Operations principle-of-managment

Principles of Management – MGT503 VU
Lesson 1.1
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT

Major objective of treating “Principles of Management” in a concise, interesting, and understandable
manner will be to present management history and theory with an emphasis on the future. Most students
will be applying the concepts learned here over a period of next many years. Another objective shall be to
identify several areas where management concepts are applicable to the personal and professional goal-
setting and also to apply the management skills to the challenge of managing the most difficult peer or
subordinate – the one that may confront you in the mirror each morning in your professional career.
In any treatment of a basic subject like this, there is little that the resource/anchor person can claim to be
uniquely his own except his/her tacit knowledge and the presentation style. The write-ups from chapters of
recommended text books for this course have also been included and are highly acknowledged.

The Intellectual Heritage of Management
Organized endeavors directed by people responsible for planning, organizing, leading, and controlling
activities have existed for thousands of years. The Egyptian pyramids and the Great Wall of China, for
instance, are tangible evidence that projects of tremendous scope, employing tens of thousands of people,
were undertaken well before modern times. The pyramids are a particularly interesting example. The
construction of a single pyramid occupied more than 100,000 workers for 20 years. Who told each worker
what to do? Who ensured that there would be enough stones at the site to keep workers busy? The answer
to such questions is managers. Regardless of what managers were called at the time, someone had to plan
what was to be done, how to organize people and materials to do it, lead and direct the workers, and impose
some controls to ensure that everything was done as planned.
It is not very difficult for us to imagine modern management techniques in the days of the pharaohs. True,
we can get a laugh or two thinking of profit sharing and other twentieth-century terms appearing in the
ancient land of the Nile, but the generic relationships of people managing people must have borne a great
many similarities. In fact, many ancient documents have been translated to reveal that, through the ages,
wherever people have worked together to accomplish their goals, many of the same phenomena have
prevailed.

Most scholars suggest that management, in its most basic format, has existed since one person persuaded
another–whether with club or carrot–to do something. Frequently, management is defined as the challenge
of creating as environment where people can work together to achieve a mutual objective. While this is true
for managers in business, government, and other organizations, I hope that each management student will
recognize the opportunities for applying management concepts to personal challenges. For that purpose,
management can be defined as the concepts, techniques, and processes that enable goals to be achieved
efficiently and effectively.

The Egyptian Pyramid:
Approximately four thousand years B.C., the Egyptians were building a civilization edge on the rest of the
world. Very few of us can comprehend the extent to which this culture zoomed ahead of its times. If it were
possible to make a reliable comparison, we would probably find that no nation in our time is as far ahead of
its contemporaries as the land of the Pharaohs was between 4000 B.C. and 525 B.C.

The most obvious demonstration of Egyptian power is the construction projects that remain even today.
Without the service of cranes, bulldozers, or tea/coffee breaks, the Egyptians constructed mammoth
structures of admirable precision. The great pyramid of Cheops, for example, covers thirteen acres and
contains 2,300,000 stone blocks. The blocks weigh about two and a half tons each and were cut to size
many miles away. The stones were transported and set in place by slave labor and precision planning. The
men who built the enduring structures of ancient Egypt not only knew how to use of human resources
efficiently but also knew how to manage 100,000 workers in a twenty-year project.

In their business and governmental affairs, the Egyptians kept documents to show exactly how much
material was received and from whom, when it came in, and exactly how it was used. The military, social,
religious, and governmental aspects of Egyptian life were highly organized. There were much inefficiency,

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but the final task was accomplished. Three commodities, which virtually rule modern efforts, seem to have
been only minor considerations along the Nile: time, money, and the satisfaction of the worker.

Great China Wall:
The Great China Wall built in the time period of 956 years (688 BC – 1644 AD). It is 6000 Km long. Its
base is 20 feet wide and top 11 feet wide. The height of China Wall is from 7 to 37 feet. The whole China
wall is made by hands. Working as united for 956 years, there should be some purposes due to which
people worked for a long time.

According to history, the purpose of china wall was:

• To mark territories
• To defend the area
• To protect silk road

These examples from the past demonstrate that organizations have been around for thousands of years and
that management has been practiced for an equivalent period.

The Wealth of Nations
One of the classic books on economic philosophy was written by Adam Smith, an eighteenth-century
professor at Glasgow, Scotland. In 1776, Adam Smith published a classical economics doctrine, The Wealth
of Nations, in which he argued the economic advantages that organizations and society would gain form the
division of labor, the breakdown of jobs into narrow and repetitive tasks. Using the pin manufacturing
industry as an example, Smith claimed that 10 individuals, each doing a specialized task, could produce
about 48,000 pints a day among them. However, if each person worked separately and had to perform each
task, it would be quite an accomplishment to produce even 10 pins a day! Smith concluded that division of
labor increases productivity by increasing each worker’s skill and dexterity, by saving time lost in changing
tasks, and by creating laborsaving inventions and machinery. The continued popularity of job specialization-
for example, specific tasks performed by members of a hospital surgery team, specific meal preparation
tasks done by workers in restaurant kitchens, or specific positions played by players on a football or cricket
team–is undoubtedly due to the economic advantages cited by Adam Smith.

Smith’s emphasis on the principle of specialization showed him to be ahead of his time. He believed that
increasing specialization was the key to productivity. Productivity would produce more income, higher
wages, larger families, increased demand, and further division of labor and . . . the cycle would never stop.
Smith’s contribution to the literature of economics is only exceeded by his optimism about the predictability
of man.

The Pleasures of Productivity
As we look briefly at the development of the intellectual heritage of management through the ages, we can
see a consistent correlation of productive periods with times of capitalism and individual competition. The
concepts are for managers and prospective managers in both nonprofit and for-profit organizations.
Is it degrading to the profession of management to suggest that effective management practice is primarily
common sense and was utilized by primitive people? It is no insult . . . because common sense is such an
uncommon quality in most generations. In fact, some of the most disappointed students ever to emerge
from learning institutions are those who think that, by taking a degree in management, they will receive
inside knowledge of the secret words and formulas for manipulating people. The truth is that even the best
management education curriculum can only hope to sharpen the skills and understanding that students
already have

Management in Twentieth Century:
The major contribution of the Industrial Revolution was the substitution of machine power for human
power, which, in turn, made it more economical to manufacture goods in factories rather than at home.
These large, efficient factories using power-driven equipment required managerial skills. Why? Managers
were needed to forecast demand, ensure that enough material was on hand to make products, assign tasks

to people, direct daily activities, coordinate the various tasks, ensure that the machines were kept in good
working condition and work standards were maintained, find markets for the finished products, and so
forth. Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling became necessary, and the development of large
corporations would require formal management practices. The need for a formal theory to guide managers
in running these organizations had arrived. However, it wasn’t until the early 1900s that the first major step
toward developing such a theory was taken.

The development of management theories has been characterized by differing beliefs about what managers
do and how they should do it. In the next sections we present the contributions of four approaches.
Scientific management looked at management from the perspective of improving the productivity and
efficiency of manual workers. General administrative theorists were concerned with the overall organization
and how to make it more effective. Then a group of theorists focused on developing and applying
quantitative models to management practices. Finally, a group of researchers emphasized human behavior
in organizations, or the “people” side of management.

Professional Managerial Era (1950- )
In our present age of market driven capitalism and futuristic knowledge driven economic markets, the
decisions are made and the trends are set by the professional managers. Unlike their predecessors, the
captains of today’s business do not own their own companies. They must know the whole business but
have control over only one small part. They must be product oriented, process conscious, financially
responsible and public spirited. They must know all things, yet still function as only one cog in the wheel.
If the history of management tells us anything, it is that, no matter

What happens; peace or war, prosperity or famine, this world will always be in need of good managers . . .
the kind who can get society from “where it is” to “where it wants to be.” Can you be one?

Sydney Opera House:
Sydney Opera Hall is the milestone of the modern age situated in Sydney, Australia which was completed in
a time period of 33 years (1940 – 1973). Sydney Opera hall consists of following:

• 1000 rooms
• 5 theaters
• Hall for 2679 persons

Sydney Opera Hall is 183 meter tall and 120 meter wide and its roof carries1, 056,000 tiles which were
imported from Sweden and it coasted $ 102 million. What is the purpose to build such a unique hall? They
used people and technology to achieve that purpose. The main purpose is to provide entertainment to
public.

Flying Colors on PC:
The most commonly used operating system on PC is also a great example to explain the topic of organized
effort done by a modern IT organization. In making of one new version of an operating system, the dozens
of engineers are deployed. When the first operating system was launched by the company, it took several
years to launch, and today you get an operating system worth of millions on one CD. So, there are the
engineers who made the operating system by some processes to give the services to the PC users
/customers. The IT organization stands behind its products/services.

What is an Organization?
“An entity where two or more persons work together to achieve a goal or a common purpose is
called Organization.”
There are so many organizations around us. Daily we visit and see many organizations. Hospitals, Colleges,
Factories, Farms and Government offices. Mosque/Church is also an example of an organization. People
go there and say prayers. Activities of praying are to achieve a certain goal. Similarly, any unit in which two
or more persons are working together for some purpose is called an organization.


• People
• Purpose
• Process
• POLCA

If there is an organization, then there must be some people. They work as whole for a common purpose, so
there must be a defined purpose. If an organization doesn’t have any purpose, it will not survive for long
run. To achieve the purposes by using people, the processes are needed. Without any process, you cannot
achieve any type of purpose or goal. If we see in our daily life, we have some goals. For achieving these
goals, we use some processes. So that process is also obvious and important for an organization. The last
important thing for any organization is that it requires main pillars of management i.e. POLCA:

• Planning
• Organizing
• Leading
• Controlling

A manager must perform all theses management functions with Assurance!


Lesson 1.2
MANAGEMENT AND MANAGERS

The concepts of organizations, managers, and management are explored in this session. Every organization,
regardless of size, type, or location, needs managers who have a variety of characteristics. Managers may
come from any nationality or be of either gender.
Four questions are addressed:
1. Who are managers?
2. What do managers do?
3. What is management?
4. Why study management?

1. Who are Managers?
“A manager is someone who works with and through other people by coordinating their work
activities in order to accomplish organizational goals.”
The changing nature of organizations and work has blurred the clear lines of distinction between managers
and non-managerial employees. Many workers’ jobs now include managerial activities. Definitions used in
the past may no longer work. Hence, an organizational member who works with and through other people
by coordinating their work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals may be called a manager.
However, keep in mind that managers may have other roles and work duties not related to integrating the
work of others.

You should be aware that managers may have a variety of titles and roles. They perform various jobs and
duties and are responsible for higher profits and for great performance. Managers work in various
departments and are employed by many types of organization.

You will be meeting different managers in this session and note what jobs, roles and work they perform in
their organizations, may it be national or multi-national or entrepreneurial organization.

2. What do managers do?
No two managers’ jobs are alike. But management writers and researchers have developed some specific
categorization schemes to describe what managers do. We can focus on following five categorization
schemes while making mind what do managers do:

1. Management functions and management process as detailed below:
Traditionally, a manager’s job has been classified according to the following four functions i.e.:

Planning: determining organizational goals and the means for achieving them

Organizing: deciding where decisions will be made, who will do what jobs and tasks, and who will work
for whom

Leading: inspiring and motivating workers to work hard to achieve organizational goals

Controlling: monitoring progress towards goal achievement and taking corrective action when needed
I. Good managers are those who assure themselves to perform these functions well.
II. New-style or 21st century managers are changing the way they perform these functions, thinking of
themselves more like mentors, coaches, team leaders, or internal consultants. They work with anyone
who can help them accomplish their goals rather than only following the chain of command. They ask
others to participate in making decisions and share information with others.
III. New-style managers perform four functions that have evolved out of the traditional functions: making
things happen; meeting the competition; organizing people, projects, and processes; and leading.
A. Making Things Happen: To make things happen you must determine what you want to
accomplish, plan how to achieve these goals, gather and manage the information needed to


make a good decision, and control performance, so that you can take corrective action if
performance falls short.
B. Meeting the Competition: Free trade agreements, shorter product development cycles, and
fewer barriers to entering industries have created increased competition. Companies must
consider how to deal with international competitors, have a well-thought-out competitive
strategy, be able to embrace change and foster new product and service ideas, and structure
their organizations to quickly adapt to changing customers and competitors.
C. Organizing People: Projects, and Processes: Changes in how a company is organized must
consider both people issues and work processes (how the work gets done)
D. Leading: Motivating and inspiring workers.
Management process is the set of ongoing decisions and work activities in which managers engage as they plan, organize, lead,
and control.

2. Managers perform various roles in organizations.
3. While performing, variety of management skills are needed and employed by managers.
4. Regardless of the level the manager is on, he or she must ensure that the work activities in the part of
the organizational system he or she is responsible for are coordinated and integrated.
5. Managers must “read” and attempt to interpret the situational contingencies facing them before
deciding the best way to work with and through others as they coordinate work activities.

What is Management
Simply speaking, management is what managers do. However, this simple statement doesn’t tell us much.
We define management as the process of coordinating and integrating work activities so that they are
completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people. Let’s look at some specific parts of this
definition.

The process represents the ongoing functions of primary activities engaged in by managers. These functions
are typically labeled planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. Let us remember it by POLCA.

Why Study Management?
Management is important for our society, industry and government organizations. The importance of
studying management can be explained by looking at the way we interact with organizations every day in
our lives. Every product we use, every service we receive, and every action we take is provided or affected
by organizations. These organizations require managers.

Modern management ensures to create competitive advantage through People:
A. Top-performing companies recognize the importance of the way they treat their work forces.
B. These companies use ideas such as employee satisfaction, selective recruiting, performance
based high wages , reduction of status differences, sharing information, self-managed
teams, and training and skill development .
C. Investing in people will create long-lasting competitive advantages that are difficult for other
companies to duplicate.
D. Sound management practices can produce substantial advantages in sales, revenues, and
customer satisfaction.
E. Poorly performing companies that adopted management techniques as simple as setting
expectations, coaching, and rewarding were able to substantially improve return on
investment.
F. Good management can increase customer satisfaction because employees tend to treat
customers the same way that their managers treat them.
By studying management, students will be able to recognize good management and encourage it, as well as
to recognize poor management and work to get it corrected.
After graduation, you will either manage or be managed. A course in management provides insights into the
way your boss or peer behave and shall help you to be familiar with the internal working of organizations.


Lesson 1.3
MANAGERIAL ROLES IN ORGANIZATIONS
Management Roles:
Managers fulfill a variety of roles. A role is an organized set of behaviors that is associated with a particular
office or position.

Dr. Henry Minzberg, a prominent management researcher, says that what managers do can best be
described by looking at the roles they play at work. The term management role refers to specific categories
of managerial behavior. There are three types of roles which a manager usually does in any organization.

Interpersonal roles are roles that involve people (subordinates and persons outside the organization) and
other duties that are ceremonial and symbolic in nature. The three interpersonal roles include being a
figurehead, leader, and liaison.

Informational roles involve receiving, collecting, and disseminating information. The three informational
roles include a monitor, disseminator, and spokesperson.

Decisional roles revolved around making choices. The four decisional roles include entrepreneur,
disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator.
In the late 1960s, Henry Mintzberg concluded that managers perform 10 different, but highly interrelated
roles.

Follow-up studies of Mintzberg’s role categories in different types of organizations and at different
managerial levels within organizations have generally supported the notion that managers perform similar
roles.

However, the more traditional functions have not been invalidated. In fact, the functional approach still
represents the most useful way of classifying the manager’s job.
As depicted in following table, Mintzberg delineated ten managerial roles in three categories.
a. Interpersonal roles grow directly out of the authority of a manger’s position and involve
developing and maintaining positive relationships with significant others.
1) The figurehead performs symbolic legal or social duties.
2) The Leader builds relationships with employees and communicates with, motivates, and
coaches them.
3) The liaison maintains a network of contacts outside the work unit to obtain information.

b. Informational roles pertain to receiving and transmitting information so that managers can serve
as the nerve centers of their organizational units.
1) The monitor seeks internal and external information about issues that can affect the
organization.
2) The disseminator transmits information internally that is obtained from either internal or
external sources.
3) The spokesperson transmits information about the organization to outsiders.

c. Decisional roles involve making significant decisions that affect the organization.
1) The entrepreneur acts as an initiator, designer, and encourager of change and innovation.
2) The disturbance handler takes corrective action when the organization faces important,
unexpected difficulties.
3) The resource allocator distributes resources of all types, including time, funding,
equipment, and human resources.
4) The negotiator represents the organization in major negotiations affecting the manager’s
areas of responsibility
d. The four major functions of management—planning, organizing, leading, and controlling provide
the purpose for managers taking the roles they do.


Professor Mintzberg explained his concept with the help of table; it is given on next page:

Mintzberg’s Examples of Identifiable
Managerial Roles Role Description Activities
Interpersonal Symbolic head: obliged to Greeting visitors: signing
Figurehead perform a number of legal documents
routine duties of a legal or
social nature.
Leader Responsible for the Performing virtually all
motivation of activities that involve
subordinates: responsible subordinates
for staffing, training, and
associated duties.
Liaison Maintains self-developed Acknowledging mail: doing
network of outside external board work:
contacts and informers performing other activities
who provide favors and that involve outsiders
information.
Informational Monitor Seeks and receives wide Reading periodicals and
variety of internal and reports: maintaining personal
external information to contacts.
develop thorough
understanding of
organization and
environment.
Disseminator Transmits information Holding informational
received from outsiders or meetings: making phone calls
from subordinates to to relay information.
members of the
organization
Spokesperson Transmits information to Holding board meetings:
outsiders on organization’s giving information to the
plans, policies, actions, media.
results,
Decisional Entrepreneur Searches organization and Organizing strategy and
its environment for review sessions to develop
opportunities and initiates new programs
“improvement projects”
to bring about changes
Disturbance Responsible for corrective Organizing strategy and
handler action when organization review sessions that involve
faces important, disturbances and crises
unexpected disturbances
Resource Responsible for the Scheduling: requesting
allocator allocation of authorization: performing
organizational resources of any activity that involves
all kinds – making or budgeting and the
approving all significant programming of
organizational decisions subordinates’ work
Negotiator Responsible for Participating in union
representing the contract negotiations
organization at major
negotiations


Lesson 2.4
MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS I.E. POLCA
POLCA as functions:
Planning
Management function that involves the process of defining goals, establishing strategies for achieving those
goals. And developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities.
Organizing
Management function that involves the process of determining what tasks are to be done. Who is to do
them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made.
Leading
Management function that involves motivating subordinates, influencing individuals or teams as they work,
selecting the most effective communication channels, or dealing in any way with employee behavior issues.
Controlling
Management function that involves monitoring actual performance, comparing actual to standard and
taking corrective action, if necessary.
Assurance
Quality function which demands from every manager that he/she ensures that prior management support
and management processes are in place before POLC management functions are executed.
Management process
It is the set of ongoing decisions and work activities in which managers engage as they plan, organize, lead,
and control. The management process includes more than the four management functions.

1. The process also includes work methods, managerial roles, and managerial work agendas.
2. The management process applies to both profit-making and not-for-profit organizations.
a. A not-for-profit organization is an organization whose main purposes center on
issues other than making profits.
b. Examples of not-for-profit organizational include government organizations, cultural
institutions, charitable institutions, and some health-care facilities.
Management Process:

Planning Organizing Leading Controlling
Lead to
Defining goals, Determining what Directing and Monitoring
establishing needs to be done, motivating all activities to ensure Achieving the
strategy, and how it will be done, involved parties that they are organization’s
developing sub and who is to do it and resolving accomplished as stated purpose
plans to coordinate conflicts planned
activities

Efficiency refers to getting the most output from the least amount of inputs.

Efficiency (Means) Effectiveness (Ends)

Resource Goal
Usage Attainment

Low Waste High Attainment

Management Strives For:
Low resource waste (high efficiency)
High goal attainment (high effectiveness)


Effectiveness is often described as “doing the right things” – that is, those work activities that will help the
organization reach its goals.
We have learnt that; a manager is someone who works with and through other people by coordinating their
work activities in order to accomplish organizational goals. While performing, the manager has to keep in
mind that he /she has to deal workers and other people around him in variety of situations.

Mistakes Managers Make:
A comparison of “arrivers,” those who made it all the way to the top of their companies, and “derailers,”
those who were successful early but were knocked off the “fast track,” shows that although both groups
had talent and weaknesses, the “derailers” had some fatal flaws. Here are the top ten mistakes made by
derailers.

1. Insensitive to others: abrasive, intimidating, bullying style.
2. Cold, aloof, arrogant.
3. Betrayal of trust.
4. Overly ambitious: thinking of next job, playing politics.
5. Specific performance problems with the business.
6. Over managing: unable to delegate or build a team.
7. Unable to staff effectively.
8. Unable to think strategically.
9. Unable to adapt to boss with different style.
10. Over dependent on advocate or mentor.
Successful entrepreneurs have all the managerial and technical competencies along with some key personal
attributes to take risk and win through the odd situations.


Lesson 2.5
MANAGERIAL LEVELS AND SKILLS

Level of Managers in an Organization:
Top Managers
Middle Mangers
First-Line Managers
Non-managerial Employees
First-line managers (or first-line supervisors) are those managers having the least authority and are at
the lowest level in the hierarchy of the organization. First-line managers are at the lowest level of
management and manage the work of non-managerial individuals who are involved with the production or
creation of the organization’s products. They’re often called supervisors but may also be called line
managers, office managers, or even foremen. They are directly responsible for the work of operating (non-
managerial) employees.
a. Titles often include the term, “supervisor.”
b. Factors changing the jobs of first-line managers include emphasis upon worker participation
and teamwork and the use of computers to regulate many activities formerly regulated by
first-line managers.
c. The jobs of first-line managers are likely to change toward a greater emphasis on dealing with
internal human relations.
Middle-level managers are those managers beneath the top-levels of the hierarchy and directly supervise
other managers below them. It includes all levels of management between the first-line level and the top
level of the organization. These managers manage the work of first-line managers and may have titles such
as department head, project leader, plant managers, or division manager.
a. Typical titles include “manager,” “director of,” “chief,” department head,” and “division
head.”
b. Middle managers are mainly responsible for implementing overall organizational plans so that
organizational goals are achieved as expected.
c. They plan, allocate resources to meet objectives and coordinate and link groups, departments,
and divisions within a company.
d. They monitor and manage the performance of the subunits and individual managers who
report to them.
e. Implement changes or strategies generated by top managers.
f. The modern trend of adding layers of middle management is reversing as companies reduce
the number of levels in the managerial hierarchy.
g. Reducing the number of levels of managers’ results in greater power and responsibility for
those managers who remain.
h. It is predicted that there will be increasingly less emphasis on hierarchical levels in
organization.
Top managers are those managers at the very top levels of the hierarchy who have the most authority and
who are ultimately responsible for the entire organization. They are those who are responsible for making
organization-wide decisions and establishing the plans and goals that affect the entire organization. These
individuals typically have titles such as executive vice president, president, managing director, chief
operating officer, chief executive officer, or chairman of the board.
a. Other titles include “chief executive officer (CEO),” “president,” “executive vice president,”
“executive director,” “senior vice president,” and sometimes, “vice president.”
b. They oversee overall planning for the organization, work with middle managers in
implementing and planning, and maintain overall control over the progress of the
organization.
c. In those public corporation that sell their stock to the public, top managers’ report to the
board of directors whose function is to represent the interests of the stockholders.
d. d. They are responsible for the overall direction of the organization and for creating the
context for change.


e. e. They develop in employees the attitudes of commitment to and ownership in the
company’s performance and create a positive organizational culture through language and
action.
f. The board of directors appoints the CEO (who sometimes also serves as the Chairman or
Chairwoman of the Board). The CEO then appoints the other top managers subject to board
approval.

Difference in Functions of Management within the Hierarchy:
A number of aspects of the management process differ within the hierarchy. The importance of each of the
functions of management differs from one managerial level to another.

a. Planning tends to be more important for top-level managers.
b. Organizing tends to be more important for both top and middle-level managers.
c. Leading is more important for first-line managers.
d. Controlling is important among all levels of the hierarchy.

Management Skills, Knowledge and Performance

A. Managers need a knowledge base. This knowledge base provides a context for the manager’s
activities. It can include information about an industry and its technology, company policies and
practices, company goals and plans, company culture, the personalities of key organization
members, and important suppliers and customers.
B. Managers need three types of key skills to perform the duties and activities associated with being a
manager.

1. Technical skills are skills that reflect both an understanding of and a proficiency in a specialized
field. Technical skills include knowledge of and proficiency in a certain specialized field, such as
engineering, computers, accounting, or manufacturing. These skills are more important at lower
levels of management since these managers are dealing directly with employees doing the
organization’s work.

2. Human skills are associated with a manager’s ability to work well with others both as a member of
a group and as a leader who gets things done through others. Because managers deal directly with
people, this skill is crucial! Managers with good human skills are able to get the best out of their
people. They know how to communicate, motivate, lead, and inspire enthusiasm and trust. These
skills are equally important at all levels of management.

3. Conceptual skills are skills related to the ability to visualize the organization as a whole, discern
interrelationships among organizational parts, and understand how the organization fit into the
wider context of the industry, community, and world. Conceptual skills are the skills managers must
have to think and to conceptualize about abstract and complex situations. Using these skills,
managers must be able to see the organization as a whole, understand the relationships among
various submits, and visualize how the organization fits into its broader environment.

C The concept of organizational performance was analyzed by Peter Drucker.
1. Effectiveness is the ability to choose appropriate goals and to achieve those goals.
2. Efficiency is the ability to make the best use of available resources in the process
of achieving goals. Efficiency is the ration of inputs used to achieve some level of
outputs

Managing in the 21st century:

A. The world of business has changed dramatically in the past generation or so. Technology
has shrunk distances; made communications possible in real-time all around the globe;


made possible computers with incredibly large memories and super fast speeds; made us
more aware of different places, peoples and cultures; and provided businesses with the
opportunity to compete in nearly any market in the world.

B. Four trends are likely to impact managerial work in the future.

1. Successful managers in the twenty-first century will have to be able to guide their
companies through shifts in economic conditions, modifications in customer
preferences, rapidly changing technology, and other changes. Increasingly,
successful companies will relay on innovation to successfully meet these changes

2. The work force is becoming increasingly diverse. Managers will need to be able to
effectively utilize a much broader selection of personnel in the immediate future.
Managing diversity is the planning and implementing of organizational systems
and practices that maximize the potential of employees to contribute to
organizational goals and develop their capabilities unhindered by group identities
such as race, gender, age, or ethnic group. In the coming millennium, managers
themselves will reflect the emerging diversity and, at the same time, will need to be
able to effectively utilize and increasingly diverse work force.

3. Businesses increasingly face global competition; therefore, managers need to have
greater knowledge of international business and to develop a global perspective
Businesses are also more likely to be operating in more than one county.

4. Quality management programs have become increasingly important and total
quality management program aimed at continuous improvement have been
implemented in many business. Global competition has created an emphasis for
better quality.


Lesson 2.6
MANAGEMENT IDEAS: YESTERDAY AND TODAY

The purpose of this lecture is to demonstrate that knowledge of management past history can help you
better understand current management theory and practice. Thus, in order to understand the theories and
practices used today, it’s important for management students to look at the evolution of management
thought and practices. The practice of management has always reflected historical times and societal
conditions.

1. INTRODUCTION
Many current management concepts and practices can be traced to early management theories. The practice
of management has always reflected the times and social conditions, so many organizations are responding
to technology breakthroughs and developing Web-based operations. These new business models reflect
today’s reality: information can be shared and exchanged instantaneously anywhere on the planet. The
purpose of this chapter is to demonstrate that knowledge of management history can help understand
today’s management theory and practice.

2. MANAGEMENT’S CONNECTION TO OTHER FIELDS OF STUDY
Management courses have a rich heritage from humanities and social science courses.

A. Anthropology—the study of societies, which helps us learn about humans, their activities, and
differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behavior between people in different countries and
within different organizations.

B. Economics—concerned with the allocation, distribution of scare resources, and understanding the
changing economy, as well as the role of competition and free markets in a global context.

C. Philosophy—examines the nature of things, particularly values and ethics.

D. Political Science—studies the behavior of individuals and groups within a political environment,
including structuring of conflict, allocating power in an economic system, and manipulating power
for individual self-interest.

E. Psychology—science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behavior of
humans and other animals.

F. Sociology—the study of people in relation to their fellow human beings.

3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MANAGEMENT
There are many examples from past history that illustrates how management has been practiced for
thousands of years.

A. The Egyptian pyramids and the Great Wall of China are good examples of projects of tremendous
scope and magnitude that employed tens of thousands of people. How was it possible for these
projects to be completed? The answer is management.

B. Other examples of early management practices can be seen through assembly lines, accounting
systems, and personnel functions as just a few of the processes and activities in organizations at
that time that are also common to today’s organizations.

C. Adam Smith, author of the classical economics doctrine, The Wealth of Nations, argued brilliantly
about the economic advantages that division of labor (the breakdown of jobs into narrow,
repetitive tasks) would bring to organizations and society.


D. The Industrial Revolution can be thought of as possibly the most important pre-twentieth-
century influence on management. The introduction of machine powers, combined with the division of
labor, made large, efficient factories possible. Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling became
necessary.

i. the birth of Early management ideas
A. The Evolution of Management Theories Trying to achieve goals through the judicious
use of people and resources, getting the others to work toward these goals, and keeping
track of whether or not we are accomplishing what we set out to do has been around for
centuries. Expressed in other terms we could say that management is a very old concept.
Generally, though, we think of “modern management” and the specific identification of
planning, organizing, leading, and controlling being the functions of management as having
begun at the end of the 1800s. Most of the contributors we recognize today have been
twentieth century people.
B. Pre-classical Contributors These contributors presented their ideas before the late
1800s.
1. Robert Owen (1771-1858) was a British factory owner who advocated concern
for the working and living conditions of workers, many of them young children.
Many of his contemporaries thought he was a radical for such ideas.
2. Charles Babbage (1792-1871) is considered to be the “father of modern
computing.” He foresaw the need for work specialization involving mental work.
His management ideas also anticipated the concept of profit sharing to improve
productivity.
3. Henry E. Towne (1844-1924) called for the establishment of a science of
management and the development of management principles that could be applied
across management situations.
4. An assessment of the preclassical contributors indicates that their efforts were
fragmentary. By and large they applied their efforts towards developing specific
techniques or solutions. They laid the groundwork for major management theories
which came later.


Lesson 3.7
CLASSICAL VIEW OF MANAGEMENT
(SCIENTIFIC AND BUREAUCRATIC)

Classical Viewpoint is divided into three parts:
1. Scientific management
2. Bureaucratic management
3. Administrative management

1. Scientific management:
Scientific management is defined as the use of the scientific method to define the “one best way” for a
job to be done.

