejected the
passage, appear to have shrunk the most from the lowest degree of
fear which is expressed by the bloody sweat: so to the docetic
opinions of some who did not receive this passage,26 this was the
only particular which could give offence. Thus in an earlier age,
doubts were raised respecting the fitness of the bloody sweat of
Jesus on dogmatical considerations: while in more modern times this
has been done on physiological grounds. It is true that authorities
are adduced for instances of bloody sweat from Aristotle27 down to

the more recent investigators of nature;28 but such a phenomenon is
only mentioned as extremely rare, and as a symptom of decided
disease. Hence Paulus points to the ὡσεὶ (as it were), as indicating
that it is not directly a bloody sweat which is here spoken of, but
only a sweat which might be compared to blood: this comparison,
however, he refers only to the thick appearance of the drops, and
Olshausen also agrees with him thus far, that a red colour of the
perspiration is not necessarily included in the comparison. But in the
course of a narrative which is meant as a prelude to the sanguinary
death of Jesus, it is the most natural to take the comparison of the
sweat to drops of blood, in its full sense. Further, here, yet more
forcibly than in relation to the angelic appearance, the question
suggests itself: how did Luke obtain this information? or to pass by
all questions which must take the same form in this instance as in
the previous one, how could the disciples, at a distance and in the
night, discern the falling of drops of blood? According to Paulus
indeed it ought not to be said that the sweat fell, for as the word
καταβαίνοντες, falling, refers not to ἱδρὼς, sweat, but to the θρόμβοι
αἵματος, drops of blood, which are introduced merely for the
purpose of comparison, it is only meant that a sweat as thick and
heavy as falling drops of blood stood on the brow of Jesus. But
whether it be said: the sweat fell like drops of blood to the earth, or:
it was like drops of blood falling to the earth, it comes pretty much
to the same thing; at least the comparison of a sweat standing on
the brow to blood falling on the earth would not be very apt,
especially if together with the falling, we are to abstract also the
colour of the blood, so that of the words, as it were drops of blood
falling on the ground, ὡσεὶ θρόμβοι αἵματος καταβαίνοντες εἰς τὴν
γῆν, only ὡσεὶ θρόμβοι, as it were drops, would properly have any
decided meaning. Since then we can neither comprehend the

circumstance, nor conceive what historical authority for it the
narrator could have had, let us, with Schleiermacher, rather take this
feature also as a poetical one construed historically by the
Evangelist, or better still, as a mythical one, the origin of which may
be easily explained from the tendency to perfect the conflict in the
garden as a prelude to the sufferings of Jesus on the cross, by
showing that not merely the psychical aspect of that suffering was
fore-shadowed [640]in the mental trouble, but also its physical
aspect, in the bloody sweat.
As a counterpoise to this peculiarity of Luke, his two predecessors
have, as we have said, the twofold occurrence of the number three,
—the three disciples taken apart, and the three retirements and
prayers of Jesus. It has indeed been contended that so restless a
movement hither and thither, so rapid an alternation of retirement
and return, is entirely suited to the state of mind in which Jesus then
was,29 and also, that in the repetition of the prayer there is correctly
shown an appropriate gradation; a more and more complete
resignation to the will of the Father.30 But that the two narrators
count the retirements of Jesus, marking them by the expressions ἐκ
δευτέρου and ἐκ τρίτου, at once shows that the number three was a
point of importance to them; and when Matthew, though he
certainly gives in the second prayer an expression somewhat
different from that of the first, in the third makes Jesus only repeat
the same words, τὸν αὐτὸν λόγον, and when Mark does this even
the second time,—this is a significant proof that they were
embarrassed how to fill up the favourite number three with
appropriate matter. According to Olshausen, Matthew, with his three
acts of this conflict, must be right in opposition to Luke, because
these three attacks made on Jesus through the medium of fear,
correspond to the three attacks through the medium of desire, in the

