![ Here, pointer variable is a pointer of
type-data type. The new operator
allocates sufficient memory to hold a
data-type. The pointer variable holds the
address of the memory space allocated.
Examples:
p=new int; int *p=new int;
We can initialize the memory using new
operator by pointer-variable = new data-
type(value/size);
Example: int *p=new int(25);
array-ptr= new int [3][4][5];](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/operators-140719213733-phpapp01/85/Operators-12-320.jpg)
![ Delete is used to destroy release
the memory space for reuse.
General form
delete pointer-variable;
To delete a dynamically allocated
array
delete [size] pointer-variable;](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/operators-140719213733-phpapp01/85/Operators-13-320.jpg)
Operators
- 2. OPERATORS IN C++ C++ has a rich set of operator which include C operators. In addition to this some new operator are included. Operators are: Insertion operator << Extraction operator >> Scope resolution operator :: Pointer-to-member ::* Pointer-to-member ->*
- 3. Pointer-to-member operator .* Memory release operator delete Line feed operator endl Memory allocation operator new Field width operator setw
- 4. SCOPE RESOLUTION OPERATOR C++ is block-structured language like C. The same variable name can be used to different meaning in different block. The scope of the variable is within the block. A variable declared inside a block is said to be local to the block.
- 5. TWO DIFFERENT MEMORY LOCATIONS NESTED OF BLOCKS …………… …………… { int x=10; …………… …………… } …………… …………… { int x=1; …………… …………… } …………… …………… { int x=10; …………… …………… { int x=1; …………… …………… } …………… }
- 6. In C, the global version of a variable cannot be accessed from within the inner block. C++ resolves this problem by introducing a new operator :: called scope resolution operator. Usage: To uncover a hidden variable Syntax: :: variable name It allows access to the global version of a variable.
- 7. PROGRAM FOR SCOPE RESOLUTION OPERATOR#include <iostream> using namespace std; int m=10; int main() { int m=20; { int k=m; int m=30; cout<<“We are in inner blockn”; cout<<“k=“<<k<<“n”; cout<<“m=“<<m<<“n”; cout<<“::m=“<<::m<<“n”; } cout<<“n We are in outer block n”; cout<<“m=“<<m<<“n”; cout<<“::m=“<<::m<<“n”; return 0; }
- 8. Output: We are in inner block k=20 m=30 ::m=10 We are in outer block m=20 ::m=10
- 9. MEMBER DEREFERENCING OPERATOR C++ permits us to define a class containing various types of data and function as members. C++ permits us to access the class members through pointers. In order to achieve three pointer-to-member operators.operators function ::* To declare a pointer to a member of a class * To access a member using object name and a pointer to that member ->* To access a member using a pointer to the object and a pointer to that member.
- 10. MEMORY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM C uses malloc() and calloc() functions to allocate memory dynamically at run time and free() functionally to free dynamically allocated memory . Although C++ these two functions, it also defines two unary operators new and delete that perform the task of allocating and freeing the memories in better and easier way.
- 11. An object can be created and will remain existence until it is explicitly destroyed by using delete. Thus, the lifetime of an object is directly under our control and is unrelated to the block structure of the program. General format for New operator: Pointer-variable =new data type;
- 12. Here, pointer variable is a pointer of type-data type. The new operator allocates sufficient memory to hold a data-type. The pointer variable holds the address of the memory space allocated. Examples: p=new int; int *p=new int; We can initialize the memory using new operator by pointer-variable = new data- type(value/size); Example: int *p=new int(25); array-ptr= new int [3][4][5];
- 13. Delete is used to destroy release the memory space for reuse. General form delete pointer-variable; To delete a dynamically allocated array delete [size] pointer-variable;
- 14. The new operator offers the following advantages It automatically computes the compute the size of the data object. It automatically returns the correct pointer type, so that there is no need to use a type cast. It is possible to initialize the object while creating the memory space.
- 15. MANIPULATIONS Manipulations are operators that are used to format the data display. The most commonly used manipulators are endl and setw. The endl manipulator when used in output statement, causes a linefeed to be inserted. It has the same effect as using the newline.