Important Contributions:
Frederick W. Taylor is known as the “father” of scientific management. Taylor’s work at the Bethlehem
Steel companies motivated his interest in improving efficiency.

a. Taylor sought to create a mental revolution among both workers and managers by defining clear
guidelines for improving production efficiency. He defined four principles of management.

b. His “pig iron” experiment is probably the most widely cited example of scientific management.

c. Using his principles of scientific management, Taylor was able to define the one best way for doing
each job.

d. Overall, Taylor achieved consistent improvements in productivity in the range of 200 percent. He
affirmed the role of managers to plan and control and of workers to perform as they were
instructed.

Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) was the first nationally known management thinker. His
“Taylorism” or “scientific management” was a major contribution to business operations as we know them
today. The overview of his studies is given below:

a. Taylor developed scientific management to counter the problem of
soldiering by workers—deliberately working below full capacity.
b. Taylor pioneered the time-and-motion study, where by a work task is
broken down into its various motions, is improved by eliminating
unnecessary motions, and then the motions timed to determine optimal
daily production.
c. Through his four principles of scientific management, Taylor advocated
scientific study of the task to find the best work method rather than
relying on traditional methods handed down from one worker to another.
d. Taylor successfully implemented his theory at Bethlehem Steel in two
famous studies involving shoveling and pig-iron handling.
e. Although real and imagined abuses or misuses of scientific management
occurred (leading in one instance to a congressional investigation—and
thereby adding to Taylor’s notoriety), Taylor’s strong support of science
and his redefining the role of managers remains his primary contribution
to management theory.

Taylor’s Four Principles of Scientific Management:
1. Study each part of the task scientifically, and develop a best method to perform it.
2. Carefully select workers and train them to perform a task using the scientifically developed method.
3. Cooperate fully with workers to ensure they use the proper method.


4. Divide work and responsibility so management is responsible for planning work methods using
scientific principles and workers are responsible for executing the work accordingly.
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (1868-1924 and 1878-1972 respectively):
They did studies aimed at eliminating unnecessary motions and way of reducing task fatigue.

a. They perfected the time-and-motion study techniques first introduced by
Taylor.
b. Together they provided the first vocabulary for identifying hand, arm, and
body motions used at work—which they called “Therbligs.”
c. Lillian’s doctoral dissertation was published as the book, The Psychology of
Management, one of the first books published on the findings of
psychology in the workplace.
d. Frank “proved” the value of motion studies in his own construction
company whose productivity was nearly three times better than his
competitors who used the older work methods.
Henry L. Gantt (1861-1919)
One of Taylor’s closest associates is best known for his Gantt chart, a graphic aide to planning, scheduling,
and controlling. His other interests included a unique pay incentive system and the social responsibility of
business.

How Do Today’s Managers Use Scientific Management?
To understand why scientific management was viewed as such an important development, you need to look
at the times in which Taylor, the Gilbreths, and other scientific management advocates lived.
1. It was important because it could raise countries’ standards of living by making workers more
productive and efficient.
2. Also, it’s important to remember that many of the tools and techniques developed by the scientific
management practitioners are still used in organizations today.

2. Bureaucratic management:

GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE THEORISTS
This group of writers focused on the entire organization. They’re important for developing more general
theories of what managers do and what constitutes good management practice.
The two most prominent theorists behind the general administrative approach were Henri Fayol and Max
Weber.
1. Henri Fayol wrote during the same time period as Frederick Taylor. Fayol was the managing
director of a large French coal-mining firm.
a. His attention was aimed at the activities of all managers.
b. He described the practice of management as distinct from other typical business functions.
2. Max Weber (pronounced VAY-BAR) was a German sociologist who wrote in the early part of the
20th century.
a. He developed a theory of authority structures and described organizational activity based on
authority relations.
b. He described the ideal form of organization—the bureaucracy, defined as a form of organization
marked by division of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, detailed rules and regulations, and
impersonal relationships
Max Weber stated 14 principles of management (fundamental or universal truths of management that can
be taught in schools).
It emphasized the need for organizational rationality rather than the owner’s whims as a means for
determining how work should be divided into individual work positions and how the work should be
rewarded. Max Weber, the most important early advocate of this approach, argued that too often
organizational decisions and rewards were made because of who the worker was (possibly a relative of the
manager) or who the worker knew rather than on the performance of the worker. Scientific management
focused on the work or the job and how to do it better. Bureaucratic management, on the other hand,
focused on how to structure the organization better so that better overall performance might be achieved.


Max Weber (1864-1920) a well known German sociologist coined the term “bureaucracy” to apply to the
ideal of large organizations operating on a rational basis. Weber’s original definition was much different
than the definition of government red tape and bungling usually associated with the term “bureaucracy”
today.

Characteristics of Weber’s ideal bureaucracy
The major characteristics of Weber’s ideal bureaucracy include:

a. Specialization of a labor
b. Formalization of rules and procedures
c. Impersonality in application of rules and sanctions
d. Formalization of lines of authority into a hierarchical structure
e. Formalization of the career advancement process to be based on merit
The timing of Weber’s contributions is a little confusing. Although he was a contemporary of Taylor and
others described as “classical contributors,” Weber’s works weren’t translated into English until the 1940s.
Weber’s bureaucratic characteristics are still evident in many of today’s large organizations—even in highly
flexible organizations of talented professionals where some bureaucratic mechanisms are necessary to
ensure that resources are used efficiently and effectively.

Contribution of the classical viewpoint:
I. Highlights the need for a scientific approach to management.
II. Points out that work methods often can be improved through study.
III. Identifies a number of important principles that are useful in running organization efficiently.


Lesson 3.8
ADMINISTRATIVE VIEW OF MANAGEMENT

1. The Administrative Management
It is a term used for those early-day contributors who developed and taught principles to be used by
managers, both individually and collectively, to improve the performance of the overall functions of the
organization.

Henri Fayol (1841-1925) a successful French industrialist, developed theories about management he
thought could be taught to those individuals with administrative responsibilities.
a. Fayol’s lasting contribution is the functional approach to management
which is still used today. The major managerial functions, according to
Fayol, were planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and
controlling. The functions have been slightly modified several times since
Fayol. In the main, though, they still provide the basic framework for
studying management as witnessed by the organization of this and most
other principles of management texts used today. Like Weber, Fayol’s
works were not translated into English for a couple of decades after his
death.
b. Fayol gives us 14 principles of management which are still being used
nowadays. These principles are given below:
Fayol’s 14 Principles of Management

1. Division of work
Specialization increases output by making employees more efficient.

2. Authority.
Managers must be able to give order. Authority gives them this right. Along with authority,
however, goes responsibility.

3. Discipline.
Employees must obey and respect the rules that govern the organization.

4. Unity of Command
An employee should receive orders from one superior only.

5. Unity of direction.
The organization should have a single plan of action to guide managers and workers.

6. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest.
The interests of any one employee or group of employees should not take precedence over the
interests of the organization as a whole.

7. Remuneration.
Workers must be paid a fair wage for their services.

8. Centralization.
This term refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved in decision making.

9. Scalar Chain.
The line term refers to the degree to which subordinates are involved I decision making.

10. Order.
People and materials should be in the right place at the right time.


11. Equity.
Managers should be kind and fair to their subordinates.

12. Stability of tenure of personnel
Management should provide orderly personnel planning and ensure that replacements are available
to fill vacancies.

13. Initiative.
Employees who are allowed to originate and carry out plans will exert high levels of effort.

14. Esprit de corps
Promoting team spirit will build harmony and unity within the organization.


Lesson 3.9
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT

Behavioral Viewpoint:

Organizational behavior (OB) research has contributed much of what we know about behavioral views of
management, human resources management, motivation, leadership, trust, teamwork, and conflict
management.
Early Advocates:
Four people stand out as early advocates of the OB approach. These include Robert Owen, Hugo
Munsterberg, Mary Parker Follett, and Chester Barnard.
1. Robert Owen, a successful Scottish businessman, proposed a utopian workplace.
2. Hugo Munsterberg created the field of industrial psychology—the scientific study of individuals at
work to maximize their productivity and adjustment.
3. Mary Parker Follett was a social philosopher who thought the manager’s job was to harmonize and
coordinate group efforts.
4. Chester Barnard, president of New Jersey Bell Telephone Company, saw organizations as social
systems that required human cooperation.
a. He believed that managers’ major roles were to communicate and stimulate subordinates to
high levels of effort.
b. He also introduced the idea that managers have to examine the environment and then
adjust the organization to maintain a state of equilibrium.

Hugo Munsterbeg (1863-1916) is considered to be the “father of industrial psychology” and is regarded by
students of psychology as an important figure as Frederick Taylor is by students of management.
Munsterberg attempted to develop practical applications of psychology. He argued that psychologists could
help industry in three major areas:

a. Finding ways to identify individuals best suited to particular jobs.
b. Identifying the psychological conditions for optimum efficiency.
c. Finding ways to influence individual behavior to be congruent with
management’s objectives
Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933) brought to management the perspectives of political science and social
work. She identified:
a. The importance of the functioning of groups, not just individuals, in
organization.
b. The principle of “power with” rather than “Power over” in management-
employee relations.
c. Conflict resolution through integration, i.e., finding a solution to a conflict
that would satisfy both parties.
d. The achievement of integrative unity, whereby the organization operates
as a functional whole, with the various interrelated parts working together
effectively to achieve organizational goals.
The Hawthorne Studies

Without question, the most important contribution to the developing Organization Behavior field came out
of the Hawthorne Studies, a series of studies conducted at the Western Electric Company Works in
Cicero, Illinois. These studies, started in 1924 and continued through the early 1930s, were initially designed
by Western Electric industrial engineers as a scientific management experiment. They wanted to examine
the effect of various illumination levels on worker productivity.

Control and experimental groups were set up with the experimental group being exposed to various lighting
intensities, and the control group working under a constant intensity. If you were one of the industrial
engineers in charge of this experiment, what would you have expected to happen? That individual output in
the experimental group would be directly related to the intensity of the light? Seems perfectly logical,

doesn’t it? However, they found that as the level of light was increased in the experimental group, output
for both groups increased. Then, much to the surprise of the engineers, as the light level was decreased the
productivity decrease was observed in the experimental group only when the level of light was reduced to
that of a moonlit night. What would explain these un-excluded that illumination intensity was not directly
related to group productivity, and that something else must have contributed to the results. However, they
weren’t able to pinpoint what that “something else” was.

In 1927, the Western electric engineers asked Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his associates to join the
study as consultants. Thus began a relationship that would last through 1932 and encompass numerous
experiments in the redesign of jobs, changes in workday and workweek length, introduction of rest periods,
and individual versus group wage plans.9 For example, one experiment was designed to evaluate the effect
of a group piecework incentive pay system on group productivity.

Hawthorne studies reflected the scientific management tradition of seeking greater efficiency by
improving the tools and methods of work—in this case, lighting.

1. In the first set of studies, no correlation was found between changes in lighting conditions
and individual work performance. In fact, performance nearly always went up with any
change—brighter or darker—in illumination.
2. In the second set of studies, the concept of the Hawthorne effect emerged. The
Hawthorne effect refers to the possibility that individuals singled out for a study may
improve their performance simply because of the added attention they receive from the
researchers, rather than because of any specific factors being tested in the study.
3. The third set of studies centered on group production norms and individual motivation.
4. Although simplistic and methodologically primitive, the Hawthorne studies established the
impact that social aspects of the job (and the informal group) have on productivity.
5.
Human Relations Movement: This movement was an attempt to equip managers with the social skills
they need.

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) developed a theory of motivation that was based on three assumptions
about human nature.
a. Human beings have needs that are never completely satisfied.
b. Human behavior is aimed at satisfying the needs that are yet unsatisfied at
a given point in time.
c. Needs fit into a somewhat predictable hierarchy ranging from basic,
lower-level needs to higher-level needs:

1) Physiological (lowest)
2) Safety
3) Belongingness or social
4) Esteem
5) Self-actualization (highest and NOT achieved by everyone)
Douglas McGregor (1906-1964) developed the Theory X and Theory Y dichotomy about the
assumptions managers make about workers and how these assumptions affect behavior.
a. Theory X managers tend to assume that workers are lazy, need to be
coerced, have little ambition, and are focused on security needs. These
managers then treat their subordinates as if these assumptions were true.
b. Theory Y managers tend to assume that workers do not inherently
dislike work, are capable of self-control, have the capacity to be creative
and innovative, and generally have higher-level needs that are often not
met on the job. These managers then treat their subordinates as if these
assumptions were true.
c. Workers, like all of us, tend to work up or down to expectations.


The Behavioral Science Approach:
It emphasizes scientific research as the basis for developing theories about human behavior in organizations
that can be used to develop practical guidelines for managers.
1. The emphasis is upon developing useful tools for managers. Unlike Scientific
Management from the Classical Era, the findings in behavioral studies are often
somewhat difficult to find with mathematical certainty. That does not mean
however, that the scientific approach should not be attempted nor that the
findings of such an approach are any less useful.
2. An example is the idea of improving performance by setting goals the individual
finds to be attainable yet not too easy.

Contributions of the behavioral viewpoint:
1. Spotlight the managerial importance of such factors as communication, group
dynamics, motivation, and leaders.
2. Articulates practical applications of behavioral studies.
3. Draws on the findings of a number of disciplines such as management,
psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics.
4. Highlights the importance of an organization’s members as active human
resources rather than passive tools.


Lesson 4.10
QUANTITATIVE, CONTEMPORARY AND EMERGING VIEWS OF MANAGEMENT

Quantitative Approach to Management:

The quantitative approach involves the use of quantitative techniques to improve decision making. This
approach has also been labeled operations research of management science. It includes applications of
statistics, optimization models, information models, and computer simulations

How Do Today’s Managers use the quantitative approach?
The quantitative approach has contributed directly to management decision making in the areas of planning
and control. For instance, when managers make budgeting, scheduling, quality control, and similar
decisions, they typically rely on quantitative techniques. The availability of sophisticated computer software
programs to aid in developing models, equations, and formulas has made the use of quantitative techniques
somewhat less intimidating for managers, although they must still be able to interpret the results.
The quantitative approach, although important in its own way, has not influenced management practice as
much as the next one we’re going to discuss–organizational behavior–for a number of reasons. These
include the fact that many managers are unfamiliar with and intimidated by quantitative tools, behavioral
problems are more widespread and visible, and it is easier for most students and managers to relate to real,
day-to-day people problems than to the more abstract activity of constructing quantitative models.

Branches in the Quantitative Management Viewpoint:
There are three main branches in the Quantitative Management Viewpoint: management science,
operations management, and management information systems

Management science (or operations research as it has been called) is an approach aimed at increasing
decision effectiveness through the use of sophisticated mathematical models and statistical methods. This is
NOT a term to be used synonymously with either the term “Scientific Management” described earlier
featuring Taylor and others or “The Science of Management,” a term that usually refers broadly, to a
deliberate, rational approach to management issues.

Operations Management is the function or field of expertise that is primarily responsible for the
production and delivery of an organization’s products and services.

Management information systems (MIS) is the name often given to the field of management that
focuses on designing and implementing computer-based information systems for use by management

Contemporary viewpoints:
This school of thought or view point about management includes those major ideas about managing and
organizations that have emerged since the 1950s. Some of the ideas, systems theory for example, are rooted
in experiences gained during World War II.

The systems theory approach is based on the notion that organizations can be visualized as systems of
interrelated parts or subsystems that operate as a whole in pursuit of common goals. This will be discussed
in more detail in the next session.

Contingency Theory is the view that appropriate managerial action depends on the particular parameters
of each situation. This approach is in marked contrast to the earliest universal approach stemming from the
classical management school which suggested that there was one, and only one, best decision for managers
to make which applied in all cases and to all organization, big or little, for profit, or not-for-profit, etc. The
generalized corollary to the universal approach is that the secret to successful managing was just to keep
looking until that one best solution was “found.” “it all depends”, would be the slogan of contingency
theory. The contingency approach applies particularly well in such areas as environmental factors, strategy,
organizational design, technology, and leadership.


Emerging views: Now that you’ve got a good understanding of the evolution and past history of
management theories and practices, what current concepts and practices are shaping today’s management
history and changing the way that managers do their jobs?
A. Globalization. Organizational operations no longer stop at geographic borders. Managers in all
types and sizes of organizations are faced with the opportunities and challenges of globalization.
B. Entrepreneurship refers to the process whereby an individual or a group of individuals uses
organized efforts and means to pursue opportunities to create value and grow by fulfilling wants and needs
through innovation and uniqueness.
1. Three important themes stand out in this definition:
a. The pursuit of opportunities
b. Innovation
c. Growth
2. Entrepreneurship will continue to be important to societies around the world.
C. Managing in an E-Business World.
1. E-business (electronic business)—a comprehensive term describing the way an organization does
its work by using electronic (Internet-based) linkages with key constituencies in order to efficiently
and effectively achieve its goals.
2. E-commerce (electronic commerce) is any form of business exchange or transaction in which the
parties interact electronically.
D. Need for Innovation and Flexibility.
1. The constant flow of new ideas is crucial for an organization to avoid obsolescence or failure.
2. Flexibility is valuable in a context where customers/ needs may change overnight, where new
competitors come and go, and where employees and their skills are shifted as need from project to
project.
E. Quality Management Systems.
1. Total quality management is a philosophy of management that is driven by customer needs and
expectations and focuses on continual improvement in work processes
2. TQM was inspired by a small group of quality experts, of whom W. Edwards Deming was one of
the chief proponents. He has also developed and presented his quality philosophy and theory of profound
knowledge.
3. TQM represents a counterpoint to earlier management theorists who believed that low costs were
the only road to increased productivity.
4. The objective of TQM is to create an organization committed to continuous improvement.
F. Learning Organizations and Knowledge Management.
Managers now must deal with an environment that is continually changing. The successful
organizations of the 21st century will be flexible, able to learn and respond quickly, and be led by managers
who can effectively challenge conventional wisdom, manage the organization’s knowledge base, and make
needed changes.
1. A learning organization is one that has developed the capacity to continuously adapt and change.
2. Knowledge management involves cultivating a learning culture where organizational members
systematically gather knowledge and share it with others to achieve better performance.
G. Theory Z : William Ouchi’s Theory Z combines positive aspects of American and Japanese
management into a modified approach aimed at increasing managerial effectiveness while remaining
compatible with the norms and values of society and culture.


Lesson 4.11
SYSTEM’S VIEW OF MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATION

Managing Systems
Another way to look at the manager’s job is from the perspective of managing systems.
System:

A system is a set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a manner that produces a unified
whole. It’s a concept taken from the physical sciences and applied to organizations.
The two basic types of systems are

Closed systems are not influenced by and do not interact with their environment.

Open systems dynamically interact with their environment.
Today, when we call organization systems, we mean open systems, that is, an organization that constantly
interacts with its environment.

1. The systems theory approach is based on the notion that organizations can be visualized as
systems of interrelated parts or subsystems that operate as a whole in pursuit of common goals.
This will be discussed in more detail in the next session.
1. The major components of a system are:
a. Inputs: the various human, material, financial, equipment, and
informational resources required to produce goods and services.
b. Transformation processes: the organization’s managerial and
technological abilities that are applied to convert inputs into outputs.
c. Outputs: the products, services, and other outcomes produced by the
organization.
d. Feedback: information about results and organizational status relative to
its environment.

2. Open versus closed systems. These are terms indicating the relative degree with which a
system interacts with its environment. While there are very few, if any, completely open or
completely closed systems, we usually view open systems as those having continual interaction with
its environment. Closed systems are those with little interaction and feedback from their
environments.

3. Two major characteristics of open systems are:

a. Negative entropy is the ability of open systems to bring in new energy in
the form of inputs and feedback from the environment in order for the
organization to delay or to arrest entropy, the decaying process.
b. Synergy is the ability of the whole to equal more than the sum of its
parts.
c. The systems viewpoint suggests that managers are likely to be more
successful if they attempt to operate their units as open systems rather
than as closed system.



The Organization as an Open System
Environment

System

Inputs Transformation Outputs

Raw Materials
Employees’ Work Products and Services

Human Resources Activities Financial Results
Capital Management Activities Information
Technology Technology and Human Results
Information

Feedback
Operations Methods

Environment

Answer to Test Yourself on Management Viewpoints and Theories!!!!
1. What are some early evidences of management practice?
Some early evidences of management practice are the Egyptian pyramids, the Great Wall of China,
and the status of Venice as a major economic trade center in the 1400s.

2. Explain why division of labor and the Industrial Revolution were important to the study of
management.
Division of labor increases productivity by increasing each worker’s skill and dexterity, saves time
that is commonly lost in changing tasks, and creates labor-saving inventions and machinery. During
the Industrial Revolution, business owners were creating large businesses that required formalized
management practice.

3. What are the four major approaches to the study of management?
The four major approaches to the study of management are scientific, general administrative,
quantitative, and organizational behavior. Each is correct and makes an important contribution to
our overall understanding of management.

4. What relevance does scientific management have to current management practice?

Scientific management is the use of scientific methods to define the “one best way” for a job to be
done. Its relevance to current management practice is that managers still use many of the
techniques developed by Taylor, the Gilbreth, and other practitioners.

5. Describe Frederick W. Taylor’s contributions to scientific management?
Frederick Taylor defined four principles of management—develop a science for each element of an
individual’s work; scientifically select, train, teach, and develop each worker; cooperate with
workers to ensure that all work is done in accordance with the principles of science; and divide
work and responsibility almost equally between management and workers.

6. Explain Frank and Lillian Gilbreth’s contributions to scientific management?
Frank and Lillian Gilbreth studied work arrangements to eliminate wasteful hand and body
motions. They also experimented with the design and use of proper tools and equipment for
optimizing work performance.

7. Describe Fayol’s principles of management and how they compare with Taylor’s?
Henri Fayol’s principles of management were division of work, authority, discipline, unity of
command, unity of direction, subordination of individual interests, remuneration, centralization,
scalar chain, order, equity, stability of tenure of personnel, initiative, and esprit de corps. In contrast
to Taylor’s principles, Fayol’s focused on the entire organization and not just the individual worker.

8. What did Weber contribution to the general administrative theories of management?
Max Weber described an ideal type of organization called a bureaucracy, characterized by division
of labor, a clearly defined hierarchy, detailed rules and regulations, and impersonal relationships.
Rules and controls were to be applied uniformly, avoiding involvement with individual personalities
and preferences of employees.

9. Explain how the quantitative approach evolved and how it has contributed to the field of
management.
The quantitative approach, also called operations research or management science, is the use of
quantitative techniques to improve decision making, and it evolved out of the development of
mathematical and statistical solutions to military problems during World War II. After the war,
many quantitative techniques that had been used for military problems were applied to the business
sector. The quantitative approach has added another dimension to the evolution of management
practice and thinking and has contributed most directly to management decision making in
planning and control.

10. What is organizational behavior?
Organizational behavior is the field of study concerned with the actions or behavior of people at
work.

11. What were some of the contributions of the early advocates of OB?
Early advocates of the OB approach were Robert Owen, who proposed an idealized workplace
where work hours would be regulated, child labor outlawed, public education and meals provided,
and business involved in community projects; Hugo Munsterberg, who created the field of
industrial psychology, the study of individuals at work to maximize their productivity and
adjustment; Mary Parker Follett, who thought that organizations should be based on a group ethic
rather than on individualism to release individual potential; and Chester Barnard, who saw
organizations as social systems that required human cooperation.

12. Describe the Hawthorne studies and their contribution to management practice.
The Hawthorne studies, conducted at the Western Electric Company Works in Cicero Illinois,
from 1924 through the early 1930s, exposed an experimental group of workers to various lighting
intensities while providing a control group with constant intensity. As the level of light was
increased in the experimental group, the output of both groups increased. The series of studies led


to a new emphasis on the human behavior factor and helped change the dominant theme of the
time that employees were not different from any other machines the organization used.

13. How is globalization affecting the way managers do their jobs?
Management is no longer constrained by national borders, and managers in organizations of all
sizes and types around the world are faced with the opportunities and challenges of operating in a
global market.

14. What is workforce diversity, and what implications does it have for managers?
Workforce diversity exists when workers are more heterogeneous in terms of gender, race,
ethnicity, age, and other characteristics that reflect their differences. It’s an important issue because
as more women, minorities, elderly, and immigrants enter the job market in the first part of the 21st
century, monumental changes are predicted in the workplace.

15. Discuss the three important themes in the definition of entrepreneurship?
First, is the pursuit of opportunities, because entrepreneurship is about pursuing environmental
trends and changes that no one else has seen or paid attention to.
Second, is innovation, because entrepreneurship involves changing, revolutionizing, transforming,
and introducing products or services or new ways of doing business.
Third, is growth, because entrepreneurs are not content to stay small or to stay the same in size.

16. How is e-commerce different from e-business, and what are the main forms of e-commerce
transactions?
E-business is more than e-commerce, although e-business can include e-commerce. E-business is a
comprehensive term describing the way an organization does its work by using electronic linkages
with its key constituencies. The main forms of e-commerce transactions are business-to-business,
business-to-consumer, consumer-to-consumer, and government-to-business.

17. Describe the three categories of e-business involvement.
The three main categories of e-business are: enhanced—using the Internet to enhance but not
replace traditional ways of doing business; enabled—using the Internet to perform its traditional
business functions better, but not to sell anything; total—whole existence is made possible by and
revolves around the Internet.

18. Why should managers be concerned about innovation and flexibility?
Without a constant flow of new ideas an organization is doomed to obsolescence or failure. Also,
flexibility is required in a context where customers/needs may change overnight, where new
competitors come and go quickly, and where employees and their skills are shifted as needed from
project to project
.
19. What is TQM, and how is it affecting manager’s jobs?
TQM is a philosophy of management driven by continual improvement and response to customer,
employee, and supplier needs and expectations. It encompasses employees and suppliers as well as
the people who purchase the organization’s goods or services. The objective of managers is to
create an organization committed to continuous improvement in work processes.

20. How does knowledge management fit into the concept of a learning organization?
A learning organization is one that has developed the capacity to continuously learn, adapt, and
change. Knowledge management involves cultivating a learning culture where organizational
members systematically gather knowledge and share it with others in the organization in order to
achieve better performance.

21. What is workplace spirituality and how is it an issue that managers must deal with?


Workplace Spirituality is “a recognition of an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by
meaningful work that takes place in the context of community.” Workers, and society in general,
are searching for a deeper understanding of who they are and why they’re here on Earth. They want
more than just a steady job and a paycheck. Current research studies looking at the relationship
between workplace spirituality and productivity have shown interesting results. Workplace
spirituality is likely to be manifested in how managers treat employees and how employees’
contributions are respected and valued.


Lesson 4.12
ANALYZING ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND UNDERSTANDING
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

This lecture discusses the components and complexities of an organization’s culture and the external
/internal environment and how these may constrain managers. Managers are also responsible for improving
stakeholder involvement in decisions making and actions taking. Managers must be aware that
organizational culture and organizational environments will influence both the way an organization is
managed as well as its effectiveness. How can an understanding of organizational culture and the external
environment help the manager? Let us learn.

THE ENVIRONMENT:

The impact of the external environment on a manager’s actions and behaviors cannot be overemphasized.
There are forces in the environment that play a major role in shaping managers’ endeavors
The environment is defined as outside institutions and forces outside the organization that potentially
affect an organization’s performance.

Types of Environment:
1) External Environment
2) Internal Environment

External Environment

‘Major forces outside the organisation with potential to influence significantly a product or
service’s likely success is called its external environment.’

Types of external environments:

The insights derived from systems theory have helped to highlight the importance of a managed interaction
between an organization and its external environment. Two major divisions have been made in the external
environment:

1) The Mega Environment
2) The Task Environment

The Mega Environment
The mega-environment, or general environment as it is sometimes called, is that segment of the external
environment that reflects the broad conditions and trends in the societies within which an organization
operates.

Major Elements of the Mega Environment

1. The technological element of the mega-environment reflects the current state of
knowledge regarding the production of products and services.
a. Technology is a particular state of knowledge. It is not “things.” A
computer, for instance, is an artifact or an example of technology and is
not technology itself.
b. Research indicates that technology tends to evolve through periods of
incremental change punctuated by technological breakthroughs that either
enhance or destroy the competence of firms in an industry.
c. Numerous publications (such as Business Week, Forbes, etc.) and on-line
services (such as LEXIS/NEXIS) provide information regarding
technological and other environmental elements.
d.


2. The economic element of the mega-environment encompasses the systems of
producing, distributing, and consuming wealth.
a. In a capitalist economy, economic activity is governed by market forces
and the means of production are privately owned by individuals, either
directly or through corporations.
b. In a socialist economy, the means of production are owned by the state
and economic activity is coordinated by state plan.
c. In practice, countries tend to have hybrid economies, incorporating
elements of capitalism and socialism.
d. Organizations are influenced in any given economic system by a variety of
economic conditions over which they have little control, such as inflation
and interest rates.

3. The legal-political element of the mega-environment includes the legal and
governmental systems within which an organization must function.
a. Organizations must operate within the general legal framework of the
countries in which they do business.
b. Organizations are subject to an increase in lawsuits filed by customers or
employees.
c. The political issues which affect organizations include those which
influence the extent of government regulation.
d.
4. The socio-cultural element of the mega-environment includes the attitudes,
values, norms, beliefs, behaviors, and associated demographic trends that are
characteristic of a given geographic area.
a. The sociocultural element is of particular importance to multinational
corporations.
b. Sociocultural trends can result in important shifts in demand for products.
c.
5. The international element of the mega-environment includes the developments
in countries outside an organization’s home country that have the potential impact
to the organization. International factors far beyond the direct influence of a
particular organization can have profound effects on its ability to operate
successfully.
a. Fluctuations of the dollar against foreign currencies influence the ability
of an organization to compete in international markets.
b. Free-trade agreement, such as the NAFTA, GATT can affect an
organization either positively or negatively.

The Task Environment
The task environment is that segment of the external environment made up of specific outside elements
(usually organizations) with which an organization interfaces in the course of conducting its business. The
task environment depends on the products and services the organization offers and the locations where it
conducts business. The organization may be more successful in affecting its task environment than it is its
mega-environment.

Elements of the Task Environment:
1. An organization’s customers and clients are those individuals and organizations
that purchase its products and/or services. It is becoming increasingly important
to stay in touch with customers’ needs.
2. An organization’s competitors are other organizations that either offers of have a
high potential of offering rival products or services.
a. Organization needs to keep abreast of who their competitors are and what
they are doing.


b. Ways to track what competitors are doing include obtaining information
from commercial data bases, specialty trade publications, news clippings
from local newspaper, help-wanted ads, published market research
reports, business reports, trade shows, public filings, advertisements, and
personal contacts.
3. An organization’s suppliers are those individual organizations that supply the resources (such as raw
materials, products, or services) the organization needs to conduct its operations.
4. An organization’s labor supply consists of those individuals who are potentially employable by the
organization.
a. Organization may have to shift their location if labor supplies dry up in
some areas and increase in others.
5. Various government agencies provide services and monitor compliance with laws and regulations at
local (e.g., consumer affairs), state or regional (e.g., health department), and national (e.g., CBR) levels.
6.
Organization’s Relationships with Stakeholders:
1. Stakeholders are any constituencies in the organization’s external environment that are affected by,
or have a vested interest in, the organization’s decisions and actions
2. Stakeholder relationship management is important for two reasons:
a. It can lead to improved predictability of environmental changes, more successful innovation,
greater degrees of trust, and greater organizational flexibility to reduce the impact of change.
b. It is the “right” thing to do, because organizations are dependent on external stakeholders as
sources of inputs and outlets for outputs and should be considered when making and implementing
decisions.
3. Stakeholder relationships are managed using four steps:
a. Identify external stakeholders
b. Determine the specific interests of each stakeholder group
c. Decide how critical these interests are to the organization
d. Determine what specific approach managers should use to manage each relationship.