history of the temptation. This parallel is well founded; it only leads
to an opposite result to that deduced by Olshausen. For which is
more probable; that in both cases the threefold repetition of the
attack had an objective ground, in a latent law of the kingdom of
spirits, and hence is to be regarded as really historical; or that it had
merely a subjective ground in the manner of the legend, so that the
occurrence of this number here, as certainly as above in the history
of the temptation, points to something mythical?31
If then we subtract the angel, the bloody sweat, and the precisely
threefold repetition of the retirement and prayer of Jesus, as
mythical additions, there remains so far, as an historical kernel, the
fact, that Jesus on that evening in the garden experienced a violent
access of fear, and prayed that his sufferings might be averted, with
the reservation nevertheless of an entire submission to the will of
God: and at this point of the inquiry, it is not a little surprising, on
the ordinary view of the relation between our gospels, that even this
fundamental fact of the history in question, is wanting in the Gospel
of John.
[Contents]
§ 126.
RELATION OF THE FOURTH GOSPEL TO THE
EVENTS IN GETHSEMANE. THE FAREWELL
DISCOURSES IN JOHN, AND THE SCENE
FOLLOWING THE ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE GREEKS.

The relation of John to the synoptical narratives just considered has,
when regarded more closely, two aspects: first, he has not what the
synoptists present; and secondly, instead of this he has something
which it is difficult to reconcile with their statements.
As regards the first and negative side, it has to be explained how, on
the ordinary supposition concerning the author of the fourth gospel
and the correctness of the synoptical account, it happens that John,
who according to the [641]two first gospels was one of the three
whom Jesus took with him, to be the more immediate witnesses of
his conflict, passes in silence over the whole event? It will not suffice
to appeal to his sleepiness during the scene; for, if this was a
hindrance to its narration, all the Evangelists must have been silent
on the subject, and not John alone. Hence the usual expedient is
tried here also, and he is said to have omitted the scene because he
found it already presented with sufficient care in the writings of the
synoptists.32 But between the two first synoptists and the third there
is here so important a divergency, as to demand most urgently that
John, if he took their accounts into consideration, should speak a
mediating word in this difference. If however, John had not the
works of his predecessors lying before him, he might still, it is said,
suppose that history to be sufficiently familiar to his readers as a
part of evangelical tradition.33 But as this tradition was the source of
the divergent representations of the synoptists, it must itself have
early begun to exhibit variations, and to narrate the fact first in one
way, then in another: consequently on this view also there was a call
on the author of the fourth gospel to rectify these wavering
accounts. Hence of late an entirely new supposition has been
adopted, namely, that John omits the events in Gethsemane lest, by
the mention of the strengthening angel, he should give any
furtherance to the Ebionitish opinion that the higher nature in Christ

was an angel, which united itself with him at baptism; and now as it
might be inferred, again departed from him before the hour of
suffering.34 But—not to urge that we have already found any
hypothesis of this nature inadequate to explain the omissions in the
Gospel of John—if this Evangelist wished to avoid any indication of a
close relation between Jesus and angels, he must also have
excluded other passages from his gospel: above all, as Lücke
remarks,35 the declaration concerning the ascending and descending
of angels upon him, i. 52; and also the idea, given indeed only as
the conjecture of some bystanders, that an angel spake to him,
ἄγγελος αὐτῷ λελάληκεν, xii. 29 . If, however, he on any ground
whatever, found special matter of hesitation in the appearance of the
angel in the garden: this would only be a reason for omitting the
intervention of the angel, with Matthew and Mark, and not for
excluding the whole scene, which was easily separable from this
single particular.
If the mere absence of the incident from the narrative of John is not
to be explained, the difficulty increases when we consider what this
Evangelist communicates to us instead of the scene in the garden,
concerning the mental condition of Jesus during the last hours
previous to his arrest. In the same place which the synoptists assign
to the agony in the garden, John, it is true, has nothing, for he
makes the capture of Jesus follow at once on his arrival in the
garden: but immediately before, at and after the last meal, he has
discourses inspired by a state of mind, which could hardly have as a
sequel scenes like those which according to the synoptical narratives
occurred in the garden. In the farewell discourses in John, namely,
xiv. –xvii. , Jesus speaks precisely in the tone of one who has
already inwardly triumphed over approaching suffering; from a point
of view in which death is quenched in the beams of the glory which