- 16. If we assume the values of the variable as 2597, 14 and 175 respectively, the output will appear as shown below: m= n= p= 2 5 9 7 1 4 1 7 5
- 17. Numbers are right justified to get this the O/P we should specify the common field width for all the numbers and force them to print like the below example: Example: m= 2597 n= 14 p= 157 Its format is cout<< setw(5)<<sum<<endl; O/P: 2 5 9 7
- 18. USE OF MANIPULATIONS #include<iostream> #include<conio.h> using namespace std; int main() { int basic=950,allowance=95,total=1045; cout<<setw(10)<<“Basic”<< setw(10)<<basic<<endl; cout<<setw(10)<<“Allowance”<< setw(10)<<allowance<<endl; cout<<setw(10)<<“Total”<< setw(10)<<total<<endl; return0;
- 19. OUTPUT 9 5 0basic 9 5allowance Total 1 0 4 5
- 20. TYPE CAST OPERATOR C++ permits explicit type conversion of variable or expression using the type cast operator. Examples: ANSI C++ adds the following new cast operators: const_cast static_cast dynamic_cast Traditional C ANSI C++ (type-name) expression type-name(expression) Traditional C ANSI C++ average=sum/(float)i; average=sum/float(i);
- 21. EXPRESSION AND THEIR TYPES An expression is a combination of operators, constants and variable. It may include functions call which consist of one or more operands. Types of expression: Constant expression Integral expression Float expression Pointer expression Relational expression Logical expression Bitwise expression
- 22. TYPES OF EXPRESSION Constant expression consist of only constant expression. Ex: 15+5/20; Integral expression are those which produce integer results after implementing all the automatic and explicit Ex: x+y Pointer expression produce address values. Ex:&m, ptr. Here m is a variable and per is a pointer. Relational expression yield a result of type bool which takes a value true or false. Example x<=y Relational expressions are also known as Boolean expression.
- 23. Logical expressions combine two or more relational expressions and produces bool type results. Examples :A>b x==10 Bitwise expression are used to manipulate data at bit level. They are basically used for testing or shifting bits. Example x<<3 //shift three bit to left Y>> 1 // shift tree bit to right
- 24. SPECIAL ASSIGNMENT EXPRESSION Chained assignment: A chained statement be used to initialise variable at the time of declaration instances, the statement float a=b=12.34; wrong float a=12.34, b=12.34correct. Embedded assignment: x=(y=50)+10;y=50;x=y+10; Here y=50 is an embedded assignment. Here, the value 50 is assigned to y and then result 50+10=60 is assigned to x.
- 25. IMPLICIT CONVERSION M=5+2.75; is a valid statement . Wherever data type are mixed in an expression, C++ performs conversion automatically . This is called as implicit conversion or automatic conversion.
- 26. WATER-FALL MODEL int unsigned long int Unsigned long int float double long double int char
- 27. RESULT OF MIXED-MODE OPERATOR Rho Lho char Short Int Long float Double Long double char Int Int Int Long float Double Long double Short Int Int Int Long float Double Long double Int Int Int Int Long float Double Long double Long Long Long Long Long float Double Long double float float float float float float Double Long double Double Double Double Double Double Double Double Long double Long double Long double Long double Long double Long double Long double Long double Long double
- 28. OPERATOR OVERLOADING Overloading means assigning different meanings to an operation. The operator * when applied to pointer variable gives the value pointed to the pointer. It is commonly used for multiplying two numbers.
- 29. OPERATOR PRECEDENCE C++ enables us to add multiple meaning to the operators, yet their association and precedence remain the same. For example the multiplication operator will continue having higher precedence than the add operator.
- 30. OPERATOR PRECEDENCE AND ASSOCIATIVITY
- 31. CONTROL STRUCTURES A function is set up to perform a task. When the task is complex, many different algorithm can be achieved to perform the goal. Some of them may be complex to comprehend, while others are not. Experience has also shown that the number of bugs that occur is related to the format of the program. The format should be such that is easy to trace the flow of execution of the program later. This would help not only in debugging but also in the review an maintainable of the program later.
- 32. There are three control structure : Sequence control Selection structure Loop structure
- 34. SWITCH STATEMENT This is a multiple-branching statement where , based on a condition , the control transferred to many possible points.
- 35. FOR STATEMENT The for loop is entry checked loop and is used when an action is to be repeated for a predetermined number of times.
- 36. WHILE STATEMENT while(condition) { action1; } Action2; It is a entry-controlled loop.
- 37. DO-WHILE STATEMENT It is an exit-controlled loop. Based on a condition, the control is transferred back to a particular point in the program.