THE ORGANIZATION’S CULTURE:

Just as individuals have a personality, so, too, do organizations. We refer to an organization’s
personality as its culture.
Organizational culture is a system of shared meaning and beliefs within an organization that determines,
in large degree, how employees act. This definition implies several things.
1. Culture is a perception that exists in the organization, not in the individual.
2. Organizational culture is a descriptive term. It describes rather than evaluates.
3. Seven dimensions of an organization’s culture have been proposed:
a. Innovation and risk taking (the degree to which employees are encouraged to be innovative and
take risks)
b. Attention to detail (the degree to which employees are expected to exhibit precision, analysis, and
attention to detail)
c. Outcome orientation (the degree to which managers focus on results or outcomes rather than on
the techniques and processes used to achieve those outcomes)
d. People orientation (the degree to which management decisions take into consideration the effect on
people within the organization)
e. Team orientation (the degree to which work activities are organized around teams rather than
individuals)
f. Aggressiveness (the degree to which people are aggressive and competitive rather than easygoing
and cooperative)
g. Stability (the degree to which organizational activities emphasize maintaining the status quo in
contrast to growth)


Employees “learn” an organization’s culture in different ways.
1. Organizational stories are one way that employees learn the culture. These stories typically involve a
narrative of significant events or people.
2. Rituals are repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the key values of the
organization, what goals are most important, which people are important.


Lesson 5.13
21ST CENTURY MANAGEMENT TRENDS

Where are we today? What current management concepts and practices are shaping “tomorrow’s history”?
This session establishes first a framework for understanding social responsibility and managerial ethics.
Then, in this session, we’ll attempt to answer those above stated questions by introducing several trends and
issues that we believe are changing the way managers do their jobs: globalization, entrepreneurship,
managing in an e-business world.

Organizational social Responsibility

WHAT IS SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY?

Before the 1960s, few people questioned the role of business organizations in social responsibility.
However, times have changed. Now it’s important to get an understanding of what social
responsibility is.

A. There are two opposing views of what social responsibility is.
1. The classical view is the view that management’s only social responsibility is to maximize profits.
a. Milton Friedman is the most outspoken advocate of this view.
b. He argues that managers’ primary responsibility is to operate the business in the best interests of
the stockholders—the true owners of the organization.
2. The socioeconomic view is the view that management’s social responsibility goes well beyond the
making of profits to include protecting and improving society’s welfare.
a. The argument behind this view is that corporations are not independent entities responsible only to
stockholders.
b. Also, modern organizations are no longer just economic institutions.
B. There are 10 major arguments for social responsibility, and they include the following:
a. Public expectations
b. Long-run profits
c. Ethical obligation
d. Public image
e. Better environment
f. Discouragement of further government regulation
g. Balance of responsibility and power
h. Stockholder interests
i. Possession of resources
j. Superiority of prevention over cures
C. There are six major arguments against social responsibility. These include:
a. Violation of profit maximization
b. Dilution of purpose
c. Costs
d. Too much power
e. Lack of skills
f. Lack of accountability
1. Social responsibility is an obligation, beyond that required by the law and economics, for a firm
to pursue long-term goals that are good for society.
2. Social obligation is the obligation of a business to meet its economic and legal responsibilities.
3. Social responsiveness is the capacity of a firm to adapt to changing societal conditions.


SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE.

The question of whether socially responsible activities lower a company’s economic performance has been
addressed in numerous studies.

A. The majority of studies found a positive relationship between corporate social involvement and
economic performance, but some caution is necessary because of methodological questions
associated with trying to measure social responsibility and economic performance.

MANAGERIAL ETHICS.

Ethics refers to the rules and principles that define right and wrong conduct. There are ethical
dimensions to managerial decisions and actions.

Four Views of Ethics.
1. The utilitarian view of ethics states that ethical decisions are made solely on the basis of their
outcomes or consequences.
2. The rights view of ethics says that ethical decisions are concerned with respecting and protecting
individual liberties and privileges such as the rights of privacy, freedom of conscience, free speech,
life and safety, and due process.
3. The theory of justice view of ethics states that decision makers seek to impose and enforce rules
fairly and impartially.
4. Finally, the integrative social contracts theory proposes that ethical decisions should be based on
empirical (what is) and normative (what should be) factors. This view is based on the integration of
two “contracts”—the general social contract and a more specific contract among members of a
specific community that might be affected by a decision.

Toward Improving Ethical Behavior

What can be done to improve ethical behavior? There are a number of things organizations can do to
cultivate ethical behavior among members. Eight suggestions will be explored.
1. The selection process for bringing new employees into organizations should be viewed as an
opportunity to learn about an individual’s level of moral development, personal values, ego
strength, and locus of control.
2. A code of ethics is a formal statement of an organization’s primary values and the ethical rules it
expects employees to follow. Also, decision rules can be developed to guide managers in handling
ethical dilemmas in decision making. Top management’s leadership and commitment to ethical
behavior is extremely important because it’s the top managers who set the cultural tone.
4. Employees’ job goals should be tangible and realistic, because when goals are clear and realistic,
they reduce ambiguity and motivate rather than punish. Job goals are usually a key issue in
performance appraisal.
5. If an organization wants it employees to uphold high ethical standards, it must include this
dimension in its appraisal process. Performance appraisals should be comprehensive and not just
focus on economic outcomes.
6. Ethics training should be used to help teach ethical problem solving and to present simulations of
ethical situations that might arise. If it does nothing else, ethics training should increase awareness
of ethical issues
7. Independent social audits evaluate decisions and management practices in terms of the
organization’s code of ethics and can be used to deter unethical behavior.
8. Finally, organizations can provide formal protective mechanisms so that employees with ethical
dilemmas can do something about them without fear of reprisal.


Entrepreneurship

Practically everywhere you turn these days you’ll read or hear about entrepreneurs. If you pick up a current
newspaper or general news magazine or log on to one of the Internet’s news sites, chances are you’ll find at
least one story (and probably many more) about an entrepreneur or an entrepreneurial business.
Entrepreneurship is a popular topic! But what exactly is it?

Entrepreneurship is the process whereby an individual or a group of individuals uses organized effort and
means to pursue opportunities to create value and grow by fulfilling wants and needs through innovation
and uniqueness, no matter what resources are currently controlled. It involves the discovery of
opportunities and the resources to exploit them. Three important themes stick out in this definition of
entrepreneurship. First is the pursuit of opportunities. Entrepreneurship is about pursuing environmental
trends and changes that no one else has seen or paid attention to. For example, Jeff Bezos, founder of
Amazon.com, was a successful programmer at an investment firm on Wall Street in the mid-1990s.
However, statistics on the explosive growth in the use of the Internet and World Wide Web (at that time, it
was growing about 2,300 percent a month) kept nagging at him. He decided to quit his job and pursue what
he felt were going to be enormous retailing opportunities on the Internet. And the rest, as they say, is
history. Today, Amazon sells books, music, home improvement products, cameras, cars, furniture, jewelry,
and numerous other items from its popular Web site.

The second important theme in entrepreneurship is innovation. Entrepreneurship involves changing,
revolutionizing, transforming, and introducing new approaches–that is, new products or services or new
ways of doing business.

The final important theme in entrepreneurship is growth. Entrepreneurs pursue growth. They are not
content to stay small or to stay the same in size. Entrepreneurs want their business to grow and work very
hard to pursue growth as they continually look for trends and continue to innovate new products and new
approaches.

Entrepreneurship will continue to be important to societies around the world. For-profit and even not-for-
profit organizations will need to be entrepreneurial–that is, pursuing opportunities, innovations, and
growth–if they want to be successful. We think that an understanding of entrepreneurship is so important
that at the end of each major section in this books we’ve included a special entrepreneurship module that
looks at the topics presented in that section from the perspective of entrepreneurship.

Managing in An E-Business World

What a difference three years makes! The last time we revised this book, the Internet and World Wide Web
were still a novelty to most managers and organizations. E-mail as a form of communication was gaining in
popularity, and occasionally you saw Web addresses in company advertisements. Those days are long, gone!
Now, everywhere you look, organizations (small to large, all types, global and domestic, and in all industries)
are becoming e-businesses. Today’s managers must manage in an e-business world! In fact, as a student,
your learning may increasingly be taking place in an electronic environment. What do we know about this e-
business world?

E-business (electronic business) is a comprehensive term describing the way an organization does its
work by using electronic (Internet-based) linkages with its key constituencies (employees, managers,
customers, suppliers, and partners) in order to efficiently and effectively achieve its goals. It’s more than e-
commerce, although e-business can include e-commerce. E-commerce (electronic commerce) is any
form of business exchange or transaction in which the parties interact electronically.6 Firms such as Dell
(computers), Varsity books (textbooks), and PC Flowers and Gifts (flowers and other gifts) are engaged in
e-commerce because they sell products over the Internet. Although e-commerce applications will continue
to grow in volume, they are only one part of an e-business.


Not every organization is or needs to be a total e-business. There are three categories of e-business
involvement. The first type is what we’re going to call an e-business enhanced organization, a traditional
organization that sets up e-business capabilities, usually e-commerce, while maintaining its traditional
structure. Many Fortune 500 type organizations are evolving into e-business using this approach. They use
the Internet to enhance (not to replace) their traditional ways of doing business. For instance, Sears, a
traditional bricks-and-mortar retailer with thousands of physical stores worldwide started an Internet
division whose goal is to make Sears “the definitive online source for the home.” Although Sears Internet
division, Sears.com, represents a radical departure for an organization founded in 1886 as a catalog-sales
company, it’s intended to expand, not replace, the company’s main source of revenue.

Managing in an e-world, whether as an e-business enhanced, e-business enabled, or total e-business
organization requires new insights and perspectives. To help you acquire these, we’ve included “Managing
in an E-Business World” boxes in a number of chapters.

Globalization

Management is no longer constrained by national borders. BMW, a German firm, builds cars I south
Carolina. McDonald’s, a U.S. firm, sells hamburgers in China. Toyota, a Japanese firm, makes cars in
Kentucky. Australia’s leading real estate company, Lend Lease Corporation, built the Blue water shopping
complex in Kent, England, and has contracts with Coca-Cola to build all the soft0drink maker’s bottling
plants in Southeast Asia. Swiss company ABB Ltd. has constructed power generating plants in Malaysia,
South Korea, China, and Indonesia. The world has definitely become a global village!

Managers in organizations of all sizes and types around the world are faced with the opportunities and
challenges of operating in a global market.


Lesson 5.14
UNDERSTANDING GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT
WTO AND SAARC

UNDERSTANDING THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT
Several significant forces are reshaping the global environment that managers face. Two important features
of the global environment are regional trading alliances and the World Trade Organization.
A. Regional Trading Alliances.
Regional trading alliances are reshaping global competition. It’s no longer country versus country,
but region against region.
1. The European Union (EU) is a union of 15 (25 state members are according to December, 2004)
European nations created to eliminate national barriers to travel employment, investment, and
trade.
a. The primary motivation for the creation of the EU (in February 1992) was to allow these nations to
reassert their position against the industrial strength of the United States and Japan.
b. The EU took an enormous step towards full unification in 1999 when 11 of the 15 countries
became part of the EMU—the economic and monetary union, the formal name for the system
where participating countries share the same currency, the euro.
c. Six other countries (Turkey, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania, and Malta) are
considering starting membership negotiations.
2. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is an agreement among the Mexican,
Canadian, and U.S. governments in which all barriers to free trade will eventually be eliminated.
a. NAFTA went into effect on January 1, 1994.
b. The signing of NAFTA had both critics and champions.
c. Eliminating the barriers to free trade (tariffs, import licensing requirements, customs user fees) has
resulted in a strengthening of the economic power of all three countries.
d. Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela signed an economic pact eliminating import duties and tariffs in
1994.
e. An additional 36 countries in the Caribbean region, South America, and Central America are
negotiating a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) trade agreement.
f. Also in existence is another free-trade block known as the Southern Cone Common Market—
Mercosur.
3. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a trading alliance of 10 Asian nations.
a. In the future, the Asian region promises to be one of the fastest-growing economic regions of the
world.
b. Another significant historical and economic event in this region was the return of Hong Kong from
British rule to Chinese rule on July 1, 1997.
4. The South Asian Alliance for Regional Cooperation body i.e. SAARC
B World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international body of which more than 100 countries are
members. Several trade treaties have been agreed and worked out so far for regulation of world
trade. It is a body which helps in promoting global, regional and trade with most favored nation
states.

Test your answers!

1. How does a global economy create both opportunities and challenges for managers?
The global economy creates opportunities because, with the entire world as a marketplace and
national borders becoming irrelevant, the potential for organizations to grow and expand increases
dramatically. It can create challenges in that new competitors can suddenly appear anytime,
anywhere, and managers who don’t respond quickly to changes are likely to find their
organizations’ survival in doubt.
2. Describe the four major regional trading alliances including what it is, why it was formed,
and what challenges it is facing.
The European Union (EU) united Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,
the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Finland, and Sweden in

a single market with no national barriers to travel, employment, investment, and trade. The EU was
formed to allow its 15 member nations to reassert their position against the industrial strength of
the United States and Japan. Its ultimate goal, to have common customs duties and unified
industrial and commercial policies, as well as a single currency and regional central bank, faces
problems particularly over the establishment of a single currency.

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) united Mexico, Canada, and the United
States in dropping all barriers to free trade such as tariffs, import licensing requirements, and
customs user fees. It was formed to provide such long-term benefits as job creation, market
development, and an increased standard of living for all three countries. Studies have reported both
positive and negative effects on employment to date. It faces continued opposition from labor
advocates and environmentalists and competition from other regional trade alliances and trading
blocs.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) includes Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, Burma, Cambodia, and Laos in a trading entity. Another
significant development in Asia was the return of Hong Kong from British Rule to Chinese rule in July
1997.
South Asian Alliance for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is a body comprising of Pakistan, India,
Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. It is a trading as well as collaborative entity for dialogue on
concerns of mutual interest.
3. What are the legal-political and economic factors that managers need to be aware of in
managing globally?
The legal-political environment consists of legal-political systems and legal-political procedures.
Managers must understand the legal-political environment in a foreign country in order to un-
derstand the constraints under which they operate and the opportunities that exist.
The primary economic factors that managers must be aware of in global management are
fluctuating currency exchange rates, inflation rates, and diverse tax policies.

4. Compare and contrast national culture and organizational culture.
Like organizational culture, national culture is shared by all or most inhabitants of a country and
shapes their behavior and the way they see the world. Organizational and national cultures differ in
that national culture has a greater effect on employees than does organizational culture.

5. Describe Hofstede’s four characteristics of national culture.
Geert Hofstede found that national cultures differed on four dimensions: (a) individualism vs.
collectivism, which describes who it’s believed is responsible for caring for people—the individual
or the group; (b) power distance, or the extent to which a society accepts the fact that power is
distributed unequally; (c) uncertainty avoidance, or the degree to which people are tolerant of
behavior and opinions that differ from their own; and (d) quantity of life (assertiveness and the
acquisition of money and material goods) vs. quality of life (importance of relationships and
concern for the welfare of others).
6. How can an understanding of Hofstede’s four dimensions help managers be more effective
in managing in a global marketplace?
Understanding these four dimensions helps managers be more effective in managing in the global
marketplace by identifying those countries that are most like and least like the United States, where
U.S. managers would be likely to fit best, and where they would have the biggest adjustment
problems.
Let us now learn the first management function in POLCA i.e. Planning.

Planning; Why and what ?

Planning is one of the four functions of management.


WHY DO MANAGERS PLAN?

Purposes of Planning.
Planning is important and serves many significant purposes.
1. Planning gives direction to the organization.
2. Planning reduces the impact of change.
3. Planning establishes a coordinated effort.
4. Planning reduces uncertainty.
5. Planning reduces overlapping and wasteful activities.
6. Planning establishes objectives or standards that are used in controlling.

WHAT IS PLANNING?

Planning involves defining the organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving
these goals, and developing a comprehensive set of plans to integrate and coordinate organizational
work.

Planning is in fact the advance decision making by managers. Keeping in mind that decision making
and decision taking, may it be for present or for future is always required and is very much a
managerial job. Let us first study the nature process of decision making and its various models and
types.


Lesson 5.15
DECISION MAKING AND DECISION TAKING

Intelligence computer software is helping managers and other decision makers to be more
effective and efficient. Several diverse industries such as energy, health care, transportation, and
telecommunications are relying on applied intelligence software to help make decisions by
computers that were previously left to humans. Can any thing ever replace the decision-making
process utilized by humans? In this session , we’ll look at the decision making process and see that
there is nothing that will ever replace the manager’s need to make decisions. Making good
decisions is something that every manager strives to do because the overall quality of managerial
decisions has a major influence on organizational success or failure.
Decision making is part of all four managerial functions. In performing these functions, managers are often
called decision makers.

THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS:
A decision is a choice made from two or more alternatives. The decision-making process is defined as a
set of different steps that begins with identifying a problem and decision criteria and allocating weights to
those criteria; moves to developing, analyzing, and selecting an alternative that can resolve the problem;
implements the alternative; and concludes with evaluating the decision’s effectiveness.
Models of decision making can be either descriptive or normative.

1. Descriptive decision-making models attempt to prescribe how managers
actually do make decisions.
2. Normative decision-making models attempt to prescribe how managers should
process.
a. Following the prescription should lead to a more effective decision-
making process.
b. The models usually incorporate four steps.

Steps in an effective decision-making process

A. The first step is to identify the organizational problem, i.e., discrepancies between a
current state or condition and what is desired.
1. The scanning state involves monitoring the work situation for changing
circumstances that may signal the emergence of a problem.
2. The categorization stage entails attempting to understand and verify signs that
there is some type of discrepancy between a current state and what is desired.
3. The diagnosis stage involves gathering additional information and specifying both
the nature and the causes of the problem.
B. The generation of alternative solutions step is facilitated by using the four principles
associated with brainstorming.
1. Don’t criticize ideas while generating possible solutions
2. Freewheel, i.e., offer even seemingly wild and outrageous ideas in an effort to
trigger more usable ideas from others.
3. Offer as many ideas as possible to increase the probability of coming up with an
effective solution.
4. Combine and improve on ideas that have been offered.
C. The choice of an alternative step comes only after the alternatives are evaluated
systematically according to six general criteria:
1. Feasibility is the extent to which an alternative can be accomplished within related
organizational constraints, such as time, budgets, technology, and policies.
2. Quality is the extend to which an alternative effectively solves the problem under
consideration.
3. Acceptability is the degree to which the decision makers and others who will be
affected by the implementation of the alternative are willing to support it.

4. Costs are the resource levels required and the extent to which the alternative is
likely to have undesirable side effects.
5. Reversibility is the extent to which the alternative can be reversed, if at all.
6. The ethics criterion refers to the extent to which an alternative is compatible with
the social responsibilities of the organization and with ethical standards.
D. Finally, the implementing and monitoring the chosen solution step must be planned to
avoid failure of the entire effort.
1. Implementation requires careful planning.
a. The amount of planning depends upon whether the projected changes are
minor or major.
b. Irreversible changes require a great deal of planning.
2. Implementation requires sensitivity to those involved in or affected by the
implementation.
a. Affected individuals are more likely to support a decision when they are
able to participate in its implementation.
b. If Participation is not feasible, individuals should be kept informed of the
changes.
3. Monitoring is necessary to ensure that things are progressing as planned and that
the problem that triggered the planning process has been resolved.

Decision Making Situation:

Decision-making situations differ according to the types of problems that must be handled.
Certainty is a situation in which a manager can make accurate decisions because the outcome of every
alternative is known. However, this isn’t characteristic of most managerial decisions.
Uncertainty is a condition in which the decision maker chooses a course of action without complete
knowledge of the consequences that will follow implementation.
Risk is the possibility that a chosen action could lead to losses rather than the intended results.
a. Uncertainty is seen as the reason why situation is risky.
b. A rapidly changing environment is a major cause of uncertainty.


Lesson 6.16
RATIONAL DECISION MAKING
Managers as decision makers:
Although we know about the decision-making process, we still don’t know much about the manager as a
decision maker. In this session, we’ll look at how decisions are made, the types of problems and decisions
managers face, the conditions under which managers make decisions, and decision-making styles.
The nature of managerial decision making:
A. Decision making is the process through which managers identify organizational problems and
attempt to resolve them. Decision makers face three types of problems.
1. A crisis problem is a serious difficulty requiring immediate action.
2. A non-crisis problem is an issue that requires resolution, but does not simultaneously have
the importance and immediacy characteristics of crises.
3. An opportunity problem is a situation that offers a strong potential for significant
organizational gain if appropriate actions are taken.
a. Opportunities involve ideas that could be sued, rather than difficulties that must
be resolved.
b. Non-innovative managers tend to focus on problems rather than upon
opportunities.
Models of Decision Making:
Rational Model:
According to the rational model of decision making, managers engage in completely rational decision
processes, ultimately make optimal decisions, and possess and understand all information relevant to their
decisions at the time they make them (including all possible alternatives and all potential outcomes and
ramifications).
Rational Model Step by Step:
Defining Problem by gathering relevant information:
Step 1 is identifying a problem. A problem is defined as a discrepancy between an existing and a desired state
of affairs. Some cautions about problem identification include the following:
1. Make sure it’s a problem and not just a symptom of a problem.
2. Problem identification is subjective.
3. Before a problem can be determined, a manager must be aware of any discrepancies.
4. Discrepancies can be found by comparing current results with some standard.
5. Pressure must be exerted on the manager to correct the discrepancy.
6. Managers aren’t likely to characterize some discrepancy as a problem if they perceive that they
don’t have the authority, money, information, or other resources needed to act on it.
Step 2 is identifying the decision criteria. Decision criteria are criteria that define what is relevant and
important in making a decision.
Step 3 is allocating weights to the criteria. The criteria identified in Step 2 of the decision-making process
aren’t all equally important, so the decision maker must weight the items in order to give them correct
priority in the decision.
Step 4 involves developing alternatives. The decision maker now needs to identify viable alternatives for
resolving the problem.
Step 5 is analyzing alternatives. Each of the alternatives must now be critically analyzed. Each alternative is
evaluated by appraising it against the criteria.
Step 6 involves selecting an alternative. The act of selecting the best alternative from among those identified
and assessed is critical. If criteria weights have been used, the decision maker simply selects the alternative
with the highest score from Step 5.
Step 7 is choosing a course of action and implementing the alternative. The chosen alternative must be
implemented. Implementation is conveying a decision to those affected by it and getting their commitment
to it.
Step 8 involves evaluating the decision effectiveness. This last step in the decision-making process assesses
the result of the decision to see whether or not the problem has been resolved.


Lesson 6.17
NATURE AND TYPES OF MANAGERIAL DECISIONS
Nature of Managerial Decision-making:

The situations in which managers have to act differ according to the types of problems that must be
handled.
Programmed decisions are those made in routine, repetitive, well-structured situations through the use of
predetermined decision rules.

Many programmed decisions are derived from established practices and procedures or habit. Computers are
an ideal tool for dealing with several kinds of complex programmed decisions.

Most of the decisions made by first-line managers and many by middle managers are Programmed
decisions.

Non-programmed decisions are those for which predetermined decision rules are impractical because the
situations are novel and/or ill-structured.

Types of Problems and Decisions:

Managers will be faced with different types of problems and will use different types of decisions.
1. Well-structured problems are straightforward, familiar, and easily defined. In handling this
situation, a manager can use a programmed decision, which is a repetitive decision that can be
handled by a routine approach. There are three possible programmed decisions.
a. A procedure is a series of interrelated sequential steps that can be used to respond to a structured
problem.
b. A rule is an explicit statement that tells managers what they ought or ought not to do.
c. A policy is a guide that establishes parameters for making decisions rather than specifically stating
what should or should not be done

2. Poorly structured problems are new or unusual problems in which information is ambiguous or
incomplete. These problems are best handled by a non-programmed decision that is a unique
decision that requires a custom-made solution.

General Organizational Situations:

a. At the higher levels of the organization, managers are dealing with poorly structured problems and
using non-programmed decisions.
b. At lower levels, managers are dealing with well-structured problems by using programmed
decisions.
Since managers can make decisions on the basis of rationality, bounded rationality, or intuition, let us try to
understand them one by one:
1. Assumptions of Rationality.
Managerial decision making is assumed to be rational; that is, choices that is consistent and value
maximizing within specified constraints. The assumptions of rationality are summarized below.
a. These assumptions are problem clarity (the problem is clear and unambiguous); goal orientation (a
single, well-defined goal is to be achieved); known options (all alternatives and consequences are
known); clear preferences; constant preferences (preferences are constant and stable); no time or
cost constraints; and maximum pay off.
b. The assumption of rationality is that decisions are made in the best economic interests of the
organization, not in the manager’s interests.
c. The assumptions of rationality can be met if: the manager is faced with a simple problem in which
goals are clear and alternatives limited, in which time pressures are minimal and the cost of finding
and evaluating alternatives is low, for which the organizational culture supports innovation and risk
taking, and in which outcomes are concrete and measurable.


The rational model is flawed in that it does not apply to actual decision aiming for two reasons.
a. Perfect information is not available.
b. Manager’s values and personality factors enter into their decisions.
The rational model presents an ideal against which actual decision-making patterns can be measured

Decision-Making Styles

Managers have different styles when it comes to making decisions and solving problems. One perspective
proposes that people differ along two dimensions in the way they approach decision making.
1. One dimension is an individual’s way of thinking—rational or intuitive. The other is the individual’s
tolerance for ambiguity—low or high.
2. These two dimensions lead to a two by two matrix with four different decision-making styles.
a. The directive style is one that’s characterized by low tolerance for ambiguity and a rational way of
thinking.
b. The analytic style is one characterized by a high tolerance for ambiguity and a rational way of
thinking.
c. The conceptual style is characterized by an intuitive way of thinking and a high tolerance for
ambiguity.
d. The behavioral style is one characterized by a low tolerance for ambiguity and an intuitive way of
thinking.
3. Most managers realistically probably have a dominant style and alternate styles, with some relying
almost exclusively on their dominant style and others being more flexible depending on the
situation.


Lesson 6.18
NON RATIONAL DECISION MAKING
Non Rational Model:

The non-rational models of managerial decision making suggest that information-gathering and
processing limitations make it difficult for managers to make optimal decisions.
1. The satisficing model, developed in the 1950s by Novel Prize winning economist
Herbert Simon, holds that managers seek alternatives only until they find one that looks
satisfactory, rather than seeking the optimal decision.
a. Bounded rationality means that the ability of managers to be perfectly rational in
making decisions is limited by such factors as cognitive capacity and time
constraints.
b. Actual decision making is not perfectly rational because of
1) Inadequate information
2) Time an cost factors
3) The decision maker’s own misperceptions or prejudices
4) Limited human memory
Limited human data-processing abilities.
Satisficing can be appropriate when the cost of delaying a decision or searching for a better alternative
outweighs the likely payoff from such a course.
The incremental model holds that managers make the smallest response possible that will reduce the
problem to at least a tolerable level.
a. Managers can make decisions without processing a great deal of information.
b. Incremental strategies are usually more effective in the short run than in the long
run.

The garbage-can model of decision making holds that managers behave in virtually a random pattern in
making non-programmed decisions.
a. Factors that determine decisions include the particular individuals involved in the
decisions, their interests and favorite solutions to problems, as well as any
opportunities they stumble upon.
b. The garbage-can approach is often used in the absence of solid strategic
management and can lead to severe problems.

Group Decision making:

A. Decisions on all levels of organization are frequently made by groups.
Group decision making has several advantages and disadvantages over individual decision making.
1. Some advantages of group decision making include:
a) Groups bring more diverse information and knowledge to bear on the
question under consideration.
b) An increased number of alternatives can be developed.
c) Greater understanding and acceptance of the final decision are likely.
d) Members develop knowledge and skill for future use.
2. Group decision making has several disadvantages when compared to individual
decision making.
a) Group decision making is more time consuming.
b) Disagreements may delay decisions and cause hard feelings.
c) The discussion may be dominated by one or a few group members.
d) Groupthink is the tendency in cohesive groups to seek agreement about
an issue at the expense of realistically appraising the situation.
B. Managers can enhance group decision-making processes by taking steps to avoid
the pitfalls of group decision making.
1. Individuals should be involved only if they have information and knowledge
relevant to the decision.


2. The composition of the group should reflect the diversity of the broader
workgroup. Heterogeneous groups have been found to be more effective over
time than groups with the same nationality and ethnic backgrounds.

3. Two tactics are available to avoid group-think
a. Devil’s advocates are individuals who are assigned the role of making
sure than the negative aspects of any attractive decision alternatives are
considered.
b. Dialectical inequity is a procedure in which a decision situation is
approached from two opposite points of view.


Lesson 7.19
GROUP DECISION MAKING AND CREATIVITY
Group Decision making

Decisions on all levels of organization are frequently made by groups.

C. Group decision making has several advantages and disadvantages over individual decision
making.
3. Some advantages of group decision making include
e) Groups bring more diverse information and knowledge to bear on the
question under consideration.
f) An increased number of alternatives can be developed.
g) Greater understanding and acceptance of the final decision are likely.
h) Members develop knowledge and skill for future use.
4. Group decision making has several disadvantages when compared to individual
decision making.
e) Group decision making is more time consuming.
f) Disagreements may delay decisions and cause hard feelings.
g) The discussion may be dominated by one or a few group members.
h) Groupthink is the tendency in cohesive groups to seeks agreement about
an issue at the expense of realistically appraising the situation.
D. Managers can enhance group decision-making processes by taking steps to avoid the
pitfalls of group decision making.
4. Individuals should be involved only if they have information and knowledge
relevant to the decision.
5. The composition of the group should reflect the diversity of the broader
workgroup. Heterogeneous groups have been found to be more effective over
time than groups with the same nationality and ethnic backgrounds.
6. Two tactics are available to avoid groupthink
(a) Devil’s advocates are individuals who are assigned the role of making sure than the negative aspects of
any attractive decision alternatives are considered.
(b)Dialectical inequity is a procedure in which a decision situation is
approached from two opposite points of view.

E. Several groupware software packages are now available to enable managers to make use of
recent advances in information technology that enables groups to utilize computers in their
decision making.
1. Teleconferencing enables groups to “meet” electronically-either by conference
phone hookups or through computer networks.
2. Group decision support systems are new specialized computer-based information
systems which support groups working on less well defined problems.
3. Computer aids to group decision making seem to increase creativity. However,
face-to-face meeting still tend to show stronger consensus and satisfaction among
members of the group

The Creativity Factor in Decision Making
Innovation is important to organizational success in the marketplace.