is to come after; with a divine peace which is cheerful in the
certainty of its immovability: how is it possible that immediately
after, this peace should give place to the most violent mental
emotion, this tranquillity, to a trouble even unto death, and that
from victory achieved he should sink again into doubtful contest, in
which he needed strengthening [642]by an angel? In those farewell
discourses, he appears throughout as one who from the plenitude of
his inward serenity and confidence, comforts his trembling friends:
and yet he now seeks spiritual aid from the drowsy disciples, for he
requests them to watch with him; there, he is so certain of the
salutary effects of his approaching death, as to assure his followers,
that it is well for them that he should go away, else the Comforter
παράκλητος would not come to them: here, he again doubts
whether his death be really the will of the Father; there, he exhibits
a consciousness which under the necessity of death, inasmuch as it
comprehends that necessity, recovers freedom, so that his will to die
is one with the divine will that he should die: here, these two wills
are so at variance, that the subjective, submissively indeed, but
painfully, bows to the absolute. And these two opposite states of
mind are not even separated by any intervening incident of an
appalling character, but only by the short space of time which
elapsed during the walk from Jerusalem to the Mount of Olives,
across the Kedron: just as if, in that brook, as in another Lethe,
Jesus had lost all remembrance of the foregoing discourses.
It is true that we are here referred to the alternation of mental
states, which naturally becomes more rapid in proportion as the
decisive moment approaches;36 to the fact that not seldom in the life
of believers there occurs a sudden withdrawal of the higher
sustenance of the soul, an abandonment of them by God, which
alone renders the victory nevertheless achieved truly great and

admirable.37 But this latter opinion at once betrays its unintelligent
origin from a purely imaginative species of thought (to which the
soul can appear like a lake, ebbing or flowing according as the
floodgates of the conducting canals are opened or closed), by the
contradictions in which it is on all sides involved. The triumph of
Christ over the fear of death is said only to appear in its true
magnitude, when we consider, that while a Socrates could only
conquer because he remained in the full possession of his mental
energies, Christ was able to triumph over all the powers of darkness,
even when forsaken by God and the fulness of his spirit, by his
merely human soul ψυχὴ:—but is not this the rankest Pelagianism,
the most flagrant contradiction of the doctrine of the church, as of
sound philosophy, which alike maintain that without God, man can
do no good thing, that only by his armour can man repel the shafts
of the wicked one? To escape from thus contradicting the results of
sober reflection, the imaginative thinker is driven to contradict
himself, by supposing that in the strengthening angel (which,
incidentally, contrary to the verbal significance of the text, is reduced
to a merely internal vision of Jesus) there was imparted to Jesus,
when wrestling in the extremity of his abandonment, an influx of
spiritual strength; so that he thus would not, as it was at first
vaunted, have conquered without, but only with Divine aid; if, in
accordance with Luke, the angel be supposed to have appeared prior
to the last, most violent part of the conflict, in order to strengthen
Jesus for this ultimate trial. But rather than fall into so evident a self-
contradiction, Olshausen prefers covertly to contradict the text, and
hence transposes the order of the incidents, assuming, without
further preliminary, that the strengthening came after the third
prayer, consequently after the victory had been already gained,
whence he is driven to the extreme arbitrariness of interpreting the

phrase: καὶ γενόμενος ἐν ἀγωνίᾳ ἐκτενέστερον προσηύχετο, and
being in an agony he prayed, as the pluperfect—he had prayed.
But setting aside this figurative representation of the cause which
produced [643]the sudden change of mood in Jesus; such a change is
in itself burthened with many difficulties. Correctly speaking, what
here took place in Jesus was not a mere change, but a relapse of
the most startling kind. In the so-called sacerdotal prayer, John
xvii. especially, Jesus had completely closed his account with the
Father; all fear in relation to what awaited him lay so far behind the
point which he had here attained, that he spent not a single word on
his own suffering, and only spoke of the afflictions which threatened
his friends; the chief subject of his communion with the Father was
the glory into which he was about to enter, and the blessedness
which he hoped to have obtained for his followers: so that his
departure to the scene of his arrest has entirely the character of an
accessory fact, merely consummating by external realization what
was already inwardly and essentially effected. Now if Jesus after this
closing of his account with God, once more opened it; if after having
held himself already victor, he once more sank into anxious conflict:
must he not have laid himself open to the remonstrance: why didst
thou not, instead of indulging in vain anticipations of glory, rather
occupy thyself betimes with earnest thoughts of the coming trial,
that by such a preparation, thou mightest spare thyself perilous
surprise on its approach? why didst thou utter the words of triumph
before thou hadst fought, so as to be obliged with shame to cry for
help at the on-coming of the battle? In fact after the assurance of
already achieved victory expressed in the farewell discourses, and
especially in the final prayer, the lapse into such a state of mind as
that described by the synoptists, would have been a very humiliating
declension, which Jesus could not have foreseen, otherwise he

would not have expressed himself with so much confidence; and
which, therefore, would prove that he was deceived in himself, that
he held himself to be stronger than he actually found himself, and
that he had given utterance to this too high self-valuation, not
without a degree of presumption. Those who regard this as
inconsistent with the equally judicious and modest character which
Jesus manifests on other occasions, will find themselves urged to the
dilemma, that either the farewell discourses in John, at least the
final prayer, or else the events in Gethsemane, cannot be historical.
It is to be regretted that in coming to a decision in this case,
theologians have set out rather from dogmatical prejudices than
from critical grounds. Usteri’s assertion, at least, that the
representation given in John of the state of mind of Jesus in his last
hours is the only correct one, while that of the synoptists is
unhistorical,38 is only to be accounted for by that author’s then
zealous adherence to the paragraphs of Schleiermacher’s Dogmatik,
wherein the idea of the impeccability of Jesus is carried to an extent
which excludes even the slightest degree of conflict; for that, apart
from such presuppositions, the representation given in John of the
last hours of Jesus, is the more natural and appropriate, it might be
difficult to prove. On the contrary, Bretschneider might rather appear
to be right, when he claims the superiority in naturalness and
intrinsic evidence of truth for the synoptists:39 were it not that our
confidence in the decisions of this writer is undermined, by his
dislike for the dogmatical and metaphysical purport of the discourses
assigned to this period in John—a dislike which appears to indicate
that his entire polemic against John originated in the discordance
between his own critical philosophy of reflection, and the speculative
doctrine of the fourth gospel.

John, indeed, as even the author of the Probabilia remarks, has not
wholly passed over the anxiety of Jesus in relation to his
approaching death; he has [644]only assigned to it an earlier epoch,
John xii. 27 ff. The scene with which John connects it takes place
immediately after the entrance of Jesus into Jerusalem, when certain
Greeks, doubtless proselytes of the gate, who had come among the
multitude to the feast, wished to have an interview with him. With
all the diversity of the circumstances and of the event itself, there is
yet a striking agreement between what here occurs and what the
synoptists place in the last evening of the life of Jesus, and in the
seclusion of the garden. As Jesus here declares to his disciples, my
soul is troubled even unto death, περίλυπός ἐστιν ἡ ψυχή μου ἕως
θανάτου (Matt. xxvi. 38 ): so there he says: Now is my soul
troubled, νῦν ἡ ψυχή μου τετάρακται (John xii. 27 ); as he here
prays, that if it be possible, this hour may pass from him, ἵνα, εἰ
δυνατόν ἐστι, παρέλθη ἀπ’ αὐτοῦ ἡ ὥρα (Mark xiv. 35 ): so there he
entreats: Father, save me from this hour, πάτερ, σωσόν με ἐκ τῆς
ὥρας ταύτης (John xii. 27 ); as here he calms himself by the
restriction: nevertheless, not as I will, but as thou wilt, ἀλλ’ οὐ τί
ἐγὼ θέλω, ἀλλὰ τί σύ (Mark xiv. 36 ): so there, by the reflection:
but for this cause came I to this hour, ἀλλὰ διὰ τοῦτο ἦλθον εἰς τὴν
ὥραν ταύτην (John xii. 27 ); lastly, as here an angel appears
strengthening Jesus, ἄγγελος ἐνισχύων (Luke xxii. 43 ): so there
something happens which occasions the bystanders to observe that
an angel spake to him, ἄγγελος αὐτῷ λελάληκεν (John xii. 29 ). This
similarity has induced many of the more modern theologians to
pronounce the incident in John xii. 27 ff. , and that in Gethsemane
identical; and after this admission the only question was, on which
side the reproach of inaccurate narration, and more especially of
erroneous position, ought to fall.