A. Creativity versus Innovation.
There is a difference between creativity and innovation.
1. Creativity is the ability to combine ideas in a unique way or to make unusual associations between
ideas.
2. Innovation is the process of taking a creative idea and turning it into a useful product, service, or
method of operation.


Creativity is the cognitive process of developing an idea, concept, commodity, or discovery that is viewed
as novel by its creator or a target audience.

A. Creativity requires both convergent and divergent thinking.
1. Convergent thinking is the effort to solve problems by beginning with a problem
and attempting to move logically to a solution.
2. Divergent thinking is the effort to solve problems by generating new ways of
viewing a problem and seeking novel alternatives.

B. Creativity has three necessary ingredients.
1. Domain-relevant skills are those associated with expertise in the relevant field.
2. Creativity-relevant skills include a cognitive style, or method of thinking that is
oriented to exploring new directions, knowledge of approaches that can be used
for generating novel ideas, and a work style that is conducive to developing
creative ideas.
3. Task motivation is interest in the task for its own sake, rather than because of
some external reward possibility, such as more

C. An individual’s creative process has several stages.
1. Preparation involves the individual’s immersion in every aspect of a problem
through
a. Gathering initial information
b. Generating alternatives
c. Seeking and analyzing further data relating to the problem.
2. Incubation involves a rest from consciously focusing on the problem as
subconscious mental activities and divergent thinking take over.
3. Illumination is often experienced as a breakthrough as a new level of insight is
achieved.
4. Verification involves testing the ideas to determine the validity of the insight.

F. Group creativity can be enhanced by means of a number of techniques. Two of which are
following:
1. Brainstorming is a means of enhancing creativity that encourages group
members to generate as many novel ideas as possible on a given topic without
evaluating them.
a. The ground rules used in brainstorming were described earlier in this
chapter.
b. Computer assisted brainstorming have been found to give superior
results.
2. The Nominal Group Technique (NGT) is a means of enhancing creativity and
decision making that integrates both individual work and group interaction within
certain ground rules.
a. NGT was developed to foster creativity and to overcome the tendency to criticize ideas when they
are presented
b. The ground rules of NGT are:
1) Individuals independently prepare a list of their ideas on a
problem.
2) Group members present their ideas one at a time in turn, and
ideas are listed for all to see.
3) Members discuss the ideas to clarify and evaluate them.
4) Individuals vote silently using a rating procedure.
c. Recent research suggests that NGT is superior to brainstorming groups in
generating ideas but not so when compared to computer-assisted
brainstorming.


Lateral Thinking Vs Vertical Thinking

Vertical thinking is logical but only in one direction. You ignore the possibilities and alternatives around you
or various other ways of doing same thing. Vertical way of thinking is the problem solving way the way
computers do.

Rotating a problem from different angles to try and locate alternative points of entry involves Lateral
thinking. This is a creative processing that the human mind can do, but computers are generally unable to
do. It is useful when one channel of thought reaches a dead end and another approach is needed. It can be
difficult but satisfying to solve and will encourage you to examine lots of different clues and information
without any prejudice. Thinking laterally and avoiding the obvious is a great tool in life of a manager. This
thinking asks you generate 3-4 alternatives to a given problem and then try one option at a time to put into
action and see the results for best.

Other Decision Making Methods

1. Delphi Method:

The Delphi method is a structured approach to gain the judgments of a number of experts on a specific
issue relating to the future.
a. A panel of experts is surveyed in the interest of compiling a list of likely
scientific breakthroughs and the predicted time of their occurrence.
b. The resultant list is resubmitted to the experts who then estimate whether
the predicated breakthroughs are likely to occur earlier or later than the
average estimated time frame.
c. The next set of results is again submitted to the experts.
1) If a consensus is reached, dissenters are asked to explain why they
disagree with the majority.
2) If there is a wide divergence of opinion this step is repeated.
2. Scenario Analysis:

The Scenario analysis, developed in France, approach addresses a variety of possible futures by evaluating
major environmental variables, assessing the likely strategies of other significant factors (e.g., other
organizations), devising possible counter strategies, developing ranked hypotheses about the variables, and
formulating alternative scenarios.
a. Scenarios are outlines of possible future conditions, including possible
paths the organization could take that would likely lead to these
conditions.
b. One object of the method is to enable the organization to make decisions
that do not greatly inhibit further freedom of choice

Deming’s TOOL FOR Improvement and Innovation:

PDCA or PDSA i.e. Planning, Doing, Checking/Studying and Acting are the four activities which Dr.
Deming taught to Japanese companies to solve work related daily and yearly problems. When the tool i1s
deployed out in a cyclic fashion will lead to improvement and innovation in every process and work area of
the organization. This is one of the well known quality management tool.

Questions and Answers

1. Differentiate between creativity and innovation.
Creativity is the ability to combine ideas in a unique way or to make unusual associations between ideas.
Innovation is the process of taking a creative idea and turning it into a useful product, service, or method of
operation.


2. How can the systems model be used to help organizations become more innovative?
In the systems model we use inputs like creative people and groups and, through a creative process or
situation, transform the inputs into the desired output such as creative products. The right environment is
also important.

3. Describe the specific structural, cultural, and human resource variables associated with
innovation.
Variables associated with innovation are structural (organic structure, abundant resources, and high inter-
unit communication), cultural (acceptance of ambiguity, tolerance of the impractical, low external controls,
tolerance of risks, tolerance of conflicts, focus on ends, and open-system focus), and human resource (high
commitment to training and development, high job security, and creative people).


Lesson 7.20
PLANNING AND DECISION AIDS-I

This session and the one follows shall introduce the planning tools and techniques that managers have at
their disposal to assist them in performing the management functions. Management Science or Operation
Research is a management perspective aimed at increased decision effectiveness by use of sophisticated
mathematical models and statistical methods.

1. TECHNIQUES FOR ASSESSING THE ENVIRONMENT

Several techniques have been developed to assist managers in assessing the organization’s environment.

Environmental scanning
Environmental scanning is the screening of large amounts of information to anticipate and interpret
changes in the environment. It’s used by both large and small organizations, and research has shown that
companies with advanced environmental scanning systems increased their profits and revenue growth.

SWOT analysis is an analysis of an organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. It
brings together the internal and external environmental analyses in order to identify a strategic niche the
organization might exploit.

Competitor intelligence is an environmental scanning activity that seeks to identify who competitors are,
what they are doing, and how their actions will affect the organization.

Another type of environmental scanning is global scanning in which managers assess the changes and
trends in the global environment.

Environmental scanning provides the foundation for developing forecasts, which are predictions
of outcomes.
1. There are three categories of forecasting techniques.
a. Quantitative forecasting applies a set of mathematical rules to a series of past data to predict
outcomes.
b. Qualitative forecasting uses the judgment and opinions of knowledgeable individuals to predict
outcomes.
c. Judgmental forecasting

Forecasting

Forecasting is the process of predicting changing conditions and future events that may significantly affect
the business of an organization.

1. Forecasting is important to both planning and decision making.
2. Forecasting is used in a variety of areas such as: production planning, budgeting,
strategic planning, sales analysis, inventory control, marketing planning, logistics
planning, and purchasing among others.

It’s important to look at forecasting effectiveness. Forecasting techniques are most accurate when the
environment is not rapidly changing.
Some suggestions for improving forecasting effectiveness are as follows:
1) Use simple forecasting techniques.
2) Compare every forecast with “no change.”
3) Don’t rely on a single forecasting method.
4) Don’t assume that you can accurately identify turning points in a trend.
5) Shorten the length of the forecasts.
6) Forecasting is a managerial skill and can be practiced and improved.


Methods of Forecasting

A. Quantitative forecasting relies on numerical data and mathematical model to predict
future conditions. There are two types of quantitative forecasting most frequently used.
1. Time-series methods used historical data to develop forecasts of the future.
a. The underlying assumption is that patterns exist and that the future will
resemble the past.
b. Time-series methods do not in themselves predict the impact of present
or future actions that managers might take to bring about change.
c. A trend reflects a long-range general movement is either an upward or a
downward direction.
d. A seasonal pattern indicates upward or downward changes that coincide
with particular points within a given year.
e. A cyclical pattern involves changes at particular points in time that span
longer than a year.
f. Time-series are more valuable for predicting broad environmental factors
than in predicting the impact of present or future actions.
g. Because time-series rely on past trends there can be a danger in their use if
environmental changes are disregarded.
2. Explanatory or causal models attempt to identify the major variables that are
related to or have caused particular past conditions and then use current measures
of those variables (predictors) to predict future conditions.
a. Explanatory models allow managers to assess the probable impact of
changes in the predictors.
b. Regression models are equations that express the fluctuations in the
variable being forecasted in terms of fluctuations among one or more other
variables.
c. Econometric models are systems of simultaneous multiple regression
equations involving several predictor variables used to identify and measure
relationships or interrelationships that exist in the economy.
d. Leading indicators are variables that tend to be correlate with the
phenomenon of major interest but also tend to occur in advance of the
phenomenon.

B. Technological, or Qualitative, Forecasting is aimed primarily at predicting long-term
trends in technology and other important aspects of the environment

The focus is upon longer-term issues that are less amenable to numerical analysis as quantitative
approaches.

The Delphi method and Scenario analysis can be used as techniques.

C. Judgmental Forecasting relies mainly on individual judgments or committee agreements
regarding future conditions.

1. Judgmental forecasting methods are highly susceptible to bias.
2. The jury of executive opinion is one of the two judgmental forecasting model. It
is a means of forecasting in which organization executives hold a meeting and
estimate, as a group, a forecast for a particular item.
3. The Sales-force composite is a means of forecasting that is used mainly to
predict future sales and typically involves obtaining the views of various
salespeople, sales managers, and/or distributors regarding the sales outlook.


The choice of which forecasting method to use depends upon the needs within particular forecasting
situations.

1. Quantitative forecasting methods:
a. have a short-to-medium time horizon
b. require a short period of time if a method is developed
c. often have high development costs
d. are high in accuracy in identifying patterns
e. are low in accuracy in predicting turning points for time series, but
medium for other methods.
f. Are difficult to understand
2. Technological forecasting methods:
a. have a medium-to-long time horizon
b. require a medium-to-long time
c. have medium development costs
d. are of medium accuracy in identifying patterns
e. are of medium accuracy in predicting turning points
f. are easily understood.
3. Judgmental forecasting methods:
a. have a short-to-long time horizon
b. require a short time
c. have low development costs
d. are of medium-to-high accuracy in identifying patterns
e. are of low accuracy in predicting turning points
f. are easily understood

Benchmarking

Benchmarking is the search for the best practices among competitors or non-competitors that lead to
their superior performance.
. The benchmarking process typically follows four steps.
a. A benchmarking planning team is formed. The team’s initial task is to identify what is to be
benchmarked, identify comparative organizations, and determine data collection methods.
b. The team collects internal and external data.
c. The data is analyzed to identify performance gaps and to determine the cause of the difference.
d. An action plan is prepared and implemented.


Lesson 7.21
PLANNING AND DECISION AIDS-II

1. TECHNIQUES FOR ALLOCATING RESOURCES.

Resources are the assets of the organization and include financial, physical, human, intangible, and
structural.

1.1 Budgeting
A budget is a numerical plan for allocating resources to specific activities. Budgets are popular
because they’re applicable to a wide variety of organizations and units within an organization.
1. There are four different types of budgets.
a. A revenue budget is a budget that projects future sales.
b. An expense budget is a budget that lists the primary activities undertaken by a unit and allocates a
dollar amount to each.
c. A profit budget is a budget used by separate units of an organization that combines revenue and
expense budgets to determine the unit’s profit contribution.
d. A cash budget is a budget that forecasts how much cash an organization will have on hand and
how much it will need to meet expenses.
2. These budgets are based on the assumption of a single specified volume—fixed budgets.
However, volume can’t be predicted exactly. Therefore, a variable budget is a budget that takes into
account the costs that vary with volume.

1.2 Scheduling
Scheduling involves a list of necessary activities, their order of completion, which is to do each,
and time needed to complete them. Some useful scheduling tools include the following.
1.2.1. The Gantt chart, named after Henry Gantt, is a scheduling chart that visually shows actual and
planned output over a period of time.
A Gantt chart is a specialized bar chart that shows the current progress on each major project activity
relative to necessary completion dates.
1. A project is broken down into separate main activities listed on the left side of the
chart.
2. The time frame is listed at the top or the bottom of the chart.
3. The duration and scheduling of activities is shown by a bar.
4. Gantt charts do not show interrelationships among activities.
5. Software packages for creating and using Gantt charts (and many other decision
tools) on computer are becoming widely available.

1.2.2 PERT, or Program Evaluation and Review Technique
PERT is a network planning method for managing and controlling large one-time projects. It is a
technique for scheduling complicated projects comprising many activities, some of which are
interdependent.
A PERT network is a flowchart like diagram that depicts the sequence of activities needed to complete a
project and the time or costs associated with each activity.
1. All of the major activities in the project are specified.
2. The sequences of these activities are determined
3. A network diagram a graphic depiction of the interrelationships among activities,
is constructed.
a. An activity is a work component to be accomplished, and is represented
by an arrow on the network diagram.
b. An event (or node) represents a single point in time that is the beginning
or the ending of an activity.
4. Three time estimates for each activity are determined and an expected time is
calculated for each activity.


5. The critical path is the path of activities and events in the network that will take
the longest time to complete
a. Delays on any activities on the critical path mean that the project will be
delayed.
b. Slack is the degree of latitude about when various activities can be started
without endangering the completion date of the entire project.
6. After the project has begun, actual times for completion of each activity are
collected and recorded on the PERT network so that any rescheduling and
adjustments can be made as quickly as possible.

Please remember in PERT charts the followings:

1) Events are end points that represent the completion of major activities in a PERT network.
2) Activities, which are the time or resources required to progress from one event to another in a
PERT network.
3) Slack time is the amount of time an individual activity can be delayed without delaying the whole
project.
4) Critical path is the longest or most time-consuming sequence of events or activities in a PERT
network.

1.3 Breakeven Analysis
Breakeven analysis is a technique for identifying the point at which total revenue is just sufficient
to cover total costs.

1.4 Linear Programming
Linear programming is a mathematical technique that can be used to solve resource allocation
problems. Linear programming (LP) is a quantitative tool for planning how to allocate limited or scarce
resources so that a single criterion or goal (often profits) is optimized.
1. It is the most widely used quantitative planning tools in business.
2. There are optimal conditions for using linear programming.
a. A single objective must be achieved.
b. Attainable constraints exist.
c. Variables are linearly related to the objective, i.e., and increase (or
decrease) in the variable leads to a proportional increase (or decrease) in
the objective.

2. CONTEMPORARY PLANNING TECHNIQUES.

Two planning techniques that are appropriate for planning in an environment that’s both dynamic and
complex are project management and scenario planning.

2.1 Project Management
A project is a one-time-only set of activities that has a definite beginning and ending point in time.
Project management is the task of getting a project’s activities done on time, within budget, and according
to specifications.

Project Management Process.
There are seven steps in the project planning process.
a. Define objectives.
b. Identify activities and resources.
c. Establish sequences.
d. Estimate time for activities.
e. Determine project completion date.
f. Compare with objectives.
g. Determine additional human resource requirements.



The role of the project manager
a. The only real influence project managers have is their communication skills and their power of
persuasion.
b. Team members seldom work on just one project; they’re usually assigned to two or three at any
given time.

2.2 Scenario planning
A scenario is a consistent view of what the future is likely to be.
1. Developing scenarios also can be described as contingency planning.
2. The intent of scenario planning is not to try to predict the future but to reduce uncertainty by
playing out potential situations under different specified conditions.
3. Scenario planning is difficult to use when forecasting random events

3. Other Planning Techniques:

3.1 Queuing or waiting-line models are mathematical models that describe the operating
characteristics of queuing situations.
1. Queuing situations can be any combination of single-server or multiple-server
queues.
a. Single-server queues involved service provided at a single point.
b. Multiple-server queues occur when a number of stations draw from a
single line.
2. Queuing models allow managers to vary the parameters of a situation to determine
the probable effects.

3.2 Simulation Models
Simulation is a mathematical imitation of reality. It is used when the situation is too complex for
linear programming or queuing theory.

3.3 Decision Trees
Trees are graphic models displaying structures of a sequence of alternative course of action and
usually showing payoffs associated with various paths and probabilities associated with potential
future conditions.


Lesson 8.22
PLANNING: FUNCTIONS & BENEFITS

WHAT IS PLANNING?

Planning involves defining the organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving these
goals, and developing a comprehensive set of plans to integrate and coordinate organizational work. The
term planning as used in this chapter refers to formal planning. The quality of the planning process and
appropriate implementation probably contribute more to high performance than does the extent of planning.

WHY DO MANAGERS PLAN?

Purposes of Planning.

Planning is important and serves many significant purposes.

1. Planning gives direction to the organization.
2. Planning reduces the impact of change.
3. Planning establishes a coordinated effort.
4. Planning reduces uncertainty.
5. Planning reduces overlapping and wasteful activities.
6. Planning establishes objectives or standards that are used in controlling.

HOW DO MANAGERS PLAN?

Planning is often called the primary management function because it establishes the basis for all other
functions. Planning involves two important elements: goals and plans.

The Role of Goals and Plans in Planning
1. Goals—desired outcomes for individuals, groups, or entire organizations.
2. Goals are objectives—the two terms are used interchangeably.
3. Types of goals.
a. Financial performance versus strategic goals
b. Stated versus Real.
1) Stated goals are official statements of what an organization says, and what it wants its various
stakeholders to believe, its goals are.
2) Real goals are those that an organization actually purses.

Questions and Answers

1. Define planning.
Planning involves defining the organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy for achieving
those goals, and developing a comprehensive set of plans to integrate and coordinate organizational work.
It’s concerned with both ends (what’s to be done) and means (how it’s to be done).

2. What purposes does planning serve?
Planning gives direction, reduces the impact of change, establishes coordinated effort, reduces
uncertainty, minimizes waste and redundancy, and sets the standards used in controlling.

3. What is the relationship between planning and organizational performance?
Formal planning is associated with higher profits, higher return on assets, and other positive
financial results. The quality of the planning process and the appropriate implementation of the plans
probably contribute more to high performance than does the extent of planning.


4. Differentiate between goals and plans.
Goals are desired outcomes for individuals, groups, or entire organizations. Plans are documents
that outline how goals are going to be met and that typically describe resource allocations, schedules, and
other necessary actions to accomplish the goals.

5. What are the different types of goals?
Organizations may utilize financial and/or strategic goals, stated and/or real goals.

6. Describe each of the different types of plans.
Strategic plans apply to the entire organization, establish the organization’s overall goals, and seek
to position the organization in terms of its environment. Operational plans specify the details of how the
overall goals are to be achieved. Long-term plans are plans with a time frame beyond three years. Short-
term plans cover one year or less. Specific plans are clearly defined and leave no room for interpretation.
Directional plans are flexible plans that set out general guidelines. Single-use plans are one-time plans
specifically designed to meet the needs of a unique situation. Standing plans are ongoing plans that provide
guidance for activities performed repeatedly and include policies, rules, and procedures.

The Nature of organizational Goals

The use of goals has several benefits.

1. Performance can be improved.
2. Expectations can be improved.
3. The Controlling function can be facilitated so that progress can be assessed and
corrective action taken.
4. Meeting goals can increase motivation.

The three levels of goals within an organization form a hierarchy of goals, with lower-level goals forming a
mean-end chain with the next level of goals.

1. Strategic goals are broadly defined targets or future end results set by top
management.
2. Tactical goals are the targets or future end results usually set by middle
management for specific departments or units.
3. Operational goals are those targets or future end results set by lower
management that address specific, measurable outcomes required from the lower
levels.
Linkage of goals and plans.
Goal and plans are closely related in that plans specify the means to achieving the goals.

A. Plans, like goals, enter into a hierarchy of levels and priority.
1. Strategic plans are detailed action steps mapped out to reach strategic goals.
a. Strategic plans are organizational wide and are developed by top
management.
b. The time horizon tends to be long 3 to 5 years or more.
2. Tactical plans are the means charted to support implementation of the strategic
plan and achievement of tactical goals.
a. Tactical plans tend to be more specific and concrete than strategic plans.
b. Tactical plans are important to the success of strategic plans.
c. The time horizon tends to be intermediate in range 1 to 3 years.
3. Operational plans are the means devised to support implementation of tactical
plans and achievement of operational goals.
a. Operational plans spell out specifically what must be accomplished to
achieve operational goals.


b. The time horizon is relatively short-tem—usually less than 1 year as a
maximum.

B. Plans can be categorized according to the extent to which they will be used on a recurring
basis.
1. Single-use plans are plans aimed at achieving a specific goal that, once reached,
will most likely not recur in the future.
a. A program is a comprehensive plan that coordinates a complex set of
activities related to a major non-recurring goal.
b. A project is a plan that coordinates a set of limited-scope activities that
do not need to be divided into several major projects in order to reach a
major non-recurring goal. Programs are broader than projects.
2. Standing plans are plans that provide ongoing guidance for performing recurring
activities.
a. A policy is a general guide that specifies the broad parameters within
which organization members are expected to operate in pursuit of
organizational goals.
b. A procedure is a prescribed series of related steps to be taken under
certain recurring circumstances.
1) Procedures are detained and inflexible; policies are general.
2) Well established and formalized procedures are often called
standard operating procedures (SOPs).

C. Different levels of goals and plans are related to different time horizons.
Strategic plans typically involve time periods of 5 years or more, but the time frame is dependent upon the
stability of the industry in question.
1. Tactical goals and plans typically involve time periods of 1 to 5 years.
2. Operational goals and plans can be for as short a period as 1 week or as long as 1
year.

D. The planning process can be used to promote innovation in organizations.
1. The organizational mission statement can be a primary means of encouraging
innovation.
2. The goals component can translate the mission in a way supporting innovation.

The plans component can provide actual plans for achieving innovative outcomes.


Lesson 8.23
PLANNING PROCESS AND GOAL LEVELS

The overall planning process
A. Planning is a two-part function—setting goals and determining how to try to achieve the
goals.
1. A goal (often used interchangeably with “objective”) is a future target or end
result that an organization wishes to achieve.
2. A plan is the means devised for attempting to reach a goal.

B. An organization’s mission is the organization’s purpose or fundamental reason for
existence.
1. A mission statement is a broad declaration of the basic, unique purpose and
scope of operations that distinguishes the organization from others of this type.
2. A mission statement serves a variety of purposes.
a. For managers, a mission statement can be a benchmark against which to
evaluate success.
b. For employees, mission statements define a common purpose, nurture
organizational loyalty, and help foster a sense of community among
members.
c. For external groups, mission statements help provide unique insights into
an organization’s values and future directions.
3. The mission statement typically defines the organization in terms of the important
attributes of the organization. Answers to many of these questions are answered
using information and processes described in the two previous chapters in the
text.
a. Customers: Who are the organization’s customers?
b. Products or services: What are the organization’s major products or
services?
c. Location: Where does the organization compete?
d. Technology: What is the firms’ basic technology?
e. Philosophy: What are the basic beliefs, values, aspirations, and
philosophical priorities of the organization?
f. Self-concept: What are the organization’s major strengths and competitive
advantages?
g. Concern for public image: what are the organization’s public
responsibilities and what image is desired?
h. Concern for employees: What is the organization’s attitude toward its
employees?

Types of Plans
Plans can be described by their breadth, time frame, specificity, and frequency of use.
a. Breadth: strategic versus operational plans. Strategic plans are those that are organization wide,
establish overall objectives, and position an organization in terms of its environment. Operational
plans are plans that specify details on how overall objectives are to be achieved.
b. Time frame: short-term versus long-term plans. Short-term plans are plans that cover one year or
less. Long-term plans are those that extend beyond three years.
c. Specificity: specific versus directional plans. Specific plans are those that are clearly defined and
leave no room for interpretation. Directional plans are flexible plans that set out general
guidelines.

The Nature of organizational Goals

A. The use of goals has several benefits.
1. Performance can be improved.

2. Expectations can be improved.
3. The Controlling function can be facilitated so that progress can be assessed and
corrective action taken.
4. Meeting goals can increase motivation.

B. The three levels of goals within an organization form a hierarchy of goals, with lower-level
goals forming a mean-end chain with the next level of goals.
4. Strategic goals are broadly defined targets or future end results set by top
management.
5. Tactical goals are the targets or future end results usually set by middle
management for specific departments or units.
6. Operational goals are those targets or future end results set by lower
management that address specific, measurable outcomes required from the lower
levels.
How Goals Facilitate Performance
The content of goals should meet five criteria.

1. Challenging goals usually lead to higher performance from individuals and
groups.
2. Attainable goals, not impossible demands, are more likely to improve
performance.
3. Specific and measurable goals are needed so that it is clear when they have been
achieved.
4. Time-limited goals give them meaning.
5. Relevant goals enable employees to see the purpose of the goals and to devise
ways of meeting them.
6. Measurable means the performance and targets can be measured after an interval
of time.

Goal commitment is one’s attachment to, or determination to reach, a goal. Without commitment goals
have little impact on performance. Managers can help foster commitments in a number of ways.

1. Supervisory authority should serve to motivate employees to meet their goals.
2. Peer and group pressure may serve as motivation.
3. Expectations of success can be improved by managerial coaching and
instruction.
4. Incentives are offered during the goal-setting process; rewards occur upon goal
achievement.
5. Participation in the goal setting process may be effective in engendering goals commitment.

Work behavior may be affected by four factors influenced by goals content and goal commitment.

1. Goals provide Direction by channeling attention and action toward activities
related to those goals, rather than to other activities.
2. Goals to which we are committed boost effort by mobilizing energy.
3. Persistence involves maintaining direction and effort on behalf of a goal until it is
reached.
4. Goal setting leads to planning if the goals are appropriately challenging.

The impact of goals on performance of any specific job can be influenced by a number of other process
components.

1. Job knowledge and ability are likely to affect an individual’ work behavior and
prospects for reaching goals.


2. The complexity of the task may affect the degree to which goal-directed work
behaviors influence job performance.
3. Situation constraints include such things as having the proper tools, materials,
and equipment.
4. Knowledge of results or feedback about progress enables individuals to gauge
their progress toward goal attainment.

Strategic plans typically involve time periods of 5 years or more, but the time frame is dependent upon the
stability of the industry in question.

The planning process can be used to promote innovation in organizations.

3. The organizational mission statement can be a primary means of encouraging
innovation.
4. The goals component can translate the mission in a way supporting innovation.
5. The plans component can provide actual plans for achieving innovative outcomes.

Obstacles to planning exist, but may be countered by organizations.
1. Obstacles to planning threaten the ability of organizations to develop effective
plans.
a. Plans in a rapidly changing environment require frequent revisions.
Manager may resist formalized planning if they believe planning is
unnecessary. The pressure of day-to-day responsibilities may keep
managers from planning. Managers may be poorly prepared.
Staff specialists may come to dominate the planning process
2. Organizations can take steps to reduce the obstacles to planning.
a. Top-level managers may demonstrate their support of the planning
process.
b. A planning staff is a small group of individuals who assist top-level
managers in developing the various components of the planning process.
This staff should focus on helping rather than taking over the planning
process.
c. Contingency planning is the development of alternative plans for use in
the event that environmental conditions evolve differently than
anticipated, rendering original plans unwise or unfeasible.


Lesson 8.24
MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVE (MBO)

Time Span of Goals and Plans
1. Strategic goals and plans generally involve time periods of 3-5 years.
2. Tactical goals and plans typically involve time periods of 1 to 3 years.
3. Operational goals and plans can be for as short a period as 1 week or as long as 1 year.

Characteristics of Well-Designed Goals

a. Written in terms of outcomes
b. Measurable and quantifiable
c. Clear as to a time frame
d. Challenging but attainable
e. Written down
f. Communicated to all organizational members

Steps in Goals Setting—Five Steps

a. Review the organization’s mission.
Goals should reflect what the mission statement says.
b. Evaluate available resources.
c. Determine individually, or with input from others, the goals.
d. Write down the goals and communicate them to all who need to know.
e. Review results and whether goals are being met.

Developing Plans

The process of developing plans is influenced by three contingency factors and by the planning approach
followed.
1. Contingency Factors in Planning.
a. Manager’s level in the organization.

Operational planning usually dominates the planning activities of lower-level managers. As managers move
up through the levels of the organization, their planning becomes more strategic.

b. Degree of environmental uncertainty. The greater the environmental uncertainty, the more plans
should be directional and emphasis placed on the short term.

1) When uncertainty is high, plans should be specific, but flexible.
2) Managers must be prepared to rework and amend plans, or even to abandon their plans.

c. Length of Future Commitments.
1) Commitment concept means that plans should extend far enough to meet those commitments
made when the plans were developed.
2) Planning for too long or for too short a time period is inefficient and ineffective.

Approaches to Establishing Goals

Goals can be established through a process of traditional goal setting or through management by objectives
a. Traditional goal setting is defined as the process whereby goals are set at the top of the
organization and then broken down into sub goals for each level in an organization.
1) Top managers are assumed to know what’s best because they see the “big picture.”
2) These goals are also often largely non operational.
3) Specificity is achieved as each manager applies his or her own set of interpretations and biases.


4) However, what often results is that objectives lose clarity and
unity as they move from top to bottom.
5) When the hierarchy of objectives is clearly defined, it forms an
integrated means-end chain in which higher-level objectives are
linked to lower-level objectives. These lower-level objectives
serve as the means for the accomplishment of the higher-level
objectives. And the goals at the lower levels (means) must be
achieved in order to reach the goals at the next level (ends.)

Goal setting has some potential pitfalls

1. Setting difficult goals increases the risk that they will not be reached.
2. High goals may increase the stress levels of organizational members.
3. Failure to meet high goals may undermine the self-confidence of organizational
members.
4. Non goal areas may be ignored.
5. Setting goals may encourage excessive shot-range thinking.
6. Inappropriate goals may lead to dishonesty and cheating.

Management by Objectives

Management by objective (MBO) is a process through which specific goals are set collaboratively for the
organization as a whole and every unit and individual within it; the goals then are used as a basic for
planning, managing organizational activities, and assessing and rewarding contributions.

In Management by objectives (MBO) specific performance goals are jointly determined by employees
and their managers, progress toward accomplishing these goals is periodically reviewed, and rewards are
allocated on the basis of this progress.
1) MBO was first described by Peter Drucker and consists of four elements:
i) Goal specificity
ii) Participative decision making
iii) Explicit time period
iv) Performance feedback
2) MBO makes objectives operational through the process by which they cascade down through the
organization.

Although there is considerable variation across organizations, MBO processes typically include six steps.
1. Organizational goals are developed based on organizational missions.
2. Specific goals are established for departments, subunits, and individuals.
a. In the top-down process, upper-level managers, conferring with their
immediate managerial subordinates, formulate specific objectives for their
areas of responsibility. These in turn enter into the formulation of
objectives for the next level down, and so forth.
b. In the bottom-up process, operational goals are proposed by lower-level
managers on the basis of what they think they can achieve. These in turn
are developed into tactical and finally strategic plans.
3. Action plans are formulated, describing what is to be done, how, when, where, and
by whom in order to achieve a particular goals.
4. Individuals are given the responsibility of reaching their objectives and that goals
will ultimately be met.
5. Performance is appraised at the end of the goal-setting cycle, typically at one-year
intervals. Praise, recognition, and rewards should be given for effective
performance.


The strengths of MBO are that it
1. Aids coordination of goals and plans.
2. Helps clarify priorities and expectations.
3. Facilitates vertical and horizontal communications.
4. Fosters employee motivation.

The weaknesses of MBO are that it
1. Tends to falter without strong, continual commitment from top management.
2. Necessitates considerable training of managers.
3. Can be misused as a punitive device.
4. May cause overemphasis of quantitative goals.

The “spirit” of MBO is tremendous. In practice however, MBO has been successful only about 20 to 25
percent of the time, primarily because of lack of support from top management and poor goal-setting and
communication skills.


Lesson 9.25
STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT -1
INTRODUCTION
Today’s business news is filled with reports of organizations making changes in their strategies for whatever
reasons. An underlying theme of discussing strategic management is that good strategies can lead to high
organizational performance.
THE IMPORTANCE OF STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
The environmental shocks during the decades of the 1970s and 1980s forced managers to develop a
systematic means of analyzing the environment, assessing their organization’s strengths and weaknesses,
identifying opportunities that would give the organization a competitive advantage, and incorporating these
findings into their planning. The value of thinking strategically was recognized.
The concept of strategic management
Strategic management is a process through which managers formulate and implement strategies geared to
optimizing goal achievement, given available environmental and internal conditions. Strategic
management is that set of managerial decisions and actions that determines the long-run performance of
an organization. It entails all of the basic management functions—planning, organizing, leading, and
controlling.
Purposes of strategic management
1. One reason strategic management is important is because it’s involved in many of the decisions that
managers make.
2. Another reason is that studies of the effectiveness of strategic planning and management have
found that, in general, companies with formal strategic management systems had higher financial
returns than those companies with no such systems.
3. Strategic management has moved beyond for-profit organizations to include all types of
organizations, including not-for-profit.
Strategic management is important to organizations because it
1. Helps organizations identify and develop a competitive advantage, a significant
edge over the competition in dealing with competitive forces.
2. Provides a sense of direction so that organization members know where to expend
their efforts.
Helps highlight the need for innovation and provides an organized approach for encouraging new ideas
related to strategies.
Strategies are large-scale action plans for interacting with the environment in order to achieve long-term
goals. Most well-run organizations attempt to develop and follow strategies.
The strategic management process is made up of several components.
1. Strategy formulation is the part of the strategic management process that
includes.
a. Identifying the mission and strategic goals.
b. Conducting competitive analysis
c. Developing specific strategies
2. Strategy implementation is the part of the strategic management process that
focuses on.
a. Carrying strategic plans.
b. Maintaining control over how those plans are carried out.
Q. Define strategic management and how it entails the four management functions.
A. Strategic management is that set of managerial decisions and actions that determines the long-run
performance of an organization. It entails all of the basic management functions because the
organization’s strategies must be planned, organized, put into effect, and controlled.

Lesson 9.26
STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT - 2

THE STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT PROCESS

The strategic management process is an eight-step process that encompasses strategic planning,
implementation, and evaluation.

A. The first step is identifying the organization’s current mission, objectives, and strategies.
1. Every organization needs a mission, which defines the purpose of the organization. What is the
organization’s reason for being in business?
2. It’s also important to identify the organization’s current objectives and strategies, as well.

B. Step 2 is analyzing the external environment. It’s important to analyze the environment because, to
a large degree, it defines management’s strategic options.
1. A successful strategy is one that aligns well with the environment.
2. This step is complete when managers have an accurate grasp of what is taking place in the external
environment and are aware of important trends that might affect the organization.

C. The third step is identifying opportunities and threats. After analyzing the external environment,
managers need to assess what opportunities to exploit and what threats to avoid.
1. Opportunities are positive external environmental factors.
2. Threats are negative external environmental factors.

D. Step 4 is analyzing the organization’s resources. In this internal analysis, managers are looking at the
organization’s specific assets, skills, and work activities.
1. Managers look for core competencies, which are an organization’s major value-creating skills,
capabilities, and resources that determine its competitive advantage.
2. This step forces managers to realize that every organization, no matter how large or powerful, is
constrained in some way by its resources and skills.

E. Step 5 is identifying strengths and weaknesses. The analysis in step 4 should lead to a clear
assessment of the organization’s internal resources.
1. Strengths are those activities the firm does well or the unique resources it controls.
2. Weaknesses are those activities the firm doesn’t do well or the resources it needs but doesn’t
possess.
3. One area that’s often overlooked in this step is an analysis of the organization’s culture and its
strengths and weaknesses.
a. Remember that culture is the organization’s personality.
b. The strength of the culture is a result of how much employees understand and support the shared
values.
c. A strong culture should make it easy for managers to convey to employees the organization’s
distinctive competencies. However, the strong culture will make it more difficult to change, if
needed.
d. Strategic choices will also be influenced by the culture’s tolerance of risk and innovation and how
performance is rewarded.
e. The culture can also promote or hinder an organization’s strategic actions.
4. The merging of steps 3 and 5 results in a SWOT analysis, which is an analysis of an organization’s
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. It brings together the internal and external
analyses in order to identify a strategic niche the organization might exploit.
5. In light of the SWOT analysis, managers need to reevaluate the organization’s current mission and
objectives.


F. Step 6 is formulating strategies. Strategies need to be established for the corporate, business, and
functional levels of the organization. In formulating strategies, managers hope to give the
organization a competitive advantage.

G. The next step is implementing strategies. The strategies must now be put into action. Strategies are
only as good as their implementation.

H. The eighth (and final) step in the strategic management process is evaluating results. Managers
must evaluate the results to determine how effective their strategies have been and what
corrections are necessary.

The role of competitive analysis in strategy formulation

Before an effective strategy to gain a competitive advantage can be formulated, the organization’s
competitive situation needs to be carefully analyzed.
A. A SWOT ANALYSIS is one method for doing so. The SWOT analysis involves assessing
organization strengths (S) and weaknesses (W), as well as environmental opportunities (O)
and threats (T).
1. Strengths and weaknesses apply to internal characteristics.
a. A strength is an internal characteristic that has the potential of improving
the organization’s competitive situation.
b. A weakness is an internal characteristic that leaves the organization
potentially vulnerable to strategic moves by competitors.
2. Opportunities and threats are found in the external environment.
a. An opportunity is an environmental condition that offers significant
prospects for improving an organization’s situation relative to
competitors.
b. A threat is an environmental condition that offers significant prospects
for undermining an organization’s competitive situation.


Lesson 9.27
LEVELS OF STRATEGIES, PORTER’S MODEL AND
STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT (BCG) AND IMPLEMENTATION

Level of Strategies

Many organizations develop strategies at three different levels. These three different and distinct levels of
strategy are corporate, business, and functional:

Corporate-level strategy is developed by top-level management and the board of directors. The
corporate-level strategy seeks to determine what businesses a corporation should be in or wants to be in.
Two popular approaches for answering the question of what business(es) should we be in are the grand
strategies framework and the corporate portfolio matrix.

1. These strategies address
a. What business the organization will be coordinated to strengthen the
organization’s competitive position.
b. How the strategies of those businesses will be coordinated to strengthen
the organization’s competitive position.
c. How resources will be allocated among businesses.

2. Business-level strategy concentrates on the best means of competing within a particular business
while also supporting the corporate-level strategy.
a. The distinction between corporate-level and business-level strategy applies
only to organizations with separate divisions that compete in different
industries.
b. A strategic business unit (SBU) is a distinct business, with its own set
of competitors that can be managed reasonably independently of other
businesses within the organization.

3. Functional-level strategy focuses on action plans for managing a particular functional area within
a business in a way that supports the business-level strategy.
a. Functional areas include operations, marketing, finance, human resources
management, accounting, research and development, and engineering.
b. Functional strategies are usually developed by functional managers and are
typically reviewed by business unit heads.

4. Coordinating strategies across these three levels is critical in maximizing strategic impact.

The role of competitive analysis in strategy formulation and implementation

Porter’s Forces Model:

Michael E. Porter, a noted strategy expert, has devised the five competitive forces model as an approach
for analyzing the external environment for both the nature and the intensity of competition in a given
industry in terms of five major forces.
1. The model provides an environmental assessment of strategically significant
elements of the organization’s task environment.
2. Rivalry is the extent to which competitors use tactics to lower the profits of their
competitors.
3. The bargaining power of suppliers is the extent to which suppliers can exert power
over business in an industry by threatening to raise prices or reduce the quality of
goods and services they provide.


4. The bargaining power of buyers depends on the factors such as number of
customers in the market, customer information, and the availability of substitute
which determine the amount of influence that buyers have in an industry.
5. The threat of new entrants is the threat of a price war if new competitors can enter
the market.
6. The threat of substitute products or services is the extent to which businesses in
other industries can offer substitute products, thus reducing the profit potential
for the industry.

The competitive environment, in some industries, may reach the point of hyper competition-a state of
rapidly escalating competition. When this happens, environments may become upward spirals of
uncertainty, dynamism, and heterogeneity of players making it difficult for any organization to sustain
competitive advantage.

An organizational assessment determines how organizational factors in the internal environment affect
the competitive situation.

1. The resource-based strategic view is a useful approach to internal assessment as it
focuses on competitive implications of several sets of organizational resources and
capabilities.
a. Financial resources include debt, equity, retained earnings, and other
money related matters.
b. Physical resources include buildings, machinery, and other materials to
operate.
c. Human resources include skills, abilities, experience, and other work
related characteristics of those associated with the organization.
d. Organizational resources include the history, relationships, levels of trust,
and other culture dimensions.

2. Assessing the competitive implications of these resources and capabilities relative
to the environment involves answering questions about four critical factors.
a. How much value does any resource or capability add?
b. What, if any, degree of rareness does each resource or capability have
among competing firms?
c. What is the degree of imitability by competitors of each resource or
capability?

d. Is the organization of the firm’s resources and capabilities by the formal
reporting relationships, the control and reward systems, and other factors
such so as to achieve the best competitive advantage?

3. Achieving sustained competitive advantage requires both the development in industries in which
competitive forces are favorable and upon the development of resources and capabilities that are valuable,
rare, and are difficult to imitate. When a firm has valuable, rare, and difficult to imitate resources and
capabilities, it is said to have a distinctive competence.

Formulating corporate-level strategy

A. A grand strategy (master strategy) provides the basic strategic direction at the corporate
level of the organization. Four grand strategies have been identified.
1. Growth strategies are grand strategies that involve organizational expansion
along some major dimension.
a. Concentration focuses on effecting the growth of a single product or
service or a small number of closely related products or services.


1) Market development is gaining a larger share of a current market
or expanding into new ones.
2) Product development is improving a basic product or service or
expanding into closely related products or services.
3) Horizontal integration is adding one or more business that is
similar, usually by purchasing such business.
b. Vertical integration involves effecting growth through the production of
inputs previously provided by suppliers or through the replacement of a
customer role (Such as that of a distributor) by disposing of one’s own
outputs.
1) Backward integration occurs when a business grows by becoming
its own supplier
2) Forward integration occurs when organizational growth
encompasses a role previously fulfilled by a customer.
Diversification entails effecting growth through the development of new areas that are clearly distinct from
current businesses.
1) Conglomerate diversification takes place when an organization
diversifies into areas that are unrelated to its current business.
2) Concentric diversification occurs when an organization diversifies
into a related, but distinct, business.
c. These growth strategies can be implemented through a number of means:
1) Internal growth occurs as the organization expands by building
on its own internal resources.
2) An acquisition is the purchase of all or part of one organization
by another.
3) A merger is the combining of two or more companies into one
organization.
4) A joint venture occurs when two or more organizations provide
resources to support a given project or product offering.

2. A stability strategy is a second type of grand strategy that involves maintaining
the status quo or growing in a methodical, but slow, manner.
a. Small, privately owned businesses are most likely to adopt this strategy.
b. Some of the reasons for adopting a stability strategy are that it
1) Avoids the risks or hassles of aggressive growth.
2) Provides the opportunity to recover after a period of accelerated
growth.
3) Lets the company hold on to current market share.
4) May occur through default.

3. Defensive strategies, the third class of grand strategies, are sometimes called
retrenchment strategies. They tend to focus on the desire or need to reduce
organizational operations usually through cost reductions, such as cutting back on
non-essential expenditures and instituting hiring freezes, and/or asset reductions
such as selling land, equipment, or the business itself.
a. Harvest entails minimizing investments while attempting to maximize
short-run profits and cash flow, with the long-run intention of existing
with the market.
b. A turnaround is designed to reverse a negative trend and restore the
organization to appropriate levels of profitability.
c. A divestiture involves an organization’s selling or divesting of a business
or part of a business.
d. A bankruptcy is a means whereby an organization that is unable to pay
its debts can seek court protection from creditors and from certain
contract obligations while it attempts to regain financial stability.


e. Liquidation entails selling or dissolving an entire organization.

B. A portfolio strategy approach is a method of analyzing an organization’s mix of
businesses in terms of both individual and collective contributions to strategic goals. Two
portfolio approaches are used most frequently. Each uses a two-dimensional matrix, and
each may apply to either the existing or to potential strategic business units (SBUs). The
portfolio concept is analogous to an individual’s selecting a portfolio of stocks to achieve
balance in terms of risk, long-term growth, etc.

The Boston Consulting Groups (BCG) growth-share matrix compares various businesses in an
organization’s portfolio on the basis of relative market share and market growth rate. The corporate
portfolio matrix approach has been a popular approach to determining corporate-level strategy.

The BCG matrix, developed by the Boston Consulting Group, is a strategy tool to guide resource
allocation decisions based on market share and growth of SBUs.
a. Relative market share is determined by the ratio of a business’s market
share compared to the market share of its largest rival.
b. Market growth rate is the growth in the market during the previous year
relative to growth in the economy as a whole.
The matrix defines four business groups. SBUs plotted on the BCG matrix can be categorized:
1) The Star has a high market share in a rapidly growing market.
2) A Question Mark (problem child) has a low market share in a
rapidly growing market.
3) The Cash Cow has a high market share in a slowly growing
market.
4) A Dog has a low market share in an area of low growth.
c. Strategies are suggested by the SBU’s position on the matrix.
1) Use funds from cash cows to duns stars and possibly question
marks.
2) Divest dogs and less desirable question mark.

1. The product/market evolution matrix (sometimes called the life-cycle portfolio
matrix) is a 15-cell matrix in which business is plotted according to the business
unit’s business strengths or competitive position, and the industry’s stage in the
evolutionary product/market life cycle.
a. While the BCG matrix measures market growth rate the product/market
evolution matrix shows the industry’s stage in the evolutionary life cycle.
b. The maturity and saturation stage is particularly important because it may
last for an extended period of time and is a stage that presents special
challenges to preserve market share while facing the prospect of the
decline stage.

2. In assessing these portfolio matrixes remember that each model offers a
somewhat different perspective. Portfolio matrices do not provide advice about
specific business within the organization-such specifics are derived at the business
level.

The BCG matrix (and the portfolio concept) has lost much of its merit because:
a. Not every organization has found that increased market share leads to lower costs.
b. The portfolio concept assumes that an organization’s businesses can be divided into a reasonable
number of independent units.
c. Contrary to predictions, many so-called dogs have shown consistently higher levels of profitability
than their growing competitors with dominant market shares.
d. Given the rate at which the economy has been growing and the fact that a market can have only
one leader, well over half of all businesses by definition fall into the dog category.


e. Strategic implications of the BCG matrix are: “milk” the cash cows; invest resources in the stars;
liquidate or sell the dogs; and sell off or invest in the question marks.

Formulating Business-level strategy

A. Business-level strategies provide advice about specific strategies for various businesses.
B. Michael E. Porter has developed three business-level strategies that are generic, i.e., widely
applicable to a variety of situations.
1. A cost leadership strategy involves emphasizing organizational efficiency so that
the overall costs of providing products and services are lower than those of
competitors.
a. The business should have a cost advantage that is not easily or
inexpensively imitated.
b. Managers should consider making those product or service innovations
that are most important to customers.

2. A differentiation strategy involves attempting to develop products and services
that are viewed as unique in the industry.
a. Differentiation may occur in brand image, technology, customer service,
features, quality, and election.
b. Costs are not as important as product or service uniqueness.

3. A focus strategy entails specializing by establishing a position of overall cost
leadership, differentiation, or both, but only within a particular portion, or
segment, or an entire market.

Formulating functional-level strategy

A. Strategies at the functional level are important in supporting a business-level strategy.

B. Functional areas develop the distinctive competencies that lead to potential competitive
advantages.

Strategy Implementation

Strategies at the functional level are important in supporting a business-level strategy.
Functional areas develop the distinctive competencies that lead to potential competitive advantages.

Strategy implementation includes the various management activities that are necessary to put the strategy
in motion, institute strategic controls that monitor progress, and ultimately achieve organizational goals.

A. Managers need to synchronize major factors within an organization needed to put a chosen
strategy into action.
1. Technology is the knowledge, tool, equipment, and work technique used by an
organization in delivering its product or service.
2. Human resources are the individuals who are members of the organization.
3. Reward systems include bonuses, awards, or promotions provided by others, as
well as rewards related to internal experiences, such as feeling of achievement and
challenge.
4. Decision processes include the means of resolving questions and problems that
occur in organizations.
5. Organization structure is the formal pattern of interactions and coordination
designed by management to link the tasks of individuals and groups in achieving
organizational goals.


B. Managers need to be able to monitor progress through strategic control.
1. Strategic control involves monitoring critical environmental factors that could
affect the viability of strategic plans, assessing the effects of organizational
strategic actions, and ensuring that strategic plans are implemented as intended.

Strategic control systems include information systems that provide feedback on the implementation and
effectiveness of strategic plans


Lesson 10.28
ENTREPRENEURSHIP MANAGEMENT

What Is Entrepreneurship?

1. Entrepreneurship—the process where individuals or a group of individuals risk time and money
in pursuit of opportunities to create value and grow through innovation regardless of the resources
they currently control.
2. Entrepreneurial ventures vs. small businesses
Entrepreneurial ventures—organizations that are pursuing opportunities, characterized by
innovative practices, and have growth and profitability as their main goals.
Small businesses—organization that is independently owned, operated, and financed; has fewer
than 100 employees; doesn’t necessarily engage in any new or innovative practices, and has
relatively little impact on its industry, usually remaining small by choice or by default.

Why Is Entrepreneurship Important?

1. Innovation—a process of changing, experimenting, transforming, revolutionizing, and a key aspect
of entrepreneurial activity.
2. Number of New Start-Ups
Data collected by the U.S. Small Business Administration shows that the number of new start-ups
rose between 1995 and 2000.
Assuming that some of these new businesses engage in innovative practices and pursue profitability
and growth, then entrepreneurship has contributed to the overall creation of new firms.
3. Job Creation
The latest figures show that virtually all new net jobs were generated by firms with fewer than 500
employees.
4. Exhibit P2.1 on p. 144 provides the results of the GEM (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor) study
that looked at the level of entrepreneurial activity in 21 countries.

The Entrepreneurial Process

1. Exploring the entrepreneurial context
It includes the realities of the new economy, society’s laws and regulations that compose the legal
environment, and the realities of the changing world of work.
2. Identifying opportunity and possible competitive advantages
3. Starting the venture
It includes researching the feasibility of the venture, planning the ventures, organizing the ventures,
and launching the venture.

4. Managing the venture
It includes managing processes, people, and growth.

What Do Entrepreneurs Do?

1. Initially, an entrepreneur is engaged in assessing the potential for the venture, and then dealing with
start-up issues.
2. Once the venture is up and running, the entrepreneur’s attention switches to managing it.
3. Finally, the entrepreneur must manage the venture’s growth.


Answering the Questions

1. Differentiate between entrepreneurial ventures and small businesses.
Entrepreneurial Ventures—organizations that are pursuing opportunities, characterized by
innovative practices, and have growth and profitability as their main goals.
Small Businesses—organization that is independently owned, operated, and financed; has fewer
than 100 employees; doesn’t necessarily engage in any new or innovative practices, and has relatively little
impact on its industry, usually remaining small by choice or by default.

2. Why is entrepreneurship important in Pakistan?
The important of entrepreneurship in Pakistan can be shown in three areas: innovation, number of
new start-up business and SMEs, and job creation.

3. Is the pursuit of entrepreneurship important only in Pakistan? Explain.
The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) studied the pace of entrepreneurial activity on
economic growth in various countries. Among the major industrialized G-7 countries in particular, there
was a very strong relationship between the level of entrepreneurial activity and annual economic growth.
Same is true for every country like Pakistan i.e. developing nation.

4. Describe the four key steps in the entrepreneurial process.
Exploring the entrepreneurial context; includes the realities of the new economy, society’s laws and
regulations that compose the legal environment, and the realities of the changing world of work.
Identifying opportunity and possible competitive advantages
Starting the venture; includes researching the feasibility of the venture, planning the ventures,
organizing the ventures, and launching the venture.
Managing the venture; includes managing processes, people, and growth.

5. What do entrepreneurs do?
Initially, an entrepreneur is engaged in assessing the potential for the venture, and then dealing with
start-up issues. Once the venture is up and running, the entrepreneur’s attention switches to managing it.
Finally, the entrepreneur must manage the venture’s growth.

6. Why are social responsibility and ethical considerations important to entrepreneurs?
Ethical considerations play a role in decisions and actions of entrepreneurs. The results of a study
of approximately 300 entrepreneurs and corporate managers showed that entrepreneurs generally have
more strict ethical standards than do managers and are also better able to live by their beliefs, probably
because they have more control over their decisions and actions.

Preparing to Operate a Small Business:

1. Writing a Business Plan:
A business plan is a document written by an entrepreneur or perspective owner that details the nature of
business, the product or service, the customers, the competition, the production and marketing methods,
the management, the financing and other significant aspects of proposed business venture.
It has several purposes:
1. To think in concrete terms about every aspect of business.
2. To able to get financing
3. To measure progress
4. To establish credibility with others.


WHAT IS CHANGE?

Organizational change is defined as any alteration in people, structure, or technology. Change is ever
present in organizations and cannot be eliminated. Instead, we need to look at the key issues related to
managing change.

FORCES FOR CHANGE

There are external and internal forces that create the need for change.

A. External forces that create the need for change come from various sources.
1. The marketplace
2. Government laws and regulations
3. Technology
4. Labor markets
5. Economic changes

B. Internal forces tend to originate primarily from the internal operations of the organization
or from the impact of external changes.
1. Changes in strategy
2. Changes in the workforce
3. New equipment
4. Change in employee attitudes

STIMULATING INNOVATION

Innovation is important to organizational success in the marketplace.

A. Creativity versus Innovation.
There is a difference between creativity and innovation.
1. Creativity is the ability to combine ideas in a unique way or to make unusual associations between
ideas.
2. Innovation is the process of taking a creative idea and turning it into a useful product, service, or
method of operation.
How can managers foster innovation?
a. Organic structures positively influence innovation.
b. The easy availability of organizational resources provides a critical building block for innovation.
c. Frequent interunit communication helps break down barriers to innovation.
Human resources variables are indicative of the important role that people play in
innovative organizations.
a. Innovative organizations actively promote the training and development of their employees so their
knowledge remains current.
b. Innovative organizations offer employees high job security.
c. Innovative organizations encourage individuals to become idea champions—individuals who
actively and enthusiastically support a new idea, build support, overcome resistance, and ensure that the
innovation is implemented.


Lesson 10.29
ORGANIZING

Organizations are experimenting with different approaches to organizational structure and design.
Organizational structure can play an important role in an organization’s success. The process of
ORGANIZING—the second management functions—is how an organization’s structure is created.

The nature of organization structure

Managers are seeking structural designs that will best support and allow employees to effectively and
efficiently do their work. Organizing is the process of creating an organization’s structure.

Organization structure is the formal pattern of interactions and coordination designed by management to
link the tasks of individuals and groups in achieving organizational goals. An organizational structure is
the formal framework by which job tasks are divided, grouped, and coordinated.

1. This formal pattern designed by management is to be distinguished from the
informal pattern of interactions that simply emerges within an organization.
2. Organization structure consists primarily of four elements:
a. Job design
b. Departmentalization
c. Vertical coordination
d. Horizontal coordination
3. Organization design is the process of developing an organization structure. Organizational
design is the process of developing or changing an organization’s structure. It involves decisions about six
key elements: work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of control,
centralization/decentralization, and formalization. We need to take a closer look at each of these structural
elements.

The organization chart is a line diagram that depicts the broad outlines of an organization’s structure.
While varying in detail from one organization to another, typically organization charts show the major
positions or departments in the organization, the way positions are grouped together, reporting
relationships for lower to higher levels, official channels for communications, and possibly the titles
associated with major positions in the organization.

1. The organization chart provides a visual map of the chain of command, the
unbroken line of authority that ultimately links each individual with the top
organizational position thorough a managerial position at each successive layer in
between.
2. Nearly all organizations having just a few members have an organization chart.
Responsibility is the obligation or expectation to perform and carry out duties and achieve goals related to
a position.
Authority is the right inherent in a managerial position to tell people what to do and to expect them to do
it, right to make decisions and carry out actions to achieve organizational goals.
While part of a manager’s work may be delegated, the manager remains accountable for results.
a. Accountability is the requirement of being able to answer for significant
deviations from duties or expected results.
b. The fact that managers remain accountable for delegated work may cause
them to resist delegation.

Delegation is assignment of part of manager’s work to others along with responsibility and authority.

1. In addition to issues of accountability, managers may resist delegation for a
number of reasons.
a. Managers may fear if subordinates fail.


b. Managers may think they lack time to train subordinates.
c. Managers may want to hold on to their power.
d. Managers may enjoy doing the tasks subordinates could do.
e. Managers may feel threatened by subordinates.
f. Managers may not know how to delegate.
2. Subordinates may resist delegation because of fear of failure or of risk taking.
3. Failure to delegate may have serious negative consequences for a manger’s career.


Lesson 10.30
JOB DESIGN/SPECIALIZATION AND DEPARTMENTALIZATION

Building Blocks of Organizing

1. Job design

A. Job design is an essential part of organizational structure.
1. Job design is the specification of task activities, usually repeated on a regular
basis, associated with each particular job.
a. Task activities need to be grouped in reasonably logical ways for each job.
b. The way the jobs are configured influences employee motivation.
2. Work specialization is the degree to which the work necessary to achieve
organizational goals is broken down into various jobs.
In Work specialization the tasks in an organization are divided into separate jobs. Another term for this is
division of labor.
1. Work specialization can be traced back to the writings of Adam Smith.
2. Work specialization was seen as a way to make the most efficient use of workers’ skills because
workers would be placed in jobs according to their skills and paid accordingly.
3. Other advantages of work specialization included improvement in employees’ skills at performing a
task, more efficient employee training, and encouragement of special inventions and machinery to
perform work tasks.
4. Work specialization was viewed as a source of unending productivity improvements. And it was—
up to a certain point.
5. The human diseconomies from work specialization included boredom, fatigue, stress, lowered
productivity, poor quality of work, increased absenteeism, and higher job turnover.

B. There are four approaches to job design.
1. Job simplification is the process of configuring or designing jobs so that job
holders have only a small number of narrow, repetitive, activities to perform.
a. The concept of job simplification was championed by economist Adam
Smith and by Frederick Taylor
b. Training new workers becomes relatively easy and workers become almost
interchangeable.
c. The advantage is that major production efficiencies may be gained.
d. The disadvantages are that, if carried too far, job satisfaction may be
destroyed by narrow, repetitive, boring jobs and the firm may become too
inflexible to serve customers with varying needs.

Types of Departmentalization

Departmentalization is the clustering of individuals into units and units into departments and larger units
in order to facilitate achieving organizational goals.

1. An organization design is an overall pattern of departmentalization.
2. There are four major patterns of departmentalization.
a. The functional structure groups jobs into units based upon similarity of
expertise, skills, and work activities, e.g., marketing, accounting.
b. The divisional structure groups jobs into units according to the similarity
of products or markets.
c. The hybrid structure combines aspects of both the functional and
divisional forms, with some jobs grouped into departments by functions
and other grouped by products or markets.
d. The matrix structure superimposes a horizontal set of divisional reporting
relationships onto a hierarchical functional structure.


Assessing Structural Alternatives

A. Each of the four most common types of departmentalization has major advantages and
disadvantages.

B. Functional structure is a type of departmentalization in which positions are grouped
according to their main functional (or specialized) area.
1. Typical functional form of organization has several major advantages.
2. The functional form of organization has several major advantages.
a. In-depth development of expertise is encouraged.
b. Employees have clear career paths within their function.
c. Resources are used more efficiently.
d. Economies of scale may be possible because of specialized people and
equipment.
e. Intradepartmental coordination is facilitated.
f. Specialized technical competencies may be developed and may constitute
a competitive advantage.
3. The functional form of origination has several disadvantages.
a. Response time on multifunctional problems may be slow due to
coordination problems.
b. Major issues and conflicts between departments may have to be resolved
by top management, with resultant delays.
c. Bottlenecks due to sequential tasks.
d. Over specialization may lead to a restricted view of the department’s and
the organization’s needs.
e. Performance may be difficult to measure because several functions are
responsible for organizational results.
f. Managers may be trained too narrowly in a single department.

4. The functional form of departmentalization is more appropriate under certain
circumstances.
a. The organization is small or medium-sized.
b. There is a limited number of related products or services, or a relatively
homogeneous set of customers or clients.
c. The organization is large and diverse, but the environment is stable.

C Divisional structure is a type of departmentalization in which positions are grouped according to
similarity of products, services, or markets.
1. Divisional structures are also called “self-contained structures” because each
division contains the major functional resources it needs to pursue its own goals
with little or no reliance on other divisions.

2. The three major forms of divisional structure differ according to the rationale for
forming the divisions.
a. Product divisions are divisions created to concentrate on a single
product or service or at least a relatively homogeneous set of products or
services.
b. Geographic divisions are divisions designed to serve different
geographic areas.
c. Customer divisions are divisions set up to service particular types of
clients or customers.

3. Divisional structure has several major advantages.
a. Divisions can react quickly to changes in the environment.


b. Coordination across functions is simplified.
c. Each division can focus upon serving its customers.
d. The division’s goals can be emphasized.
e. Performance is more easily measured.
f. Managers can be trained in general management skills.

4. Divisional structure has several disadvantages.
a. Duplication of resources in each division often occurs.
b. In-depth expertise may be sacrificed.
c. Divisions may compete for limited resources.
d. Expertise across divisions may not be shared.
e. Innovations may be restricted to single divisions.
f. Divisional goals may take priority over overall organizational goals.

5. The divisional structure is likely to be used in large organizations where substantial
differences exist among products or services, geographic areas, or customers
served.