Agreeably to the tendency of the latest criticism of the gospels, the
burthen of error in this matter has been more immediately cast on
the synoptists. The true occasion of the mental conflict of Jesus is
said to be found only in John, namely, in the approach of those
Greeks who intimated to him through Philip and Andrew their wish
for an interview with him. These persons doubtless wished to make
the proposal that he should leave Palestine and carry forward his
work among the foreign Jews; such a proposal held out to him the
enticement of escape from the threatening danger, and this for some
moments placed him in a state of doubt and inward conflict, which
however ended by his refusing to admit the Greeks to his
presence.40 Here we have the effects of a vision rendered so acute
by a double prejudice, both critical and dogmatical, as to read
statements between the lines of the text; for of such an intended
proposal on the part of the Greeks, there is no trace in John; and
yet, even allowing that the Evangelist knew nothing of the plan of
the Greeks from these individuals themselves, there must have been
some intimation in the discourse of Jesus that his emotion had
reference to such a proposal. Judging from the context, the request
of the Greeks had no other motive than that the solemn entrance of
Jesus, and the popular rumour concerning him, had rendered them
curious to see and know the celebrated man; and this desire of
theirs was not connected with the emotion which Jesus experienced
on the occasion, otherwise than that it led Jesus to think of the
speedy propagation of his kingdom in the Gentile world, and of its
indispensable condition, namely, his death. Here, however, the idea
of his death is only mediately and remotely presented to the soul of
Jesus; hence it is the more difficult to conceive how it could affect
him so strongly, as that he should feel himself urged to beseech the
Father for delivery from this hour; and if he were ever profoundly

moved by the presentiment of death, the [645]synoptists appear to
place this fear in a more suitable position, in immediate proximity to
the commencement of his sufferings. The representation of John is
also deficient in certain circumstances, presented by the synoptists,
which appear to vindicate the trouble of Jesus. In the solitude of the
garden and the gloom of night, such an ebullition of feeling is more
conceivable; and its unrepressed utterance to his most intimate and
worthy friends is natural and justifiable. But according to John that
agitation seized Jesus in the broad daylight, in a concourse of
people; a situation in which it is ordinarily more easy to maintain
composure, or in which at least it is usual, from the possibility of
misconstruction, to suppress the more profound emotions.
Hence it is more easy to agree with Theile’s opinion, that the author
of the fourth gospel has inserted the incident, correctly placed by
the synoptists, in a false position.41 Jesus having said, as an
introduction to the answer which he returned to the request of the
Greeks, that they might see the man who had been so glorified by
his entrance into the city: Yes, the hour of my glorification is come,
but of glorification by death (xii. 23 f. ): this led the narrator astray,
and induced him, instead of giving the real answer of Jesus to the
Greeks together with the result, to make Jesus dilate on the intrinsic
necessity of his death, and then almost unconsciously to interweave
the description of the internal conflict which Jesus had to experience
in virtue of his voluntary sacrifice, whence he subsequently, in its
proper place, omits this conflict. There is nothing strange in Theile’s
opinion, except that he supposes it possible for the Apostle John to
have made such a transposition. That the scene in Gethsemane,
from his having been asleep while it was passing, was not deeply
imprinted on his mind, and that it was besides thrust into the
background of his memory by the crucifixion which shortly followed,