D. Hybrid structure is a form of departmentalization that adopts parts of both functional and
divisional structures at the same level of management.
1. Hybrid structures are adopted by large organizations to gain the advantages of
functional and divisional structures.
a. Functional departments are created to take advantage of resource
utilization efficiencies, economies of scale, or in-depth expertise.
b. Divisional departments are usually created to benefit from a stronger
focus on products, services, or markets.

2. The hybrid structure has several advantages.
a. Corporate and divisional goals can be aligned.
b. Specialized expertise and economies of scale can be achieved in major
functional areas.
c. Adaptability and flexibility may be achieved in handling diverse product or
service lines, geographic areas, or customers.

3. The hybrid structure has several disadvantages.
a. Conflict may arise between departments and divisions.
b. Hybrid organizations tend to develop excessively large staffs in the
corporate-level functional departments.
c. There may be a slow response to exceptional situations requiring
coordination between a division and a corporate functional department.

4. The hybrid structure is best used under particular conditions.
a. The organization faces environmental uncertainty best met by a divisional
structure.
b. The organization requires functional expertise and/or efficiency.
c. The organization has sufficient resources to justify the structure.

E. A matrix structure is a type of departmentalization that superimposes a horizontal set of divisional
reporting relationships onto a hierarchical functional structure.
1. An organization with a matrix structure has a functional and a divisional structure
at the same time.
2. Employees who work in a matrix organization report to two “bosses,” thus, the
unity-of-command principle is violated.
3. Organizations that adopt a matrix structure usually go through several identifiable
structural stages.


a. Stage 1 is a traditional structure, usually a functional structure, which
follows the unity-of-command principle.
b. Stage 2 is a temporary overlay in which managerial integrator positions are
created to handle issues of finite duration that involves coordinating
across functional departments.
c. Stage 3 is a permanent overlay in which the managerial integrator
positions become permanent.
d. Stage 4 is a mature matrix, in which matrix bosses have equal power.
4. As an organization passes through the matrix stages, horizontal integration
increases at the cost of greater administrative complexity. The matrix form of
organization has several advantages.
5. The matrix form of organization has several advantages.
a. Decision making can be decentralized.
b. Horizontal coordination is strengthened.
c. Environmental monitoring is improved.
d. Responses to environmental changes are quickly made.
e. Functional specialists can be added to or resigned to projects as needed.
f. Support systems can be allocated to projects as needed.
6. Matrix designs have several disadvantages.
a. Administrative costs are increased.
b. Lines of authority and responsibility may not be clear to individual
employees.
c. Possibilities of conflict are increased.
d. Individuals can become preoccupied with internal relations at the expense
of clients and project goals.
e. All decisions may become group decisions, leading to gross inefficiency.
f. Reactions to change may be slowed if interpersonal skills are lacking or
top management fights for control.
7. Matrix designs are usually appropriate when the following three conditions are
met:
a. The considerable pressure from the environment that necessitates a
simultaneous and strong focus on both functional and divisional
dimensions.
b. The demands placed on the organization are changing and unpredictable,
making it important to have a large capacity for processing information
and coordinating activities quickly.
c. There is pressure for shared resources.
8. Research indicates some of the factors that may be necessary to the success of a
matrix systems
a. The organizational culture may need to be changed to support
collaboration.
b. Managers may need special training, especially in interpersonal relations.

F. Of particular interest are two new types of organizational structure that have recently emerged: the
process structure and the networked structure.
1. A process structure is a type of departmentalization which groups positions into process team
which are given beginning-to-end responsibility for that process or that specified work flow. The process
structure is sometimes called the horizontal organization.
2. The networked structure is a form of organizing in which many functions are
contracted out to other independent firms and coordinated through the use of
information technology networks. Sometimes the networked structure is called the
virtual corporation because it performs as virtually one corporation.


Lesson 11.31
SPAN OF COMMAND, CENTRALIZATION VS
DE-CENTRALIZATION AND LINE VS STAFF AUTHORITY

Methods of Vertical Coordination

Vertical coordination is the linking of activities at the top of the organization with those at the middle and
lower levels in order to achieve organizational goals.

Formalization is the degree to which written policies, rules, procedures, job descriptions, and other
documents specify what actions are (or are not) to be taken under a given set of circumstances.
1. Most organizations need some degree of formalization so that fundamental
decisions do not have to be made more than once and so that inequities will be
less likely to occur.
2. Being too highly formalized can lead to cumbersome operations, slowness in
reacting to change, and low levels of creativity and innovation.

Span of management or span of control is the number of subordinates who report directly to a specific
manager.
1. Managers should have neither too many nor too few subordinates.
2. Research indicates that there is no universally correct span of management for all
managers. Rather, spans of management can be narrower or broader depending on
the circumstances of each managerial job.
a. Subordinates’ work is such that little interaction with others is required.
b. Managers and/or their subordinates are highly competent.
c. The work of subordinates is similar.
d. Problems are infrequent.
e. Subordinates are located within close physical proximity of one another.
f. Managers have few non supervisory duties to perform.
g. Managers have additional help such as secretaries or assistants.
h. The work is challenging enough to motivate subordinates to do a good
job.
Spans of management determine the number of hierarchical levels in an organization.
a. A tall structure is one that has narrow spans of management and many
hierarchical levels in an organization.
b. A flat structure is one that has broader spans of management and few
hierarchical levels and wide spans of control.
The number of hierarchical levels in an organization affects organizational effectiveness.
a. Very tall organizations raise administrative overhead, slow communication
and decision making, make it more difficult to pinpoint responsibility for
various tasks, and encourage the formation of dull, routine jobs.
b. Downsizing is the process of significantly reducing the layers of middle
management, expanding the spans of control, and shrinking the size of
the work force.
c. Restructuring is the process of making a major change in organization
structure that often involves reducing management levels and also
possibly changing some major components of the organization through
divestiture and/or acquisition.
d. Downsizing must be planned and implemented carefully.
1) Done well, downsizing may result in reduced costs, faster
decision making, more challenging jobs, fewer redundancies, and
increased innovation.
2) Done poorly, downsizing may result in the loss of valuable
employees, demoralized survivors, and an ultimate decline in
productivity.


3) A five-year study showed only increases in profits and
productivity in a relatively small number of firms that downsized
while most had noticeable decreased in morale.
The degree to which authority in an organization is centralized or decentralized affects the pattern of
decision making in the organization.

1. Centralization is the extent to which power and authority are retained at the top
organizational levels.
2. Decentralization is the extent to which power and authority are delegated to
lower levels.
3. An organization is centralized if decisions made at lower levels are governed by a
restrictive set of policies, procedures, and rules, and if situations not explicitly
covered are referred to higher levels for resolution.
4. An organization is decentralized to the extent that decisions made at lower levels
are made within a general set of policies, procedures, and rules, with decisions not
covered left to the discretion of lower-level managers.
5. Centralization offers advantages.
a. It is easier to coordinate the activities of various units and individuals.
b. Top managers have more experience and may therefore make better
decisions.
c. Top managers have a broader perspective on decision situations.
d. Duplication of effort by various organizational units can be avoided.
e. Strong leadership is promoted.
6. Decentralization offers advantages.
a. Top managers can concentrate upon major issues.
b. The jobs of lower-level employees are enriched by the challenge of
making decisions.
c. Decisions can be made faster.
d. Individuals at lower levels may be closer to the problem and may be in a
better position to make good decisions.
e. Relatively independent units emerge as divisions, with more easily
measured outputs.
7. Organizations should move toward a decentralized structure when:
a. The organization is so large that top managers do not have the time or
the knowledge to make all the major decisions.
b. Operations are geographically dispersed.
c. Top managers cannot keep up with complex technology.
d. The environment is increasingly uncertain.
The configuration of line and staff positions can affect the vertical integration in organizations.
1. A line position is a position that has authority and responsibility for achieving the
major goals of the organization.
2. A staff position is a position whose primary purpose is providing specialized
expertise and assistance to line positions.
3. Line authority differs from staff authority.
a. Line authority is authority that follows the chain of command
established by the formal hierarchy.
b. Staff departments have functional authority, authority over others in the
organization in matters related directly to the staff departments’ functions.
c. Conflicts of line and functional authority.
1) Staff personnel may usurp line authority.
2) Line personnel may abdicate responsibility of staff departments.
3) Conflicts may be avoided by clarifying lines of authority and
encouraging team work.
d. Recently a trend had developed to reduce the number of corporate-level
staff positions in cost cutting moves.



Promoting Innovation: Methods of Horizontal coordination

Horizontal coordination is the linking of activities across departments at similar levels.

1. The need for horizontal coordination in an organization is directly proportional to
the information-processing needs of the organization.
2. Organizations need to process more information under certain circumstances.
a. The organization faces complex and/or changing technology.
b. The environment is uncertain.
c. The company is growing.
3. In facilitating information processing across the organization, horizontal
coordination also promotes innovation.
a. New ideas are more likely to emerge when views are shared.
b. Awareness of problems and opportunities across areas may spark creative
solutions.
c. Involving employees in the development of ideas promotes commitment
to proposed changes.
A managerial integrator is a manager who is given the tasks of coordinating related work that involves
several functional departments.
1) Project managers usually are responsible for coordinating the
work associated with a particular project until its completion.
2) Product managers orchestrate the launching of new products and
services and may then continue coordinating interdepartmental
work related to the new products and services.
3) Brand manager coordinate organizational efforts involving
particular brand-name products, most often within the soap,
food, and toiletries industries.

Managerial integrators do not have the line authority and must gain the cooperation of staff mangers to
implement their proposals.


Lesson 11.32
ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN AND
ORGANIC VS MECHANISTIC VS VIRTUAL STRUCTURES

3. Job rotation is the practice of periodically shifting workers through a set of jobs
in a planned sequence.
a. One purpose of job rotation is to combat boredom, but its success is
short-lived if tasks are too simple.
b. Another purpose of job rotation is cross training so that there is
maximum flexibility in job assignments.
c. A related purpose is employee development so that employees increase
their capabilities and understanding of various aspects of the organization.
d. A potential problem is that rotating individuals may be treated as
temporary helps and their loyalty perceived as questionable.
4. Job enlargement is the allocation of a wider variety of similar tasks to a job in
order to make it more challenging.
a. Job enlargement broadens job scope, the number of different tasks an
employee performs in a particular job.
b. The problem is that if additional simple tasks are added, worker boredom
may persist. Too, lower efficiency, mental overload, increased errors, and
other problems may develop.
5. Job enrichment, pioneered by Frederick Hertzberg, is the process of upgrading
the job-task mix in order to increase significantly the potential for growth,
achievement, responsibility, and recognition.
a. Job enrichment increases Job depth, the degree to which individuals can
plan and control the work involved in their jobs.
b. The important job characteristics model is a model developed to guide
job enrichment efforts that include consideration of core job
characteristics, critical psychological states, and outcomes.
c. The job characteristics model has five core job characteristics.
1) Skill variety is the extent to which the job requires a number of
activities that require different skills.
2) Task identity is the degree to which the job allows the
completion of a major identifiable piece of work, rather than just
a fragment.
3) Task significance is the extent to which the worker sees the job
output as having an important impact on others.
4) Autonomy is the amount of discretion allowed in determining
schedules and work methods for achieving the required output.
5) Feedback is the degree to which the job provides clear, timely
information about performance results.
d. According to the job characteristics model, the core characteristics will increase worker motivation
only if workers experience three critical psychological states.
1) Workers must feel that the work is meaningful.
2) Workers must know they are responsible for the outcomes.
3) Workers must actually find out results.
e. According to the job characteristics model, outcomes of the critical states will be higher internal
work motivation, greater satisfaction of growth needs, higher general job satisfaction, and increased
work effectiveness.
f. The job characteristics model is likely to be used successfully under two conditions.
1) Workers have high growth-need strength, the degree to which
an individual needs personal growth and development on the job.
2) Workers are satisfied with other aspects of the job context, i.e.
supervision, pay, coworkers, and job security.


ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN DECISIONS

Organizations aren’t structured the same way. Top managers put a lot of thought into how best to design
the organization’s structure. That “best” design depends on four contingency variables: the organization’s
strategy, size, technology, and degree of environmental uncertainty.

There are two generic models of organizational design.

1. A mechanistic organization is an organizational structure that is characterized by high
specialization, rigid departmentalization, narrow spans of control, high formalization, a limited information
network, and little participation in decision making by low-level employees.
2. An organic organization is a structure that is highly adaptive and flexible with little work
specialization, minimal formalization and little direct supervision of employees.
3. When is each design favored? It “depends” on the contingency variables.

Contingency factors—appropriate structure depends on four contingency variables:

1. Strategy and structure
One of the contingency variables that influences organizational design is the organization’s strategy.
Most current strategy-structure frameworks tend to focus on three strategy dimensions:
1) Innovation—needs the flexibility and free flow of information of the organic organization
2) Cost minimization—needs the efficiency, stability, and tight controls of the mechanistic
organization
3) Imitation—which uses characteristics of both mechanistic and organic

Size and structure
There is considerable historical evidence that an organization’s size significantly affects its structure. Larger
organizations tend to have more specialization, departmentalization, centralization and formalization
although the size-structure relationship is not linear.

Technology also has been shown to affect an organization’s choice of structure.
a. Every organization uses some form of technology to transform inputs into outputs.
b. The study of structure and technology found that organizations adapted to their technology and
that three distinct technologies had increasing levels of complexity and sophistication.
1) Unit production is the production of items in units or small batches.
2) Mass production is large-batch manufacturing.
3) Process production is continuous-process production.

Environmental uncertainty and structure
The final contingency factor that has been shown to affect organizational structure is environmental uncertainty.
One way to manage environmental uncertainty is through adjustments in the organization’s structure. The
more uncertain the environment, the more flexible and responsive the organization may need to be.

COMMON ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGNS

A. Traditional organizational designs.
We now need to look at various organizational designs that you might see in today’s organizations.

1. A simple structure is an organizational design with low departmentalization, wide spans of
control, authority centralized in a single person, and little formalization.
a. Its strengths are its flexibility, speed and low cost to maintain.
b. Its major drawback is that it’s most effective in small organizations.


As an organization grows, the structure tends to become more specialized and formalized. When
contingency factors favor a bureaucratic or mechanistic design, one of two options is likely to be
used.
2. One option expands functional departmentalization into the functional structure, which is an
organizational design that groups similar or related occupational specialties together.
3. The other option is the divisional structure, which is an organizational structure made up of
autonomous, self-contained units.

B. Contemporary organizational designs.
However, many of today’s organizations are finding that the traditional hierarchical organizational
designs aren’t appropriate for the increasingly dynamic and complex environments they face.

1. Team-based structures:
One of the newer concepts in organizational design is the team-based structure, which is an
organizational structure made up of work groups or teams that performs the organization’s work.

2. Project and matrix structures:
Another variation in organizational arrangements is based on the fact that many of today’s
organizations deal with work activities of different time requirements and magnitude.
a. One of these arrangements is the matrix organization that assigns specialists from different
functional departments to work on one or more projects being led by project managers.
b. Another of these designs is the project structure, which is a structure in which employees are
permanently assigned to projects.

3. Autonomous Internal Units:
Some large organizations have adopted a structure that’s described as autonomous internal units,
a design in which there are independent, autonomous decentralized business units, each with its
own products, clients, competitors, and profit goals.

4. The Boundary less Organization:
Another approach to organizational design is the boundary less organization, which describes an
organization whose design is not defined by, or limited to the horizontal, vertical, or external
boundaries imposed by a predefined structure.

5. Learning Organization:
An organization that facilitate the life long learning and development of its employees while
transforming itself to respond to changing demands and needs of market.


Lesson 11.33
LEADING AND LEADERSHIP
MOTIVATING SELF AND OTHERS

The nature of motivation

Being able to effectively motivate employees is a challenge that managers face in all types and sizes of
organizations. “Everything that we give to our workers gets returned to us in terms of efficiency, quality,
loyalty, and innovation.”

Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the
effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.

A. Effort is a measure of intensity or drive. High levels of effort are unlikely to lead to
favorable job performance unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the
organization.

B. A need is an internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive. An unsatisfied need
creates tension that stimulates drives within an individual. These drives generate a search behavior to find
particular goals that, if attained, will satisfy the need and reduce the tension.

Hence motivation is the force that energizes behavior, gives direction to behavior, and underlies the
tendency to persist.
1. A person’s motivation is not directly measurable, but must be inferred from
behavior.
2. Performance is a function of ability, motivation and working conditions.
3. Besides hiring individual with ability to do the work, managers have the challenge
to provide working conditions that nurture and support individual motivation to
work toward organization goals.

The main elements of motivation have been identified based on numerous studies. A simplified model of
motivation has been developed.
1. Inner needs and cognitions lead to behaviors.
2. Appropriate behaviors may result in rewards, which reinforce the behaviors, fulfill
needs, and provide cognitive input regarding the future association of behaviors
and rewards.
3. Lack of rewards may lead to unfulfilled needs, un-reinforced behaviors, and
cognitive input in the form of expectations about the future.

Intrinsic Motivators

A person’s internal desire to do some thing for his satisfaction, respect, prestige or loyalty.

Extrinsic Motivators

Factors of motivation that comes from outside (environment) or organization like pay, bonuses, tangible
benefits etc.

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE: SUGGESTIONS FOR MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES

Several suggestions for motivating employees are given and are based on what is currently known about
motivation.

A. Recognize individual differences in terms of needs, attitudes, personality, and other important
individual factors.


B. Match people to jobs by identifying what needs are important to individuals and trying to provide
jobs that allow them to fulfill those needs.

C. Use goals because the literature on goal setting suggests that managers should ensure that
employees have hard, specific goals and feedback on how well they’re doing in pursuit of those
goals.

D. Ensure that goals are perceived as attainable. Employees who see goals as unattainable will reduce
their levels of effort.

E. Individualize rewards. Because employees have different needs, what is a reward and
reinforce to one may not work for another.

F. Link rewards to performance by making rewards contingent on desired levels of performance.

G. Check the system for equity. Employees should perceive that the rewards or outcomes are equal to
the inputs given.

H. Don’t ignore money. The allocation of performance-based increases, piecework bonuses, and other
pay incentives is important in determining employee motivation.


Lesson 12.34
MASLOW’S NEEDS THEORY AND ITS ANALYSIS

Maslow’s Need Theory

According to Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, one of the most widely known theories of
motivation, individual needs form a five-level hierarchy.

1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs from the most basic to the highest.
a. Physiological needs are basic and include needs for food, water, and
shelter.
b. Safety needs pertain to the desire to be safe, secure and free from threats
to our existence.
c. Belongingness needs involve the desire to affiliate with and be accepted
by others.
d. Esteem needs are related to the two-pronged desire to have a positive
self-image and to have our contributions valued and appreciated by
others.
e. Self-actualization needs pertain to the requirement of developing our
capabilities and reaching our full potential.
2. Needs at one level do not have to be completely fulfilled before the next level
becomes relevant.
3. As needs on one level are fulfilled, they cease to act as motivators and tension
develops to fulfill needs at the next level.
4. Recent studies have raised questions as to whether the hierarchical aspect of
Maslow’s theory is applicable to everyone and whether there might be fewer than
five levels of needs.

Analysis and Weakness of Theory

1. Five levels of need are not always present.
2. Order of needs and hierarchy may not be the same for all employees.
3. There are certainly cultural differences which the theory did not take care.
4. Analyzing the theory in country and cultural context, for example in China, the hierarchy of needs
found was different than Maslow’s theory.


Lesson 12.35
OTHER NEED AND COGNITIVE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y were developed by Douglas McGregor and describe two distinct
views of human nature.

1. Theory X was the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, seek to avoid responsibility,
and must be coerced to perform.
2. Theory Y was the assumption that employees are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise
self-direction.
3. Theory X assumed that lower-order needs (Maslow’s) dominated individuals, and Theory Y
assumed that higher-order needs dominated.

Motivation-hygiene theory is the theory developed by Frederick Herzberg that suggests that intrinsic
factors are related to job satisfaction and motivation, and extrinsic factors are associated with job
dissatisfaction. The basis of Herzberg’s theory is that he believed that the opposite of satisfaction was not
dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job would not necessarily make the job
satisfying. Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory states that there are only two categories of needs.

Hygiene factors are factors that eliminate dissatisfaction. They include things such as supervision,
company policy, salary, working conditions, security and so forth—extrinsic factors associated with job
context, or those things surrounding a job.

Hygiene factors are necessary to keep workers away from feeling dissatisfied. There are several hygiene
factors.
a. Pay
b. Working conditions
c. Supervisors
d. Company policies
e. Benefits

Motivators are factors that increase job satisfaction and hence motivation. They include things such as
achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement and so forth—intrinsic factors associated with job
content, or those things within the job itself.

Motivator factor can only lead workers to feel satisfied and motivated.
a. Achievement
b. Responsibility
c. Work itself
d. Recognition
e. Growth and achievement

Clayton Alderfer’s ERG theory combines Maslow’s five needs into three need levels: existence, relatedness
and growth.
1. Existence needs include the various forms of material and physiological desires,
such as food and water, as well as such work-related forms as pay, fringe benefits
and physical working conditions.
2. Relatedness needs address our relationships with significant others, such as
families, friendship groups, work groups and professional groups.
3. Growth needs impel creativity and innovation, along with the desire to have a
productive impact on our surroundings.
4. ERG needs differ in concreteness, i.e. the degree to which their presence or
absence can be verified.
5. The satisfaction-progression principle is a principle that states that satisfaction
of one level of need encourages concern with the next level.


6. Besides disagreeing as to the number of need levels that might exist, the ERG
theory differs from Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory in three other significant
ways:
a. Although the general notion of a hierarchy is retained, Alderfer’s theory
argues that we can be concerned with more than one need category at the
same time.
b. ERG theory is more flexible in acknowledging that some individuals’
needs may occur in a somewhat different order than the posited by the
ERG framework.
c. ERG theory incorporates a frustration regression principle which states
that if we are continually frustrated in our attempts to satisfy a higher-
level need, we may cease to be concerned about that need.
McClelland’s acquired-needs theory argues that our needs are acquired or learned on the basis of our life
experience.
1. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) measures the needs for achievement,
affiliation, and power.
2. The need of achievement (nAch) is the desire to accomplish challenging tasks
and achieve a standard of excellence in one’s work.
3. The need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire to maintain warm, friendly
relationships with others.
4. The need for power (nPow) is the desire to influence others and control one’s
environment.
a. Personal power is the need for power in which individuals want to
dominate others for the sake of demonstrating their ability to wield
power.
b. Institutional power is the need for power in which individuals focus on
what they can do to solve problems and further organizational goals.
5. The need profile of successful managers in competitive environments appears to
include:
a. A moderate-to-high need for institutional power.
b. A moderate need for achievement to facilitate individual contributions
early in one’s career and a desire for the organization to maintain a
competitive edge as one moves to higher levels
c. At least a minimum need for affiliation to provide sufficient sensitivity for
influencing others.
d. Need for achievement may actually be more important than need for
power in running small or large, decentralized companies.
6. It may be possible to foster the needs for achievement and for institutional power
through training.

Significance for Managers

Many aspects of need theories are of value to managers.

1. Need theories are compatible in pointing out the importance of higher-level needs
as a source of motivation.
2. Research indicates that it is more likely that individuals differ in the makeup of
their need structures than that the need structures of individuals are basically the
same.
3. The frustration-regression aspect of ERG theory may have serious implications
for organizations.


Cognitive Perspectives

Equity Theory, developed by J. Stacey Adams, says that an employee perceives what he or she got from a
job situation (outcomes) in relation to what he or she put into it (inputs) and then compares the inputs-
outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others and finally corrects any inequity.

1. The referents are the persons, systems, or selves against which individuals compare themselves to
assess equity.
2. Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned with their absolute rewards as well as the
relationship of those rewards to what others receive.
3. What will employees do when they perceive an inequity?
a. Distort either their own or others’ inputs or outcomes.
b. Behave in some way to induce others to change their inputs or outcomes.
c. Behave in some way to change their inputs or outcomes.
d. Choose a different comparison person.
e. Quit their job


Lesson 12.36
EXPECTANCY, GOAL SETTING AND RE-ENFORCEMENT THEORIES

Expectancy Theory is the theory that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation
that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
Three relationships are important to this theory.

1. Effort-performance linkage (expectancy) is the probability perceived by the individual that exerting
a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance.
2. Performance-reward linkage (instrumentality) is the degree to which an individual believes that
performing at a particular level is instrumental in, or will lead to, the attainment of a desired outcome.
3. Attractiveness of the reward (valence) is the importance that the individual places on the potential
outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job.
4. There are four features inherent in the theory.
a. What perceived outcomes does the job offer the employee?
b. How attractive do employees consider these outcomes to be?
c. What kind of behavior must the employee exhibit to achieve these outcomes?
d. How does the employee view his or her chance of doing what is asked?
5. The key to understanding expectancy theory is understanding an individual’s goal and the linkage
between effort and performance, between performance and rewards, and between rewards and individual
goal satisfaction.

Goal-Setting Theory says that specific goals increase performance, and difficult goals, when accepted,
result in higher performance than easy goals. What do we know about goals as motivators?
1. Intention to work toward a goal is a major source of job motivation. Specific and challenging goals
are superior motivating forces. Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than do generalized
goals.
2. Is there a contradiction between achievement motivation and goal setting? No, and here’s why.
a. Goal-setting theory deals with people in general; achievement theory is based only on people who
have a high need for achievement. Difficult goals are still recommended for the majority of employees.
b. The conclusions of goal-setting theory apply to those who accept and are committed to the goals.
Difficult goals will lead to higher performance only if they are accepted.
3. Will employees try harder if they participate in the setting of goals?
a. We can’t say that participation is always desirable.
b. However, participation is probably preferable to assigning goals when the manager expects
resistance.
4. Will people do better when they get feedback on how well they’re progressing toward their goals?
a. Feedback acts to guide behavior.
b. Self-generated feedback has been shown to be a more powerful motivator than externally generated
feedback.
5. What contingencies exist in goal-setting theory? There are four contingencies we need to know
about.
a. Feedback influences the goal-performance relationship.
b. Goal commitment is another contingency. Commitment is most likely to occur when goals are
made public, when the individual has an internal locus of control, and when the goals are self-set rather than
assigned.
c. Self-efficacy is another contingency and refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in
a task.
d. The last contingency that affects goal setting is national culture.
6. Our conclusion about motivation from goal-setting theory is that intentions, as defined by hard and
specific goals, are a powerful motivating force.
a. In the proper conditions, they can lead to higher performance.
b. However, there’s no evidence that such goals are associated with increased job satisfaction.


Reinforcement Theory is counter to goal-setting theory. It proposes that behavior is a function of its
consequences.

1. Reinforcement theory argues that behavior is externally caused.
2. What controls behavior are reinforcers, which are consequences immediately following a response
that increase the probability that the behavior will be repeated.
3. Reinforcement theory ignores factors such as goals, expectations, and needs.
4. It focuses solely on what happens when a person takes some action.
5. How can the concept of reinforcement be used to explain motivation?
a. People will most likely engage in a desired behavior if they are rewarded for doing so.
b. These rewards are most effective if they immediately follow a desired response.
c. Behavior that isn’t rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated.
6. Managers can influence employees’ behavior by reinforcing the work behaviors they desire.

Open Book Management

Open-book management is a motivational approach in which an organization’s financial statements (the
“books”) are opened to and shared with all employees.

1. The goal of open-book management is to get employees to think like an owner by seeing the
impact their decisions and actions have on financial results.
2. To be effective, employees have to be taught the fundamentals of financial statement analysis and
what the numbers show.
3. The style of management demands for involvement of employees in all decision making for
organization involving the transparency of financial statements.
4. Employees may be treated as business partners so productivity and profitability is enhanced.

Pay-for-performance programs are compensation plans that pay employees on the basis of some
performance measure.

1. Performance-based compensation is probably most compatible with expectancy theory.
2. The increasing popularity of pay-for-performance programs can be explained in terms of both
motivation and cost control.
3. Do pay-for-performance programs work? Studies seem to indicate that they do.

Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation

1. The basic foundation is the simplified expectancy model.
2. The model also considers the achievement-need, reinforcement and equity theories.
3. Rewards also play an important role in the model.


Lesson 13.37
MOTIVATING KNOWLEDGE PROFESSIONALS
LEADERSHIP TRAIT THEORIES

Motivating the “New Workforce i.e. Knowledge Professionals.”

Another current motivation issue revolves around motivating the “new workforce.” These special groups
present unique motivational challenges to managers. These professionals possess specialty knowledge of
markets, of customers, of supplier, of software, of hardware, of technology and are very important to run
the organizations smoothly in 21st century.

1. Motivating professionals is one of these special challenges.
a. Professionals are different from nonprofessionals and have different needs.
b. Money and promotions are typically low on the motivation priority list for professionals. Job
challenge is usually ranked high as is support and the feeling that they’re working on something
important.

Special challenges in motivating professionals include their long-term commitment to their field of
expertise, with greater loyalty to their profession than to their employer. Money and promotions are
typically low on professionals’ priority list. Contingent workers lack the security that permanent employees
have and do not identify with or display much commitment to the organization. Temporary workers also
typically lack benefits such as health care and pensions. Low-skilled minimum-wage workers typically have
limited education and skills; offering higher pay is usually not an option.

Leadership

The recognition of the important role that leadership plays in organizational performance is widely
acknowledged by managers everywhere. Leadership is what makes things happen in organizations.

MANAGERS VERSUS LEADERS

There are distinctions between managers and leaders. Managers are appointed and have legitimate power
within the organization.

Leaders are those persons who are able to influence others and who possess managerial authority.

Leadership, then, is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.

How leaders influence others

Leadership, the foundation of the management function of leading, is the process of influencing others
toward the achievement of organizational goals.
Power is the capacity to affect the behavior of others.
There are different types of power depending upon their sources originally identified by French and Raven.

1. Legitimate power stems from a position’s placement in the managerial hierarchy and the authority
vested in the position.
2. Reward power is based on the capacity to control and provide valued rewards to others.
3. Coercive power is based on the ability to obtain compliance through fear of punishment.
4. Expert power is based on the possession of expertise that is valued by others.
5. Information power result from access to and control over the distribution of important
information about organizational operations and future plans.
6. Referent power results from being admired, personally identified with, or liked by others.

The different types of power can engender different levels of subordinate motivation.



1. With commitment, employees respond enthusiastically and exert a high level of
effort toward organizational goals.
a. Commitment is the most common outcome of referent power and expert
power.
b. Commitment is least likely to result from the use of coercive power.
2. With compliance, employees exert at least minimal efforts to complete directives,
but are likely to deliver average, rather than stellar, performance.
a. Compliance is the most likely outcome of the use of legitimate power,
information power, and reward power.
b. Compliance is a possible outcome of coercive power if used in a helpful
way or of referent power of expert power when some element of apathy is
present.
3. With resistance, employees may appear to comply, but actually do the absolute
minimum, possibly even attempting to sabotage the attainment of organizational
goals.
a. Resistance is a likely outcome of coercive power.
b. Resistance is a possible outcome of other types of power if used
inappropriately.
4. The effective manager is one who does not have to rely on a single power base but
rather, has high levels of power in several (all if possible) of these six power types.