might have been considered explanatory of an entire omission, or a
merely summary account of the scene on his part, but by no means
of an incorrect position. If notwithstanding his sleepiness at the
time, he had taken any notice of the event, he must at least have
retained thus much—that that peculiar state of mind in Jesus befel
him close upon the commencement of his sufferings, in the night
and in privacy: how could he ever so far belie his memory as to
make the scene take place at a much earlier period, in the open day,
and among many people? Rather than thus endanger the
authenticity of the Gospel of John, others, alleging the possibility
that such a state of mind might occur more than once in the latter
part of the life of Jesus, deny the identity of the two scenes.42
Certainly, between the synoptical representation of the mental
conflict of Jesus and that given in John, besides the external
difference of position, there exist important internal divergencies;
the narrative in John containing features which have no analogy with
anything in the synoptical account of the events in Gethsemane. It is
true that the petition of Jesus in John for deliverance from this hour,
is perfectly in unison with his prayer in the synoptists: but, on the
other hand, there is no parallel to the additional prayer in John:
Father, glorify thy name, πάτερ, δόξασόν σου τὸ ὄνομα (xii. 28 ):
further, though in both accounts an angel is spoken of, yet there is
no trace in the synoptists of the heavenly voice which in the fourth
gospel occasions the belief that an angel is concerned. Such
heavenly voices are not found in the three first gospels elsewhere
than at the baptism and again at the transfiguration; of which latter
scene the prayer of Jesus in John: [646]Father, glorify thy name, may
remind us. In the synoptical description of the transfiguration, it is
true the expressions δόξα, glory and δοξάζειν, to glorify, are not
found: but the Second Epistle to Peter represents Jesus as receiving

in the transfiguration honour and glory, τιμὴν καὶ δόξαν, and the
heavenly voice as coming from the excellent glory, μεγαλοπρεπὴς
δόξα (i. 17 f. ). Thus in addition to the two narratives already
considered, there presents itself a third as a parallel; since the scene
in John xii. 27 ff. is on the one side, by the trouble of spirit and the
angel, allied to the occurrences in Gethsemane, while on the other
side, by the prayer for glorification and the confirmatory voice from
heaven, it has some affinity with the history of the transfiguration.
And here two cases are possible: either that the narrative of John is
the simple root, the separation of which into its constituent elements
has given rise in a traditional manner to the two synoptical
anecdotes of the transfiguration and the agony in the garden; or
that these last are the original formations, from the fusing and
intermingling of which in the legend the narrative of John is the
mixed product: between which cases only the intrinsic character of
the narratives can decide. That the synoptical narratives of the
transfiguration and the agony in the garden are clear pictures, with
strongly marked features, can by itself prove nothing; since, as we
have sufficiently shown, a narrative of legendary origin may just as
well possess these characteristics as one of a purely historical
nature. Thus if the narrative in John were merely less clear and
definite, this need not prevent it from being regarded as the original,
simple sketch, from which the embellishing hand of tradition had
elaborated those more highly coloured pictures. But the fact is that
the narrative in John is wanting not only in definiteness, but in
agreement with the attendant circumstances and with itself. We
have no intimation what was the answer of Jesus to the Greeks, or
what became of those persons themselves; no appropriate motive is
given for the sudden anguish of Jesus and his prayer for
glorification. Such a mixture of heterogeneous parts is always the

sign of a secondary product, of an alluvial conglomeration; and
hence we seem warranted to conclude, that in the narrative of John
the two synoptical anecdotes of the transfiguration and the agony in
the garden are blended together. If, as is apparently the case, the
legend when it reached the fourth Evangelist presented these two
incidents in faded colours,43 and in indistinct outline: it would be
easy for him, since his idea of glorification (δοξάζειν) had the double
aspect of suffering and exaltation, to confuse the two; what he
gathered from the narrative of the agony in the garden, of a prayer
of Jesus to the Father, he might connect with the heavenly voice in
the history of the transfiguration, making this an answer to the
prayer; to the voice, the more particular import of which, as given by
the synoptists, was unknown to him, he gave, in accordance, with
his general notion of this incident as a glory δόξα conferred on
Jesus, the import: I have both glorified and will glorify again, καὶ
ἐδόξασα, καὶ πάλιν δοξάσω, and to make it correspond with this
divine response, he had to unite with the prayer of Jesus for
deliverance that for glorification also; the strengthening angel, of
which the fourth Evangelist had perhaps also heard something, was
included in the opinion of the people as to the source of the
heavenly voice; in regard to the time, John placed his narrative
about midway between the transfiguration and the agony in the
garden, and from ignorance of the original circumstances the choice
in this respect was infelicitous.
If we here revert to the question from which we set out, whether we
are rather [647]to retain the farewell discourses in John as thoroughly
historical, and renounce the synoptical representation of the scene in
Gethsemane, or vice versâ: we shall be more inclined, considering
the result of the inquiry just instituted, to embrace the latter
alternative. The difficulty, that it is scarcely conceivable how John