Searching for Leadership Traits

Researchers began to study leadership in the early part of the 20th century. These early theories focused on
the leader (trait theories) and how the leader interacted with his/her group members (behavior theories).

A. Trait Theories
1. Research in the 1920s and 1930s focused basically on leader traits with the intent to isolate one or
more traits that leaders possessed, but that nonleaders did not.
2. Identifying a set of traits that would always differentiate leaders from nonleaders proved
impossible.

B. Traits are distinctive internal qualities or characteristics of an individual such as physical
characteristics (e.g., height, weight, appearance, energy), personality characteristics (e.g., dominance,
extroversion, originality), skills and abilities (e.g., intelligence, knowledge, technical competence), and social
factors (e.g., interpersonal skills sociability, and socioeconomic position).
C. A number of the early research attempts were reanalyzed in the 1950s and concluded that there is
no set of traits which consistently distinguish leaders from nonleaders.
D. Recent efforts suggest that the trait approach may have been abandoned prematurely.
1. More sophisticated statistical techniques are now available.
2. Several rather predictable traits have now been suggested such as
a. intelligence
b. dominance
c. aggressiveness
d. decisiveness
E. The question of whether traits can be associated with leadership remains open. Recent research
work has looked at communication skills, human relations skills, resistance to stress, tolerance of
uncertainty, and others.


Lesson 13.38
BEHAVIORAL AND SITUATIONAL MODELS OF LEADERSHIP

Identifying Leader Behaviors

A number of researchers have focused on the question of whether specific behaviors, rather than traits,
make some leaders more effective than others.

1. If behavior studies turned up critical behavioral determinants of leadership, people could be trained
to be leaders.
2. Four main leader behavior studies are carried out.
a. University of Iowa Studies—Kurt Lewin and associates—studied three leadership styles: autocratic,
democratic, and laissez-faire.
b. The Ohio State Studies identified two important dimensions of leader behavior—initiating
structure and consideration.
c. University of Michigan Studies identified two dimensions of leader behavior—employee oriented
and production oriented.
d. The Managerial Grid is a two-dimensional grid for appraising leadership styles using “concern for
people” and “concern for production” as dimensions.
3. Predicting leadership success involved more than isolating a few leader traits or behavior. This
“failure” to attain consistent results led to a focus on situational influences.

University of Iowa researcher, Kurt Lewin, conducted some of the earliest attempts to identify effective
leadership behaviors.

1. Three types of leadership behavior styles were identified.
a. Autocratic leaders tend to make unilateral decisions, dictate work
methods, limit worker knowledge about goals to just the next step to be
performed, and sometimes give feedback that is punitive.
b. Democratic leaders tend to involve the group in decision making, let the
group determine work methods, make overall goals known, and use
feedback as an opportunity for helpful coaching.
c. Laissez-faire leaders generally give the group complete freedom, provide
necessary materials, participate only to answer questions, and avoid giving
feedback.
2. Research on the comparative effectiveness of the three leadership styles was
inconclusive.
a. The laissez-fair style was ineffective.
b. The effectiveness of the autocratic and democratic leaders varied,
although satisfaction levels tended to be higher in the democratically led
groups.
Michigan Studies

The Michigan studies compared leadership within groups already identified as effective or as ineffective.
1. A continuum was developed from employee-centered to job-centered approaches.
2. With the employee-centered approach, managers channel their main attention to
the human aspects of subordinates’ problems and to the development of an
effective work group dedicated to high performance goals.
3. With the job-centered approach (or production-centered approach), leaders
divide the work into routine tasks, determine work methods, and closely supervise
workers to ensure that the methods are followed and productivity standards are
met.
4. The outcomes of the study were mixed, but they sometimes showed that the high-
producing work units tended to have job-centered supervisors.


Ohio State Studies

Researchers at the Ohio State University developed a questionnaire to measure leaders’ behaviors and to
correlate them with group performance and satisfaction.

1. Two behaviors were identified as particularly important.
a. Initiating structure is the degree to which a leader defines his or her own role and the roles of
subordinates in terms of achieving unit goals.
b. Consideration is the degree to which a leader builds mutual trust with subordinates, respects their
ideas, and shows concern for their feelings.

2. In contrast to the Iowa and Michigan studies, the two behaviors were considered
to be independent variables and are best illustrated with separate continuums
rather than the single continuum developed in the Iowa and Michigan studies.

3. The leader who is high in both initiating structure and consideration was thought
to be the most effective, but further research indicated that such a generalization
was too simplistic.

The Mouton-Blake Managerial Grid uses concern for people and concern for production as its two axes.

1. Used a training device, the grid enables managers to understand their own styles.
2. The manager high in concern for people and concern for production is the
theoretical ideal.
a. Research into male-female stereotypes of management styles do not hold. Most studies indicate
that male and female leaders are similar in the amounts of interpersonal and task behaviors exhibited.

Situational Theories

A. Lack of success in identifying an effective leadership style generalize-able to all situations
led to consideration of situational factors—i.e., any particular style of leadership could be
effective depending on the situation.
1. Situational theories are theories that emphasize situations.

2. Contingency theories are theories of leadership because they hold that appropriate
leader traits or behaviors are contingent, or dependent, on relevant situational
characteristics.

B. Fielder’s contingency model is a situational approach originally developed by Fred
Fielder and his associates.
1. A leader’s LPC orientation is a personality trait measured by the least preferred
coworker (LPC) scale.

2. The LPC scale is a 1 to 8 rating by the leader of “the person with whom the leader
can work least well.”

3. The interpretation of the scale has been controversial, but there is an orthodox
interpretation at present.
a. Low-LPC leaders describe a least-preferred coworker in relatively negative
terms and are likely to be task-motivated.
b. High-LPC leaders describe a least-preferred coworker in relatively positive
terms and are likely to be people-motivated.


4. Fielder maintains that management style or LPC orientation is difficult to change,
so it is important to carefully match the leader’s personality to situational factors
that favor the leader’s prospects for success.
a. The situation should be assessed to determine the degree of situational
control for the leader.
1) The most important situational variable is leader-member
relations, i.e., the extent to which the leader has the support of
group members.
2) Task structure is the extent to which a task is clearly specified
with regard to goals, methods, and standards of performance.
3) Position power is the amount of power that the organization
gives the leader to accomplish necessary tasks.
b. Leadership style should be matched with situation.
1) Low-LPC leaders do best in situations of either high favorability
or extremely low favorability.
2) High-LPC leaders do best in situations of moderate favorability

5. Recent analyses are tending to support Fielder’s original research do suggest that
there are additional factors at work that are not accounted for in the contingency
model.

C. The normative leadership model is a model that helps leaders assess important
situational factors that affect the extent to which they should involve subordinates in
particular decisions.
1. Five types of management method for solving group problems are delineated.
a. Autocratic I (AI): You solve the problem or make the decision yourself
using present information.
b. Autocratic II (AII): You obtain necessary information from subordinates
without involving them in the decision, and make the decision yourself.
c. Consultative I (CI): You share the problem with the relevant subordinates
individually, then you make a decision which may or may not be
influenced by subordinates.
d. Consultative II (CII): You obtain ideas and suggestions from subordinates
in a group session, but make the decision yourself.
e. Group II (GII): You share the problem with your subordinates as a group
and coordinate their efforts to devise a solution.

2. A decision about which method to use is guided by the answer to eight questions.
a. How important is the technical quality of this decision?
b. How important is subordinate commitment to this decision?
c. Do you have sufficient information to make a high-quality decision?
d. Is the problem well structured?
e. If you were to make the decision by yourself, is it reasonably certain that
your subordinates would be committed to the decision?
f. Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be attained in solving
this problem?
g. Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solution likely?
h. Do subordinates have sufficient information to make a high-quality
decision?

3. The revised normative leadership model can be used in either of two variations:
when developing subordinates is more important than conserving time in decision
making or when minimizing time is more important.


D. The situational leadership theory, developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard, is on
the premise that leaders need to alter their behaviors depending on the readiness of
followers.
1. Two leader behaviors are considered to be independent dimensions.
a. Task behavior is the extent to which the leader engages in spelling out the
duties and responsibilities of an individual or group.
b. Relationship behavior is the extent to which the leader engages in two-
way or multi-way communication
2. The four levels of readiness defined along a continuum from low to high readiness
prescribe the appropriate leadership style.
a. Telling is used in situations of low readiness, when followers are unable
and also unwilling or too insecure to take responsibility for a given task.
b. Selling is used for low to moderate readiness, when followers are unable
to take responsibility, but are willing or feel confident to do so.
c. Participating is used with moderate to high readiness, when followers are
able to take responsibility, but are unwilling or too insecure to do so.
d. Delegating is used for high readiness, when followers are able and willing
or confident enough to take appropriate responsibility.
3. Leaders should help increase the task-related readiness of their followers as quickly
as feasible by adjusting their own leadership styles.
4. Studies have found the situational theory of leadership particularly effective with
newly hired employees and employees in new jobs.
5. Recent analyses are tending to support Fielder’s original research do suggest that
there are additional factors at work that are not accounted for in the contingency
model.

The path-goal theory of leadership attempts to explain how leader behavior impacts the motivation and
job satisfaction of subordinates.

1. The theory gets its name from the fact that it focuses on how leaders influence the
way that subordinates perceive work goals and possible paths to reaching both
work goals (performance) and personal goals (intrinsic and extrinsic rewards).
2. Path-goal theory relies heavily on the expectancy theory of motivation.
3. Four major leader behaviors can be used to affect subordinate perceptions of
paths and goals.
a. Directive leader behavior involves letting subordinates know what is
expected of them, providing guidance about work methods, developing
work schedules, identifying work evaluation standards, and indicating the
basis for outcomes or rewards.
b. Supportive leader behavior entails showing concern for the status, well-
being, and needs of subordinates; doing small things to make the work
more pleasant; and being friendly and approachable.
c. Participative leader behavior is characterized by consulting with
subordinates, encouraging their suggestions, and carefully considering
their ideas when making decisions.
d. Achievement-oriented leader behavior involves setting challenging
goals, expecting subordinates to perform at their highest level, and
conveying a high degree of confidence in subordinates.

Situational factors must be taken into account when choosing a leader behavior.

1. Subordinate characteristics include personality traits, skills, abilities, and needs.
2. Context characteristics include the task itself, the work group, and the organization’s formal authority
system.


Diagnosis in terms of expectancy theory leads to a choice of appropriate leader behavior and involves three
steps.

1. Think in terms of the elements used in expectancy theory to diagnose various situational factors in
terms of their effects on the three expectancy-theory elements (the path).
a. Effort-performance is the probability that our efforts will lead to the required performance level.
b. Performance-outcome expectancy is the probability that our successful performance will lead to
certain outcomes or rewards.
c. Valence is the anticipated value of the outcomes or rewards.

1) Diagnose situational factors that can be changed to enhance the expectancy theory elements are
targeted.
2) Appropriate leader behaviors are initiated to change the situational factors.

Path-goal theory encompasses multiple leader behaviors and a potentially large number of situational
variables. Its flexibility provides a useful framework about likely impacts of leader behavior on subordinate
motivation, goal attainment, and job satisfaction.


Lesson 13.39
STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP MODELS

CUTTING-EDGE APPROACHES TO Strategic LEADERSHIP

The most current approaches to looking at leadership are discussed.

The research we’ve discussed has described transactional leader. What is the difference between
transactional and transformational leaders?
1. Transactional leaders are leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of
established goals by clarifying role and task requirements.
2. Transformational leaders are leaders who provide individualized consideration and intellectual
stimulation and possess charisma.
3. Transformational leadership is built on top of transactional leadership.
4. The evidence supporting the superiority of transformational leadership over the transactional
variety is overwhelmingly impressive.
a. Transformational leaders motivate subordinates to perform at expected levels by helping them
recognize task responsibilities, identify goals, acquire confidence about meeting desired
performance levels, and understand how their needs and the rewards that they desire are linked to
goal achievement.
b. Transformational leaders motivate individuals to perform beyond normal expectations by
inspiring subordinates to focus on broader missions that transcend their own immediate self-
interests, to concentrate on intrinsic higher-level goals (such as safety and d security), and to have
confidence in their abilities to achieve the extraordinary missions articulated by the leadership.
c. Transformational leadership is not a substitute for transactional leadership; it is an enhancement.
d. Charisma is the leader’s ability to inspire pride, faith, and respect; to recognize what is really
important, and to articulate effectively a sense of mission, or vision, that inspires followers.
1) Charisma was once thought to be an inborn personality trait.

Recent research attempts to identify behaviors which cause people to view a person as charismatic.

Charismatic-Visionary Leadership

Charismatic leadership theory is an extension of attribution theory and suggests that followers make
attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors.
1. Five personal characteristics of charismatic leaders have been identified.
a. Have a vision
b. Are able to articulate that vision
c. Are willing to take risks to achieve that vision
d. Are sensitive to both environmental constraints and follower needs
e. Exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary
2. An increasing amount of research shows impressive correlations between charismatic leadership
and high performance and satisfaction among followers.
3. Most experts think that individuals can be trained to exhibit charismatic behaviors
4. Charismatic leadership may not always be needed to achieve high levels of employee performance.
It may be most appropriate when an employee’s job has a lot of ideological content.

Visionary leadership is described as going beyond charisma with the ability to create and articulate a
realistic, credible, attractive vision of the future for an organization or organizational unit that grows out of
and improves on the present.
1. If the vision is properly selected and implemented, it can be so energizing that it incites individuals
to use their skills, talents, and resources to make it happen.
2. A vision differs from other forms of organizational direction in that it uses compelling imagery,
taps into people’s emotions and energy, and creates the enthusiasm that people need to bring
energy and commitment to the workplace.


3. The key properties of a vision are that it has inspirational possibilities that are value centered, are
realizable, have superior imagery, and are well articulated.
4. What skills do visionary leaders have?
a. The ability to explain the vision to others.
b. The ability to express the vision not just verbally but through behavior.
c. The ability to extend or apply the vision to different leadership contexts.

Another important contemporary issue for leaders is creating a culture of trust and credibility.
1. Credibility is the degree to which followers perceive someone as honest, competent, and able to
inspire.
2. Trust is the belief in the integrity, character, and ability of a leader.
3. Research has identified five dimensions that make up the concept of trust.
a. Integrity (honesty and truthfulness)
b. Competence (technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills)
c. Consistency (reliability, predictability, and good judgment in handling situations)
d. Loyalty (willingness to protect a person, physically and emotionally)
e. Openness (willingness to share ideas and information freely)
4. Given the fact that many organizations have moved to self-managed work teams, trust is extremely
important because many of the traditional control mechanisms have been removed.
5. How should leaders build trust? Here are eight suggestions.
a. Practice openness.
b. Be fair.
c. Speak your feelings.
d. Tell the truth.
e. Show consistency.
f. Fulfill your promises.
g. Maintain confidences.
h. Demonstrate competence.

Team Leadership

As the usage of work teams grows, the role of team leader becomes increasingly important.
1. The challenge for most managers is learning how to become an effective team leader.
2. Effective team leaders have mastered the difficult balancing act of knowing when to leave their
teams alone and when to get involved.
3. There are two priorities for a team leader.
a. Managing the team’s external boundaries
b. Facilitating the team process
4. These priorities can be broken down into four specific leadership roles.
a. Liaisons with external constituencies
b. Troubleshooters
c. Conflict managers
d. Coaches

Gender and Leadership

The next contemporary leadership issue we want to discuss is gender and leadership. This topic is one that
still creates controversy! What, if any, differences exist between male and female leaders and what
implications would these differences have?

1. The evidence generally has found that males and females do use different leadership styles.
a. Women tend to adopt a more democratic or participative style and a less autocratic or directive
style than men do.
b. Women are more likely to encourage participation, share power and information, and attempt to
enhance followers’ self-worth.


c. Men are more likely to use a directive, command-and-control style.
d. Men rely on the formal authority of their position for their influence base.
e. Men use transactional leadership, handing out rewards for good work and punishment for bad.
2. Is different better? The best managers (leaders) listen, motivate, and provide support to their
people. They inspire and influence rather than control. Generally speaking, women seem to do
these things better than men.
3. However, gender doesn’t imply destiny. Which leadership style is effective depends on the
situation. Gender simply provides a behavioral tendency in leadership style.


Lesson 14.40
UNDERSTANDING GROUP DYNAMICS IN ORGANIZATIONS

INTRODUCTION

Work groups are a common arrangement within today’s business organizations. Work is being restructured
around groups of all kinds and in all sizes of organizations. Managers need an understanding of group
behavior and the concept of teams in order to appreciate what groups can and cannot do within
organizations and how groups function.

Any one member in group can influence the behavior of the individuals in the group and teamwork. We will
examine some basic characteristics of groups including the types of work groups, the development of
informal groups, and the manner in which groups operate.

UNDERSTANDING GROUP BEHAVIOR

Groups exhibit different behavior—more than just the sum total of each group member’s individual
behavior. In this section, we’re going to look at various aspects of group behavior.

What is a Group?

A group is defined as two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to
achieve particular objectives.
1. Groups differ from mere aggregates of individual because the latter have no
interdependence, interaction, or common goal.
2. Groups differ from organizations because the latter involve systematic efforts and
are engaged in the production of goods and services.
3. Teamwork occurs when groups are able to work efficiently and effectively
together to achieve organizational goals.

There are a number of types of work groups

1. A formal group is a group officially planned and created by an organization for a
specific purpose.
a. A command or functional group is a formal group consisting of a
manager and all the subordinates who report to that manager.
1) Each identifiable work group consisting of manager and
subordinates is a command group.
2) A linking is an individual who provides a means of coordination
between command groups at two different levels by fulfilling a
supervisory role in the lower-level group and a subordinate role in
the higher-level group.

2. Informal groups are natural social formations that appear in the work environment. An informal
group is a group that is established by employees, rather than by the organization, in order to serve group
members’ interests or social needs. Informal groups are unplanned groups.
a. An interest group is an informal group created to facilitate employee
pursuits of common concern.
b. A friendship group is an informal group that evolves primarily to meet
employee social needs.

Overview of Group Dynamics

Formal and informal work groups are becoming increasingly important competitive factors in organizations.
Teamwork is the result of groups working together to effectively and efficiently achieving organizational


goals. Formal groups include command and task groups. Informal groups include interest and friendship
groups. A useful way to analyze groups is to view them as systems that use inputs, engage in various
processes or transformations, and produce outcomes.

Managers can help bring about higher performance from formal work groups by weighing the
characteristics of members they assign to particular groups. Group members should have task-relevant
expertise and appropriate interpersonal skills. Also, it has been found, that a degree of diversity among
group members usually adds to performance. Group training, particularly for diverse groups, has been
found to be useful.

Members may be attracted to a group for a number of reasons including being attracted to or liking other
members of the group, liking the activities of the group, the goals or purposes of the group, because the
group satisfies an individual’s need for affiliation, and/or because the group can help an individual achieve a
goal outside the group. The absence of attraction can prevent the group from achieving high performance.
Member roles in groups include group task roles, group maintenance roles, and self performance. Member
roles in groups include group task roles, group maintenance roles, and self oriented roles. The size of the
group has also been found to have significant bearing on the group’s performance. Mid-sized groups, from
five to seven members, seem to be an optimum size according to recent research. Smaller groups can often
exacerbate individual differences. Large groups tend to be when working in groups than when working
alone. Free riding is particularly likely when members exhibit individualism rather than collectivism.
Managers can combat social loafing by several methods. Assign just enough people to do the work is one
key method. Other methods include making each individual’s work visible, providing for individual
feedback, have people work with those the respect, have standards to actually measure group performance,
and making rewards contingent on a combination of individual and group performance.

The work group processes usually result in greater or lesser performance than would occur if the individuals
worked alone rather than as members of the group. This process is called synergy. Managers strive to have a
positive synergy from the group rather than negative. Three key characteristics of the group help determine
the synergy levels. These are group norms, group cohesiveness, and group development. Norms are the
behaviors of group members that are acceptable to the group. Norms stem from explicit statements by
supervisors and coworkers, critical events in a group’s history, primacy, and carryover behaviors. Group
cohesiveness has important consequences for group communication, satisfaction, performance, hostility
and aggression toward other groups, and a group’s willingness to innovate and change. Factors influencing
the amount of cohesiveness in a group include whether or not members of the group share attitudes and
values, the amount and severity of external threats to the group, whether or not the group experiences
recognizable successes, the degree of difficulty encountered in joining the group, and the size of the group.
One view of group development shows groups passing through five distinct stages: forming, storming,
norming, performing, and adjourning. A group’s performance varies depending on the stage it is in.

A special kind of group behavior is found in group meetings. Because of the considerable amount of time
spent in meetings, it is important for managers to know how to maximize group meeting effectiveness. This
chapter includes an excellent short guide for how managers can lead more effective group meetings. Groups
can also help facilitate creativity and innovation in the organization. Some of the major mechanisms that
organizations use to encourage the creative and innovative capacity of groups include the use of task forces,
or ad hoc committees, and teams, particularly entrepreneurial and self-managing teams.


Session 14.41
GROUP CONCEPTS, STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT AND
TEAM EFFECTIVENESS
Work Group Inputs

A. Work group inputs are those that are necessary for the group to operate.
B. The composition of a work group has a strong bearing on the group’s ultimate success, so
careful consideration should be made in making group assignments.
1. Characteristics of members that influence group effectiveness include task-relevant
expertise, interpersonal skills, and diversity in the makeup of the group to include
sufficient individual skills and interest.
2. Individuals may be attracted to a group because of friendships, interest in the
activities of the group, shared values, the need for affiliation, and the need to fulfill
objectives outside those of the group.
C. An input into the group is the members’ assumption of roles, set of behaviors expected
of individuals who occupy particular positions in a group.
1. Group task roles are roles that help a group develop and accomplish its goals.
a. The initiator-contributor proposes goals, suggests way of approaching
tasks, and recommends procedures for approaching a problem or task.
b. The information seeker asks for information, view points, and suggestions
about the problem or task.
c. The information giver offers information, viewpoints, and suggestions
about the problem or task.
d. The coordinator clarifies and synthesizes various ideas in an effort to tie
together the work of the members.
e. The orienter summarizes, points to departures from goals, and raises
questions about discussion direction.
f. The energizer stimulates the group to higher levels of work and better
quality.
2. Group leaders often assume task roles.
3. An informal leader is an individual, other than the formal leader, who emerges
from a group, has major influence, and is perceived by group members as a leader.
D. Group Size is an important input into the functioning of groups.
1. The number of individuals in a group influences how the members interact.
a. Very small groups have a number of disadvantages.
1) In two-person groups, or dyads, members are either at odds
frequently or are extremely polite to avoid differences.
2) Three-person groups frequently lead to two-against-one
situations.
3) Even-numbered groups often lead to deadlocks
b. Groups of five to seven are ideal because of enough input and the lack of
deadlocks.
c. Large groups beyond seven, and more so beyond eleven, pose difficulties.
1) Interactions tend to become centralized to a few members.
2) Overall group satisfaction declines.
3) Interactions become too lengthy when complex issues are
considered.
2. Group performance stops rising and even possibly declines as group size
increases.
a. Social loafing is the tendency of individuals to expend less effort when
working in groups than when working alone.
b. Free riders are individuals who engage in social loafing in a group
c. Individualism, a condition where by personal interests are stronger than
the needs of the group, often leads to social loafing.


d. On the other hand, collectivists tend to put the good of the group before
personal interest.
e. To reduce the likelihood of social loafing, managers, may
1) Assign just enough people to do the work
2) Have each group member of different tasks
3) Make each individual’s work visible in some way
4) Provide for individual feedback
5) Having individuals work with people they respect
6) Provide standards against which to measure how the group is
doing
7) Make rewards contingent on individual, as well as group
performance
8) Design interesting, challenging tasks, or select members
committed to particular tasks.

Work Group Processes

A. Group processes are the dynamic, inner workings of groups as they operate over a period
of time.
1. Process loss is the energy diverted from the task to develop and operate the group
itself.
2. Positive synergy is the force that results when the combined gains from group
interaction (as opposed to individuals operating alone) are greater than group
process losses.
3. Negative synergy is the force that results when group process losses are greater
than any gains achieved from combining the forces of group members.
B. Norms are expected behaviors sanctioned by a group that regulate and foster uniformity
in member behaviors.
1. Work groups tend to develop and enforce norms related to certain central issues.
a. Groups develop norms regarding production processes.
b. Groups develop norms regarding informal social relationships, e.g., where
to have lunch.
c. Groups develop norms regarding allocation of resources, e.g., materials,
equipment, etc.
2. Norms typically develop through one of four mechanisms.
a. Explicit statements made by supervisors and coworkers can provide
information about expectations.
b. Critical events set precedents for the future.
c. Primacy is the phenomenon that the first behavior pattern that emerges in
a group tends to establish group expectations.
d. Carryover behaviors are those that arise among individuals who have
worked together in other groups.
C. Group cohesiveness is the degree to which members are attracted to a group, are
motivated to remain in the group, and are mutually influenced by one another.
1. A high degree of cohesiveness in a group can have consequences on group
performance.
a. Members tend to communicate more frequently and be more sensitive to
one another, leading to greater job satisfaction.
b. Cohesiveness can also lead to giving more aid to other group member, a
form of organizational citizenship.
c. Aggression among groups may arise.
1) Within the same organization, competition may be helpful or
detrimental.
2) Competition with other organizations may have positive effects.


d. Performance levels may be either very high or very low, depending upon
the group’s norms and cohesiveness.
e. The group’s openness to innovation may be very high or very low.
2. A number of factors have a positive effect on group cohesiveness; they include:
a. Similar attitudes and values.
b. External threats
c. Outstanding successes
d. Difficulties encountered in joining a group
e. Small group size

Stages of Groups Development

1. It has been proposed that groups progress through a series of five stages, but may
regress with changes in membership.
a. Stage 1: Forming occurs as group members attempt to assess the ground
rules that will apply to a task and to group interaction.
b. Stage 2: Storming occurs as group members experience conflict with one
another as they locate and attempt to resolve differences of opinion
regarding key issues.
c. Stage 3: Norming occurs as group members begin to build group
cohesion, as well as develop a consensus about norms for performing a
task and relating to one another.
d. Stage 4: Performing occurs as energy is channeled toward a task and as
norms support teamwork.
e. Stage 5: Adjourning occurs as group members prepare for disengagement
as the group nears successful completion of its goals.
2. Research indicates that these five stages apply primarily to newly formed, relatively
unstructured groups.

Many organizational decisions are made by groups

1. Group decisions have certain advantages over individual decisions.
a. Provide more complete information.
b. Generate more alternatives.
c. Increase acceptance of a solution.
d. Increase legitimacy.
2. However, group decisions also have disadvantages.
a. Time consuming.
b. Minority domination.
c. Pressures to conform, which can lead to groupthink.
d. Ambiguous responsibility.
3. Effectiveness and Efficiency of Group Decision Making.
Are group decisions more effective? It depends on the criteria used for defining effectiveness.
a. Group decisions tend to be more accurate.
b. Individual decisions are quicker in terms of speed.
c. Group decisions tend to have more acceptance.
d. The effectiveness of group decisions tends to be influenced by the size of the group. Groups
should not be too large.
e. Groups also are not as efficient as individual decision makers.
4. Techniques for Improving Group Decision Making.
a. Brainstorming is an idea-generating process that encourages alternatives while withholding
criticism.
b. Nominal group technique is a group decision-making technique in which group members are
physically present but operate independently.


c. Electronic meetings are one way that decision-making groups can interact by way of
linked computers.

TURNING GROUPS INTO EFFECTIVE TEAMS

Work teams are formal groups made up of interdependent individuals, responsible for attaining goals.
Organizations are increasingly designing work around teams rather than individuals. Why?

Most of us are probably familiar with the concept of a team. However, we may not be as familiar with work
teams. All work teams are groups, but only formal groups can be work teams.

There are different types of teams. Four characteristics can be used to distinguish different types of teams.

1. Teams can vary in their purpose or goal.
2. The duration of a team tends to be either permanent or temporary.
3. Team membership can be either functional or cross-functional.
4. Finally, teams can either be supervised or self-managed.
5. Given these four characteristics, some of the most popular types of teams used today include the
following:
a. A functional team is a type of work team that is composed of a manager and his or her
subordinates from a particular functional area.
b. A self-directed or self-managed team is one that operates without a manager and is responsible
for a complete work process or segment that delivers a product or service to an external or internal
customer.
c. A virtual team is one that uses computer technology to link physically dispersed members in order
to achieve a common goal.
d. Finally, a cross-functional team is one in which individuals who are experts in various specialties
(or functions) work together on various organizational tasks.

DEVELOPING AND MANAGING EFFECTIVE TEAMS

Teams aren’t automatically going to magically perform at high levels. We need to look more closely at how
managers can develop and manage effective teams.

There are eight characteristics associated with effective teams.

1. Clear goals
2. Relevant skills
3. Mutual trust
4. Unified commitment
5. Good communication
6. Negotiating skills
7. Appropriate leadership
8. Internal and external support

What’s involved with managing teams?

1. In planning, it’s important that teams have clear goals and that these goals be clear to and accepted
by every member of the team.
2. Organizing tasks associated with managing a team include clarification of authority and structural
issues.
3. Leading issues include such things as determining what role the leader will play, how conflict will be
handled, and what the best communication process is.
4. Two important controlling issues include how to evaluate the team’s performance and how to
reward team members.



One popular approach to group incentive plans is gain-sharing, which is a program that shares the gains
of the efforts of group members with those group members.

In conclusion, a TEAM is a temporary or ongoing task group whose members are charged with working
together to identify problems, form a consensus about what should be done, and implement necessary
actions in relation to a particular task or organizational area.
1. Teams differ from task forces in two ways.
a. Teams identify problems rather than merely reacting to problems
identified by others.
b. Teams decide on a course of action and implement it, rather than leaving
the implementation to others.
2. Teams are widely used today and are often, but not always, task groups from
across command groups.
3. An entrepreneurial team is a group of individuals with diverse expertise and
backgrounds who are brought together to develop and implement innovative ideas
aimed at creating new products or services or significantly improving existing
ones.
4. Self-managed teams, or autonomous work groups, are work groups given
responsibility for a task area without day-to-day supervision and with authority to
influence and control both group membership and behavior.
1) Assessment of the situation is critical in that self-managing teams
are not successful in all situations.
2) Group makeup and proper allocation of needed resources is
important.
3) Team training and guidance in cultivating appropriate norms are
important.
4) Managers need to remove performance obstacles and assistance
to help the group continue to learn.
Managing Conflict in Groups

A. Conflict is a process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or
adversely affected by one or more other parties.
B. Conflict can have constructive as well as destructive consequence.
1. Conflict can delay projects, drive up costs, and cause valued employees to leave.
2. Conflict can highlight areas for improvement, promote constructive changes,
enhance morale and cohesiveness, and encourage new ideas.
C. There are a number of causes of conflict.
1. Two types of task interdependence can lead to conflict.
a. Sequential interdependence occurs when one individual or work unit is
heavily dependent on another.
b. Reciprocal interdependence occurs when individuals or work units are
mutually interdependent.
2. Scarcity of resources can lead to conflict.
3. Goals of different organizational members may be incompatible.
4. Communication may fail due to distortions or lack of communication.
5. Differences in personality, experience, and values may breed conflict.
6. Poorly designed reward systems may foster competitions when cooperative
behavior is necessary for organizational success.
D. Managers may use a number of approaches to reduce and resolve conflict.
1. Conflict-producing factors in a situation can be changed.
2. One of five interpersonal modes may be adopted to resolve conflicts.
a. Avoidance involves ignoring or suppressing a conflict in the hope that it
will either go away or not become too disruptive.


b. Accommodation focuses on solving conflicts by allowing the desires of
the other party to prevail.
c. Competition involves attempting to win a conflict at the other party’s
expense.
d. Compromise aims to solve conflict issues by having each party give up
some desired outcomes in order to get other desired outcomes.
e. Collaboration involves devising solutions that allow both parties to
achieve their desired outcomes.