could accurately remember these long discourses of Jesus, Paulus
has thought to solve, by the conjecture, that the apostle, probably
on the next Sabbath, while Jesus lay in the grave, recalled to his
mind the conversations of the previous evening, and perhaps also
wrote them down.44 But in that period of depression, which John
also shared, he would be scarcely in a condition to reproduce these
discourses without obscuring their peculiar hue of unclouded
serenity; on the contrary, as the author of the Wolfenbüttel
fragments observes, had the narrative of the words and deeds of
Jesus been committed to writing by the Evangelists in the couple of
days after the death of Jesus, when they had no longer any hope, all
promises would have been excluded from their gospels.45 Hence
even Lücke, in consideration of the mode of expression in the
farewell discourses, and particularly in the final prayer, being so
peculiarly that of John, has relinquished the position that Jesus
spoke in the very words which John puts into his mouth, i.e. the
authenticity of these discourses in the strictest sense; but only to
maintain the more firmly their authenticity in the wider sense, i.e.
the genuineness of the substantial thoughts.46 Even this, however,
has been attacked by the author of the Probabilia, for he asks, with
especial reference to chap. xvii. , whether it be conceivable that
Jesus in the anticipation of violent death, had nothing of more
immediate concern than to commune with God on the subject of his
person, the works he had already achieved, and the glory to be
expected? and whether it be not rather highly probable that the
prayer flowed only from the mind of the writer, and was intended by
him as a confirmation of his doctrine of Jesus as the incarnate word
λόγος, and of the dignity of the apostles?47 This representation is so
far true that the final prayer in question resembles not an immediate
outpouring of soul, but a product of reflection—is rather a discourse

on Jesus than a discourse from him. It presents everywhere the
mode of thought of one who stands far in advance of the
circumstances of which he writes, and hence already sees the form
of Jesus in the glorifying haze of distance; an illusion which he
heightens by putting his own thoughts, which had sprung from an
advanced development of the Christian community, into the mouth
of its Founder prior to its actual existence. But in the preceding
farewell discourses also there are many thoughts which appear to
have taken their shape from an experience of the event. Their entire
tone may be the most naturally explained by the supposition, that
they are the work of one to whom the death of Jesus was already a
past event, the terrors of which had melted away in its blessed
consequences, and in the devotional contemplation of the church. In
particular, apart from what is said of the return of Christ, that era in
the Christian cause which is generally called the outpouring of the
Holy Spirit, is predicted in the declarations concerning the Paraclete,
and the judgment which he would hold over the world (xiv. 16 ff.
25 , xv. 26 , xvi. 7 ff. 13 ff. ), with a distinctness which seems to
indicate light borrowed from the issue.
In relation, however, to the fact that the farewell discourses involve
the decided foreknowledge of the immediately approaching result,
the sufferings and death of Jesus (xiii. 18 ff. , 33 , 38 , xiv. 30 f.
xvi. 5 ff. 16 , 32 f. ), the [648]narrative of John stands on the same
ground with the synoptical one, since this also rests on the
presupposition of the most exact prescience of the hour and
moment when the sufferings will commence. It was not only at the
last meal and on the departure to the Mount of Olives, that this
foreknowledge was shown, according to the three first gospels, for
in them as well as in John, Jesus predicts that the denial of Peter will
take place before the cock crow; not only does the agony in the

garden rest on the foreknowledge of the impending sufferings, but
at the end of this conflict Jesus is able to say that now, at this very
minute, the betrayer is in the act of approaching (Matt. xxvi. 45 f. ).
Paulus, it is true, maintains that Jesus saw from a distance the troop
of guards coming out of the city, which, as they had torches, was
certainly possible from a garden on the Mount of Olives: but without
being previously informed of the plans of his enemies, Jesus could
not know that he was the object of pursuit; and at any rate the
Evangelists narrate the words of Jesus as a proof of his supernatural
knowledge. But if according to our previous inquiry, the
foreknowledge of the catastrophe in general could not proceed from
the higher principle in Jesus, neither could that of the precise
moment when it would commence; while that he in a natural way,
by means of secret friends in the Sanhedrim, or otherwise, was
apprised of the fatal blow which the Jewish rulers with the help of
one of his disciples were about to aim at him in the coming night,
we have no trace in our Evangelical accounts, and we are therefore
not authorized to presuppose anything of the kind. On the contrary,
as the above declaration of Jesus is given by the narrators as a proof
of his higher knowledge, either we must receive it as such, or, if we
cannot do this, we must embrace the negative inference, that they
are here incorrect in narrating such a proof; and the positive
conclusion on which this borders is, not that that knowledge was in
fact only a natural one, but, that the evangelical narrators must have
had an interest in maintaining a supernatural knowledge of his
approaching sufferings on the part of Jesus; an interest the nature
of which has been already unfolded.
The motive also for heightening the prescience into a real
presentiment, and thus for creating the scene in Gethsemane, is
easy of discovery. On the one hand, there cannot be a more obvious

proof that a foreknowledge of an event or condition has existed,
than its having risen to the vividness of a presentiment; on the other
hand, the suffering must appear the more awful, if the mere
presentiment extorted from him who was destined to that suffering,
anguish even to bloody sweat, and prayer for deliverance. Further,
the sufferings of Jesus were exhibited in a higher sense, as
voluntary, if before they came upon him externally, he had resigned
himself to them internally; and lastly, it must have gratified primitive
Christian devotion, to withdraw the real crisis of these sufferings
from the profane eyes to which he was exposed on the cross, and to
enshrine it as a mystery only witnessed by a narrow circle of the
initiated. As materials for the formation of this scene, besides the
description of the sorrow and the prayer which were essential to it,
there presented itself first the image of a cup ποτήριον, used by
Jesus himself as a designation of his sufferings (Matt. xx. 22 f. );
and secondly, Old Testament passages, in Psalms of lamentation, xlii.
6 , 12 , xliii. 5 , where in the LXX. the ψυχὴ περίλυπος (soul
exceeding sorrowful) occurs, and in addition to this the expression
ἕως θανάτου (unto death) the more naturally suggested itself, since
Jesus was here really about to encounter death. This representation
must have been of early origin, because in the Epistle to the
Hebrews (v. 7) there is an indubitable allusion to this scene.—Thus
Gabler said too little when he pronounced the angelic appearance, a
mythical garb of the fact [649]that Jesus in the deepest sorrow of that
night suddenly felt an accession of mental strength; since rather, the
entire scene in Gethsemane, because it rests on presuppositions
destitute of proof, must be renounced.
Herewith the dilemma above stated falls to the ground, since we
must pronounce unhistorical not only one of the two, but both
representations of the last hours of Jesus before his arrest. The only

degree of distinction between the historical value of the synoptical
account and that of John is, that the former is a mythical product of
the first era of traditional formation, the latter of the second,—or
more correctly, the one is a product of the second order, the other of
the third. The representation common to the synoptists and to John,
that Jesus foreknew his sufferings even to the day and hour of their
arrival, is the first modification which the pious legend gave to the
real history of Jesus; the statement of the synoptists, that he even
had an antecedent experience of his sufferings, is the second step of
the mythical; while, that although he foreknew them, and also in
one instance had a foretaste of them (John xii. 27 ff. ), he had yet
long beforehand completely triumphed over them, and when they
stood immediately before him, looked them in the face with
unperturbed serenity—this representation of the fourth gospel is the
third and highest grade of devotional, but unhistorical
embellishment.
[Contents]
§ 127.
ARREST OF JESUS.
In strict accordance with the declaration of Jesus that even now the
betrayer is at hand, Judas while he is yet speaking approaches with
an armed force (Matt. xxvi. 47 parall., comp. John xvii. 3 ). This
band, which according to the synoptists came from the chief priests
and elders, was according to Luke led by the captains of the temple

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