Session 14.42
UNDERSTANDING MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION

Communication between managers and employees provides the information necessary to get work done
effectively and efficiently in organizations. In this and following lecture, basic concepts in managerial
communications will be presented including: the interpersonal communication process, methods of
communicating, barriers to effective communications and ways to overcome these barriers, communication
flow and communication networks, and contemporary issues and challenges associated with electronic
communications and information technology.

The Nature of managerial communication

A. Communication is the transfer and understanding of meaning.
1. If no information or ideas have been conveyed or transferred, communication hasn’t taken place.
2. For communication to be successful, the meaning must be imparted and understood.
B. Good communication does not require agreement with the message, just clear understanding of the
message.
C. Managerial communication encompasses both interpersonal communication (between two or
more people) and organizational communication (all the patterns, networks, and system of
communication within an organization).
D. Communication and associated interpersonal processes are important ingredients of
organizational effectiveness.
E. Communication is the exchange of messages between people for the purpose of achieving
common meanings.
F. Managers use two types of communication in their work.
1. Verbal communication is the use of words to communicate.
a. Written communication includes letters, memoranda, reports, newsletters,
policy manuals, etc.
b. Disadvantage includes the fact that the conversations may be time-
consuming and difficult to terminate, and that additional time may have to
be spent to document what was said.
2. Nonverbal communication is communication by means of elements and
behaviors that are not coded into words.
3. Nonverbal Communication is communication transmitted without words. The best-known types
of nonverbal communication are body language and verbal intonation.
a. Body language refers to gestures, facial expressions, and other body movements that convey
meaning.
b. Verbal intonation refers to the emphasis someone gives to words or phrases that convey meaning.

The communication process can be analyzed into its basic components

1. The sender is the initiator of the message.
2. Encoding is the process of translating the intended meaning into symbols.
a. Symbols include words and gestures.
b. The sender’s choice of symbols depends upon
1) Sender encoding skills.
2) Assessments of the ability of the intended receiver to understand
various symbols
3) Judgments regarding the appropriateness of the use of certain
symbols
4) Past experience in similar situations
5) Job status and education
6) Emotional state at the time of the communication attempt


3. The message is the encoding-process outcome, which consists of verbal and
nonverbal symbols that have been developed to convey meaning to the receiver.
a. The medium is the method used to convey the message to the intended
receiver, e.g., telephone, meeting, formal report.
b. Factors to consider when selecting a medium include relative speed, cost,
intelligibility, convenience, timing, flow of communication, feedback
options, interpersonal dynamics, and documentation.
4. The receiver is the person with whom the message is exchanged.
a. Decoding is the process of translating the symbols into the interpreted message.
1) Effective communication results in the senders and receivers achieving a common meaning.
2) The receiver needs to consider the medium and the context of the message.
b. Noise is any factor in the communication process that interferes with exchanging messages and
achieving common meaning.
c. Feedback is the basic response of the receiver to the interpreted message.
1) The receiver becomes the sender during feedback.
2) Feedback provides preliminary information to the sender about the success of the communication.
3) One-way communication is the communication that results when the communication process
does not allow for feedback.
4) Two-way communication is the communication that results when the communication process
explicitly includes feedback.

Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communication

1. Filtering is the deliberate manipulation of information to make it appear more favorable to the
receiver.
a. As information is communicated up through the organizational levels, it’s condensed and
synthesized, and those doing the condensing filter communication through their personal interests
and perceptions of what is important.
b. The more that organizational cultural reward emphasizes style and appearance, the more that
managers will be motivated to filter communications in their favor.
2. Selective perception is when people selectively interpret what they see or hear on the basis of
their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.
3. Emotions influence how a receiver interprets a message when it is received. It’s best to avoid
reacting to a message when the receiver is upset because he/she is not likely to be thinking clearly.
4. Information overload happens when the information we have to work with exceeds our
processing—such as 600 waiting e-mail messages in the inbox.
a. Receivers tend to select out, ignore, pass over, or forget information when they have too much
information.
b. Or, receivers may put off further processing until the overload situation is over—still ineffective
communication.
5. Defensiveness—engaging in behaviors such as verbally attacking others, making sarcastic remarks,
being overly judgmental, and questioning others’ motives—happens when people feel that they’re
being threatened.
6. Language—words mean different things to different people.
a. Age, education, and cultural background can influence language use and definition given to words
b. Jargon is specialized terminology or technical language that members of a group use to
communicate among themselves.
7. National culture can affect the way a manager chooses to communicate.

Overcoming the Barriers to Effective Interpersonal Communication

1. Use feedback. This feedback can be verbal or nonverbal.
2. Simplify language.
3. Listen actively.
a. Listening is an active search for meaning, whereas hearing is passive.


b. Active listening is listening for full meaning without making premature judgments or
interpretations, and demands total concentration.
c. Active listening is enhanced by developing empathy with the sender—placing yourself in the
sender’s position.
d. Emotions: The simplest answer is for a manager to refrain from communicating until he/she has
regained composure.
4. Watch nonverbal cues—actions speak louder than words.

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

A. Formal versus Informal Communication.
1. Formal communication refers to communication that follows the official chain of command or is
part of the communication required to do one’s job.
2. Informal communication is organizational communication that is not defined by the
organization’s structural hierarchy.
a. Informal communication systems permit employees to satisfy their needs for social interaction.
b. Informal communication systems can improve an organization’s performance by creating
alternative, and frequently faster and more efficient, channels of communication.

Direction of Communication Flow

1. Downward communication—flows from a manager to employees and is used to inform, direct,
coordinate, and evaluate employees.
2. Upward communication flows from employees to managers
a. Upward communication can be used in order to keep managers aware of how employees feel about
their jobs, their coworkers, and the organization in general.
b. The organizational culture influences the extent of upward communication. A climate of trust,
respect, and participative decision making will encourage considerable upward communication. A
highly mechanistic and authoritarian environment will severely limit upward communication in
both style and content.
3. Lateral communication takes place among employees on the same organizational level.
4. Diagonal communication is communication that cuts across both work areas and organizational
levels.
a. The increased use of e-mail facilitates diagonal communications.
b. Diagonal communication has the potential to create problems if employees don’t keep their
managers informed.


Session 15.43
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS AND CHANNELS
EFFECT OF ICT ON MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION

As organizational workforces become more and more diverse and widespread throughout the world,
communication issues increase in importance.

Organizational communication network

It is the pattern of information flow among task group members.

Five major network structures have been identified.
1. The three centralized networks are structured so that most messages must flow
through a pivotal person in the network.
a. In the wheel network, all messages must flow through the individual at
the center of the wheel.
b. In the chain network, some members can communicate with more than
one member of the network, but the individual in the center of the chain
still tends to control the messages.
c. In the Y network, the member at the fork of the “Y” usually becomes the
central person in the network.
2. The two decentralized networks permit freer communication among the various
members.
a. In the circle network, each member can communicate with the individual
on either side.
b. In the star network, each member can communicate with any other
member.
3. Some general differences have been found between the centralized and the
decentralized types of networks.
a. Effective performance is a function of type of network and type of tasks
undertaken.
1) The centralized networks were usually faster and more accurate at
performing simple, routine tasks.
2) The decentralized networks were usually faster and more accurate
at performing complex tasks.
b. Group moral in the decentralized networks was consistently higher than
in the centralized, regardless of task assignment.

Organizational communication channels

A. Communication channels are various patterns of organizational communication flow
that represent potential established conduits through which managers and other
organization members can send and receive information.
B. Vertical communication is a communication that flows from a higher level to one or
more lower levels in the organization.
1. Downward communication is a vertical communication that flows from a higher level to one or
more lower levels in the organization.
a. Most downward communication involves information in one of five categories:
1) Job instructions related to specific tasks.
2) Job rationales explaining the relationship between a task and other
organizational tasks.
3) Procedures and practices of the organization.
4) Feedback on individual performance on assigned tasks.
5) Efforts to encourage a sense of mission and dedication to the goals of the
organization.


b. Downward communication is prone to distortion.
1) Faulty message transmission may occur because of sender carelessness,
poor communication skills, and the difficulty of encoding a message for a
number of receivers.
2) Overuse of one-way communication methods means that manager get no
feedback
3) Filtering of communication may occur through withholding, screening, or
manipulating information to enhance personal power.
c. The effectiveness of downward communication can be increased by using multiple
channels, by repeating the message, and by encouraging feedback.
2. Upward communication is the vertical flow of communication from a lower level to one or more
higher levels in the organization.
a. Forms of upward communication include individual and group meetings
with superiors, memos and reports, suggestion systems, grievance
procedures, and employee attitude surveys.
b. The information disseminated through upward communication typically
pertains to:
1) Progress of current work projects
2) Serious unsolved problems and situations in which subordinates
need help from superiors.
3) New developments arising within or affecting the work unit or
organization suggestions for improvements and innovations.
4) Employee attitudes, morale, and efficiency
c. Upward communication can be distorted.
1) Subordinates filter information that they send upward.
2) Managers do not expend enough effort to encourage upward
communication.
d. Management by wandering around (MBWA) is a practice whereby
managers frequently tour areas for which they are responsible, talk to
various employees, and encourage upward communication.
C. Horizontal communication is lateral or diagonal message exchange either within work-
unit boundaries, involving peers who report to the same supervisor, or across work-unit
boundaries, involving individuals who report to different supervisors.
1. Horizontal communication can take the form of meetings, reports, memos,
telephone conversations, and face-to-face discussions.
2. Horizontal communication usually relates to:
a. Task coordination
b. Problem solving
c. Information sharing
d. Conflict resolution
e. Peer support
3. There are three impediments to necessary, work-related horizontal
communication.
a. Rivalry among individuals or work units may cause individuals to hide
information.
b. Specialization may cause individuals to be concerned mainly about the
work of their own unit and to have little appreciation for the work and
communication needs of others.
c. Motivation may be lacking when subordinate horizontal communication is
not encouraged or rewarded.
D. Informal communication, better known as “the grapevine,” is communication that
takes place without regard to hierarchical or task requirements.
1. Informal communication within organizations differs from formal
communication.


a. Formal communication is vertical and horizontal communication that
follows paths specified by the official hierarchical organization structure
and related task requirements.
b. Formal communication relates to position in the organization; informal
communication depends upon personal relationships.
2. Grapevines can be configured in a number of ways.
a. In the single-strand chain, communication moves serially from person A
to B to C and so on.
b. With the gossip chain, person A seeks out and tells others.
c. When following the probability chain, person A spreads the message
randomly, as do individuals F and D.
d. In the cluster chain, the most predominant form, person A tells three
selected individuals, and then one of these tells three others.
3. Grapevines have a number of characteristics.
a. They are fast.
b. The data produced ranges from 50 to 90 percent accurate.
4. Grapevines are most harmful when they carry false rumors and gossip.
5. Grapevines might serve positive organizational purposes.
a. They may serve to transmit organizational rules, values, and morals.
b. They may serve to disseminate organizational traditions and history.
c. They may help to reinforce formal messages, to test new proposals, and to
obtain feedback about employee feelings and ideas.
d. They may help to foster innovation by facilitating communication among
various parts of the organization.

How Technology Affects Managerial Communication

Two developments in information and communication technology seem to be having the most significant
impact on current managerial communication: networked computer systems and wireless capabilities.

Networked Systems

1. An electronic mail system is a mail system that allows high-speed exchange of written messages
through the use of computerized text-processing and communication networks.
a. Electronic mail has advantages.
1) It is a time-saver.
2) It leads to exchanges of information among managers who
previously did not communicate.
3) Managers tend to receive new types of information through these
systems.
b. Electronic mail has a couple of disadvantages.
1) It eliminates the nonverbal cues that serve as aids in face-to-face
communication.
2) It is easy to vent anger and frustrations over email that would
never be communicated through regular written communication
channels.
3) It leads to an excess of irrelevant mail.
2. Voice mail is the recording systems which enable senders to leave messages for receivers by
telephone.
a. Some nonverbal cues are sent, such as voice quality and tone.
b. It is particularly suited for short messages that require no further
discussions or feedback.
3. Teleconferencing is the simultaneous communication among a group by telephone or via
computer using specially designed software. The software is often referred to a “groupware.”
a. Meeting can be held while members are not in the same location.


b. Each group member has access to their own computer which is linked to
a network and to an overhead projector.
c. Messages are anonymous.
d. Most, and sometimes all, communication is done through the computers.
e. These systems have incredibly high speeds and, usually, very high success
rates.
4. Videoconferencing is the holding of meetings with individuals in two or more locations by means
of closed-circuit television.
1) It is synchronous, meaning that senders and receivers can engage in
simultaneous communication of the type associated with face-to-face
conversation.
2) It is fast.
5. Electronic data interchange (EDI) is a way for organizations to exchange standard business
transaction documents, such as invoices or purchase orders, using direct computer-to-computer networks.

6. Intranet systems are organizational communication networks that use Internet technology and are
accessible only by organizational employees.

7. Extranet systems are organizational communication networks that use Internet technology and
allow authorized users inside the organization to communicate with certain outsiders such as customers and
vendors.

Wireless Capabilities

Wireless communication depends on signals sent through air or space without any physical connection
using things such as microwave signals, satellites, radio waves and radio antennas, or infrared light rays.

How Information Technology Affects Organizations

1. Communication and the exchange of information among organizational members are no longer
constrained by geography or time.
2. However, managers must not forget to address the psychological drawbacks such as the cost of an
employee being constantly accessible, pressure to “check in” even during off hours, and the separation of
work lives and personal lives.


Session 15.44
CONTROLLING AS A MANAGEMENT FUNCTION

Introduction and Overview of Controlling

Regardless of the thoroughness of the planning done, a program or decision still may be poorly or
improperly implemented without a satisfactory control system in place.

Controlling is that process of regulating organizational activities so that actual performance conforms to
expected organizational goals and standards. While interrelated with all of the other management functions,
a special relationship exists between the planning function of management and controlling. Planning,
essentially, is the deciding of goals and objectives and the means of reaching them. Controlling lets manager
tell if the organization is on track for goal achievement, and if not, why not. A well-developed plan should
provide benchmarks that can be used in the control process.

Controls serve other important roles including helping managers cope with uncertainty, detecting
irregularities, identifying opportunities, handling complex situations, and decentralizing authority. Like
planning, controlling responsibilities differ by managerial level with control responsibilities paralleling
planning responsibilities at the strategic, tactical, and operational level.

There are several major steps usually identified in the basic control process. These are, in order, determining
the areas to be controlled, establishing the appropriate standards, measuring performance, comparing the
performance against standards, recognizing performance if standards are met or exceeded or take corrective
actions as necessary if not, and adjusting either/or standards and measures as necessary. Of course it would
be impossible to control all activity in an organization. Consequently, it is important for the manager to
decide which activities should have the control process applied. Argues that managers need to consider
controls mainly in areas in which they depend on others for resources necessary to reach organizational
goals. Four conditions help delineate when controls should be used. These are having a high dependence on
the resource, having a high expectation that the resource flows would be unacceptable without proper
controls, that the instituting of a control process would be feasible, and that the total control process costs
would be within the acceptable range.

Timing is one of the bases for differentiating control systems. Some major control types are based on
timing. These include feed forward controls, concurrent controls, and feedback controls. These are terms
which are unfamiliar to many students and special note needs to be made in reviewing this material. A
variety of these types of control is frequently used in multiple control systems and usually involve non-
cybernetic. Cybernetic controls involve little, if any, human discretion as part of the system. Rather, it is a
self-regulating system that, once put into operation, can automatically monitor the situation and take
corrective action when necessary. Noncybernetic systems, on the other hand rely on human discretion as a
basic part of its process.

In addition to deciding the types of controls to use, managers also have the options regarding the
mechanisms to be used to implement controls. The three basic approaches are bureaucratic, clan, and
market. Bureaucratic controls rely on regulation through rules, policies, supervision, budgets, schedules,
reward systems, and other administrative mechanisms aimed at ensuring acceptable behavior and
performance Clan controls rely on the values, beliefs, traditions, corporate culture, shared norms, and
informal relationships to regulate behavior and to facilitate the reaching of organizational goals. The market
controls have a somewhat more limited application in organizations than do bureaucratic or clan controls;
all three approaches are likely to be used to some extent. Market controls rely on market mechanisms to
regulate prices for certain goods and services used by the organization.

There are some potential dysfunctional aspects of control systems the manager must consider. Behavioral
displacement, game playing, operating delays, and negative attitudes are some of these. To decrease the
likelihood of the effects, managers need to avoid engaging in either over-control or under-control. To be


effective, control systems should be future-oriented, multidimensional, cost-effective, accurate, realistic,
timely monitor able, acceptable to organization members, and flexible.

Control as a management process

A. Controlling, one of the four major functions of POLCA management, is the process of
regulating organizational activities so that actual performance conforms to expected
organizational standards and goals.
1. Controlling is largely geared to ensuring that the behavior of individuals in the
organization contributes to reaching organizational goals.
2. Controls encourage wanted behaviors and discourage unwanted behaviors.
B. A control system is a set of mechanisms that are designed to increase the probability of
meeting organizational standards and goals.
C. Controls can play five important roles in organizations.
1. Control systems enable managers to cope with uncertainty by monitoring the
specific activities and reacting quickly to significant changes in the environment.
2. Controls help managers detect undesirable irregularities, such as product defects,
cost overruns, or rising personnel turnover.
3. Controls alert managers to possible opportunities by highlighting situations in
which things are going better than expected.
4. Controls enable managers to handle complex situations by enhancing coordination
within large organizations.
5. Controls can decentralize authority by enabling managers to encourage decision
making at lower levels in the organization while still remaining in control.
D. Control responsibilities differ according to managerial level.
1. Strategic control involves monitoring critical environmental factors that could
affect the viability of strategic plans, assessing the effects of organizational
strategic actions, and ensuring that strategic plans are implemented as intended.
a. Strategic control is typically the domain of top-level managers who must
insure core competencies are developed and maintained.
b. Long time frames are involved, although shorter time frames may be
appropriate in turbulent environments.
2. Tactical control focuses on assessing the implementation of tactical plans at
departmental levels, monitoring associated periodic results, and taking corrective
action as necessary.
a. Tactical control is primarily under the direction of middle managers, but
top-level managers may at times get involved.
b. Time frames are periodic, involving weekly or monthly reporting cycles.
c. Tactical control involves department-level objectives programs, and
budgets.
3. Operational control involves overseeing the implementation of operating plans,
monitoring day-to-day results, and taking corrective action when required.
a. Operational control is the responsibility of lower-level managers.
b. Control is a day-to-day process.
c. The concern is with schedules, budgets, rules, and specific outputs of
individuals.
4. For controls and three levels to be effective they must operate in concert with one
another.

The control process

A. The basic process used in controlling has several major steps.
1. Determine areas to control.
a. It is impractical, if not impossible, to control every aspect of an organization’s
activities.


b. Major controls are based on the organizational goals and objectives developed
during the planning process.
2. Develop standards spelling out specific criteria for evaluating performance and
related employee behaviors.
a. Standards are often incorporated into the objectives set in the planning
process.
b. Standards serve three main purposes related to employee behavior.
1) Standards help employee understand what is expected and how
their work will be evaluated.
2) Standards provide a basis for detecting job difficulties that are
related to personal limitations of organization members.
3) Standards help reduce the potential negative effects of goal
incongruence, a condition in which there are major
incompatibilities between the goals of an organization member
and those of the organization.
3. Make a decision about how and how often to measure performance related to a
given standard.
a. MBO is a popular technique for coordinating the measurement of
performance throughout an organization.
b. The means of measuring performance depends upon the performance
standards that have been set, as well as data, such as units produced,
quality of output, or profits.
c. Most organizations use combinations of both quantitative and qualitative
performance measures.
d. The period of measurement usually depends upon
1) The importance of the goal to the organization
2) How quickly the situation is likely to change
3) The difficulty and expense of rectifying a problem if one were to
occur
4. Compare performance against standards.
a. Reports that summarize planned versus actual results are often developed.
b. Management by exception is a control principle which suggests that
managers should be informed of a situation only if control data show a
significant deviation from standards.
c. Mangers may compare performance and standards through personal
observation.
d. The 360-degree feedback system described in chapter 10 is being used by
a number of organizations as an evaluation approach.
5. Recognize above-standard performance both to give precognition to top
performing employees and also to aid improving performance on regular bases.
6. Assess the reason why standards are not met, and take corrective action.
7. Adjust standards and measures as necessary.
a. Standards and measures need to be checked for relevance.
b. Managers must decide whether the cost of meeting certain standards is
worth the resources consumed.
c. Exceeding a standard may signal opportunities, the potential to raise
standards, and/or the need for possible adjustments in organizational
plans.
B. Managers can take a number of approaches to deciding what to control.
1. Resource dependence is an approach based on the view that managers need to
consider controls mainly in areas in which they depend on others for resources
consider control mainly in areas in which they depend on others for resources
necessary to reach organizational goals.
a. Strategic control points are performance areas chosen for control
because these are particularly important in meeting organizational goals.


b. Strategic control points meet four conditions.
1) Dependence on a resource is high because the resource is
important and limited in availability.
2) The probability that the expected resource flow will be
unacceptable is high because of anticipated problems with
quantity, quality, or timeliness.
3) Instituting a control system is feasible.
4) The cost of instituting the control system is acceptable.
2. Mangers need to develop an alternative to controls if they are needed, but cannot
be instituted due to problems of feasibility or cost.
a. The dependence relationship can be changed so that controls are
unnecessary, e.g., lining up several suppliers.
b. The nature of the dependence relationship can be changed so that a
control system is feasible and/or cost-effective, e.g., job simplification or
vertical integration.
c. Organizational goals can be changed so that the resources in question are
no longer necessary.

REVISITING CONTROL PROCESS

Let us take the control process as the three-step process of measuring actual performance, comparing it
against a standard, and taking managerial action to correct deviations or inadequate standards.

A. Measuring.
Measuring is the first step in the control process.
1. How we measure is done through four common sources of information that managers use. Each of
these sources has its own advantages and drawbacks.
a. Personal observation
b. Statistical reports
c. Oral reports
d. Written reports
2. What we measure is probably more critical than the how. Both objective and subjective measures are
used.
B. Comparing is the next step in the control process.
1. It determines the degree of variation between actual performance and the standard.
2. It’s critical to determine the range of variation, which are the acceptable parameters of variance
between actual performance and the standard.
C. Taking managerial action is the final step in the control process. Although the manager might
decide to “do nothing,” two other alternatives are possible.
1. Correct actual performance. Once the manager has decided to correct actual performance, he or she has
another decision to make.
a. Take immediate corrective action, which is correcting an activity at once in order to get
performance back on track.
b. Take basic corrective action, which is determining how and why performance has deviated and
correcting the source of deviations.
c. The action taken will depend on the cost/benefit of doing so.
2. Revise the standard. If the standard was set too high or too low, a manager may decide to revise it.
D. Summary of Managerial Decisions.
The control process is a continuous flow between measuring, comparing, and managerial action.

Designing Control Systems

Since control is the process of monitoring activities to ensure they are being accomplished as planned and
of correcting any significant deviations. There are three different approaches to designing organizational
control systems.



A. Market control is an approach that emphasizes the use of external market mechanisms to establish
the standards used in the control system.
B. Bureaucratic control is an approach that emphasizes organizational authority and relies on
administrative rules, regulations, procedures, policies, standardization of activities, well-defined job
descriptions, and other administrative mechanisms to ensure that employees exhibit appropriate
behaviors and meet performance standards.
1. Bureaucratic control has advantages.
a. Unlike market control, bureaucratic control does not require that all
requirements be specified in advance.
b. Bureaucratic control is useful for keeping recurring, relatively predictable
activities running smoothly.
c. Bureaucratic control focuses on doing the job and aids extrinsic reward
systems.
2. Bureaucratic control has disadvantages.
a. Innovation is not encouraged.
b. Needed changes may be inhibited.
c. Employees tend to comply with regulations rather than committing to a
course of action.
C. Market control relies on market mechanisms to regulate prices for certain clearly specified goods
and services needed by an organization.
1. Two conditions must hold if market control is to be used.
a. There must be a reasonable level of competition in the goods or service
area.
b. It must be possible to specify requirements clearly.
2. Market controls may be used to regulate internal operations as well as external
relations.
a. Profit centers, e.g., photocopying centers, are set up and charge other
departments for their services.
b. The intra-organizational use of market controls is limited because the
conditions of competitiveness and specificity or requirements may not
hold.
The use of market controls is increasing. For example, outsourcing, using outside vendors to perform
services normally carried out within the organization, is becoming a more common practice.
D. Clan control is an approach to designing control systems in which employee behaviors are
regulated by the shared values, norms, traditions, rituals, beliefs, and other aspects of the
organization’s culture.
Clan control relies on values, beliefs, traditions, corporate culture, share norms and information
relationships to regulate employee behaviors and facilitate the reaching of organizational goals.
1. Clan control differs from bureaucratic control.
a. Internal motivation is emphasized.
b. Duties are flexible and tasks are broadly defined.
c. Influence is based on relevant information and expertise, rather than upon
position in the hierarchy.
2. A primary advantage of clan control is that it is conducive to innovation.


Session 15.45
CONTROLLING ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE
THROUGH PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY
Types of controls

A. Controls can be classified according to their timing or place in the productive cycle.
1. Feedforward control focuses on the regulation of inputs to ensure that they meet
the standards necessary for the transformation process.
a. The emphasis is upon preventing problems.
b. Other names for feedforward control are “preliminary control,” “pre-
control,” “preventative control” and “steering control.”
2. Concurrent control involves the regulation of ongoing activities that are part of
the transformation process to ensure that conform to organizational standards.
a. Checkpoints are in place to determine whether to continue the process,
take corrective action, or stop work altogether.
b. Other names for concurrent control are “screening” and “yes-no
control.”
c. This type of control is not appropriate for work that requires creativity or
innovation.
3. Feedback control is regulation exercised after a product or service has been
completed in order to ensure that the final output meets organizational standards
and goals.
a. Feedback control is used when feedforward and concurrent controls are
not feasible or are too costly.
b. Feedback control serves a number of functions:
1) To serve as a final means to check for deviations not detected
earlier
2) To provide information that will facilitate the planning process
3) To provide information regarding employee performance
c. Other names for feedback control are “post action control” or “output
control.”

B. Multiple control systems are systems that use two or more of the feedforward,
concurrent, and feedback control processes and involve several strategic control points.
1. Multiple control systems develop because of the need to control various aspects of
a productive cycle, including inputs, transformation, and outputs.
2. Computer software companies provide examples of processes complex enough to
require multiple controls.

C. The degree to which human discretion is part of a control process determines whether it is
cybernetic or non-cybernetic.
1. A cybernetic control system is a self-regulated control system that, once it is put
into operation, can automatically monitor the situation and take corrective action
when necessary, e.g., a heating system or some computerized inventory systems.
2. A non-cybernetic control system is a control system that relies on human
discretion as a basic part of its process.

CONTROLLING FOR ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE

A. What Is Organizational Performance?
Performance is the end result of an activity. Managers are concerned with organizational performance—
the accumulated end results of all the organization’s work processes and activities.


Measures of Organizational Performance
Employees need to see the connection between what they do and the outcomes. The most frequently used
organizational performance measures include organizational productivity, organizational effectiveness, and
industry rankings.

1. Organizational productivity is the overall output of goods or services produced divided by the
inputs needed to generate that output. It’s the management’s job to increase this ratio.
2. Organizational effectiveness is a measure of how appropriate organizational goals are and how
well an organization is achieving those goals.

TOOLS FOR MONITORING AND MEASURING ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE

Managers might use any of the following types of performance control tools: financial controls, information
controls, balanced scorecard approach, or benchmarking best practices approach.
A. Financial Controls.
1. Traditional Financial Control Measures.
a. Financial ratios are calculated by taking numbers from the organization’s primary financial
statements—the income statement and the balance sheet. The four key categories of financial ratios
are as follows.
1) Liquidity ratios measure an organization’s ability to meet its current debt obligations.
2) Leverage ratios examine the organization’s use of debt to finance its assets and whether it’s able to
meet the interest payments on the debt.
3) Activity ratios measure how efficiently the firm is using its assets.
4) Profitability ratios measure how efficiently and effectively the firm is using its assets to generate
profits.
b. We have also discussed budgets as a planning tool. However, budgets are also control tools. They
provide managers with quantitative standards against which to measure and compare actual
performance and resource consumption.
2. Other Financial Control Measures. Managers are using measures such as EVA (economic value
added) and MVA (market value added).
a. Economic value added is a tool for measuring corporate and divisional performance by
calculating after-tax operating profit minus the total annual cost of capital.
b. Market value added adds a market dimension by measuring the stock market’s estimate of the
value of a firm’s past and expected capital investment projects.

B. Information Controls.
Controlling information can be vital to an organization’s success. We need to look at the
development and use of management information systems.
1. A management information system is a system that provides managers with needed and usable
information on a regular basis.
a. Managers need usable information, not just data
b. Data are raw, unanalyzed facts. Information is analyzed and processed data.
2. Information can help managers control the various organizational areas efficiently and effectively.
It plays a vital role in the controlling process.

C. Balanced Scorecard Approach.
1. The balanced scorecard is a performance measurement tool that looks at four areas—financial,
customer, internal processes, and people/innovation/growth assets—that contribute to a
company’s performance.
2. The intent of the balanced scorecard is to emphasize that all of these areas are important to an
organization’s success.
D. Benchmarking of Best Practices

1. Benchmarking is the search for the best practices among competitors or non-competitors that
lead to their superior performance.


2. Research shows that best practices frequently already exist within an organization, but usually go
unidentified and unused.
Internal benchmarking best practices program.

Establishing Quality Management Systems
By implementing international quality standards like ISO-9000, European Quality Award, Deming Prize, or
Malcom Balridge Award; an organization can boost its productivity and quality. This will give leverage for a
continuous improvement and consistent quality products for customers and keeping the employees happy
as well. One can also adapt TQM philosophy of Deming, Juran or Crosby or Taguchi to outperform their
competitors in the global market.

THE END


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