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Oracle Essentials Oracle Database 12c Fifth Edition Rick
Greenwald Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Rick Greenwald, Robert Stackowiak, Jonathan Stern
ISBN(s): 9781449343033, 1449343031
Edition: Fifth Edition
File Details: PDF, 13.98 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english

Rick Greenwald, Robert Stackowiak, and
Jonathan Stern
FIFTH EDITION
Oracle Essentials

Oracle Essentials, Fifth Edition
by Rick Greenwald, Robert Stackowiak, and Jonathan Stern
Copyright © 2013 Rick Greenwald, Robert Stackowiak, and Jonathan Stern. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA 95472.
O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales promotional use. Online editions are
alsoavailableformosttitles(http://my.safaribooksonline.com).Formoreinformation,contactourcorporate/
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Editor: Ann Spencer
Production Editor: Christopher Hearse
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Illustrator: Rebecca Demarest
September 2013: Fifth Edition
Revision History for the Fifth Edition:
2013-09-04: First release
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mark claim, the designations have been printed in caps or initial caps.
While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and authors assume
no responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information contained
herein.
ISBN: 978-1-449-34303-3
[LSI]

Table of Contents
Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
1. Introducing Oracle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Evolution of the Relational Database 3
Relational Basics 4
How Oracle Grew 5
The Oracle Database Family 7
Summary of Oracle Database Features 9
Database Application Development Features 10
Database Programming 10
Database Extensibility 13
Database Connection Features 14
Oracle Net Services 14
Oracle Internet Directory 14
Oracle Connection Manager 14
The Role of Oracle Fusion Middleware 15
Oracle’s WebLogic Server 16
Oracle Tuxedo 18
Data Integration Tools 18
Business Intelligence Tools 19
WebCenter 19
Identity Management 20
Distributed Database Features 20
Distributed Queries and Transactions 21
Heterogeneous Services 21
Data Movement Features 22
Transportable Tablespaces 22
Advanced Queuing and Oracle Streams 22
Database Performance Features 23
iii

Database Parallelization 23
Data Warehousing 23
Managing the Oracle Database 25
Oracle Enterprise Manager 12c 26
Real Application Testing Option 27
Pluggable Databases 27
Storage Management 28
High Availability 28
Database Security Features 32
Advanced Security Option 32
Label Security Option 32
Database Vault Option 33
Audit Vault and Database Firewall Option 33
Oracle Database Development Tools 33
Oracle SQL Developer 34
Oracle Application Express 34
Other Oracle Databases 35
Oracle MySQL 35
Berkeley DB & Oracle NoSQL Database 36
Oracle TimesTen 37
Cloudera Distribution of Hadoop 37
2. Oracle Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Databases and Instances 39
Oracle Database Structures 40
Pluggable Databases 44
Database Initialization 45
Deploying Physical Components 46
Control Files 46
Datafiles 48
Redo Logfiles 50
Instance Memory and Processes 56
Memory Structures for an Instance 58
Background Processes for an Instance 60
Configuration, Engineered Systems, and the Cloud 62
The Data Dictionary 63
3. Installing and Running Oracle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Installing Oracle 65
Optimal Flexible Architecture 67
Supporting Multiple Oracle Versions on a Machine 67
Upgrading an Oracle Database 67
iv | Table of Contents

Creating a Database 68
Planning the Database 68
The Value of Estimating 70
Tools for Creating Databases 70
Oracle Net Services and Oracle Net 72
Resolving Oracle Net Service Names 73
Global Data Services 74
Oracle Net Manager 74
Oracle Connection Pooling 75
Auto-Discovery and Agents 75
Oracle Net Configuration Files 76
Starting Up the Database 77
Shutting Down the Database 78
Accessing a Database 79
Server Processes and Clients 79
Application Servers and Web Servers As Clients 80
Oracle Net and Establishing Network Connections 81
The Shared Server/Multi-Threaded Server 82
Database Resident Connection Pooling 86
Oracle in the Cloud 86
Oracle at Work 87
Oracle and Transactions 87
Flashback 89
A Transaction, Step by Step 90
4. Oracle Data Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Datatypes 93
Character Datatypes 94
Numeric Datatype 95
Date Datatype 96
Other Datatypes 97
Type Conversion 99
Concatenation and Comparisons 100
NULLs 101
Basic Data Structures 102
Tables 102
Views 103
Indexes 104
Partitioning 109
Additional Data Structures 111
Sequences 111
Synonyms 111
Table of Contents | v

Clusters 112
Hash Clusters 113
Extended Logic for Data 113
Rules Manager 114
The Expression Filter 114
Data Design 115
Constraints 118
Triggers 120
Query Optimization 122
Rule-Based Optimization 123
Cost-Based Optimization 124
Specifying an Optimizer Mode 128
Saving the Optimization 131
Comparing Optimizations 131
Performance and Optimization 132
SQL Translation 132
Understanding the Execution Plan 132
SQL Advisors 134
Data Dictionary Tables 134
5. Managing Oracle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Manageability Features 139
Database Advisors 140
Automatic Storage Management 142
Oracle Enterprise Manager 142
Enterprise Manager Architecture 145
Oracle Enterprise Manager Consoles 148
EM Express 151
Backup and Recovery 151
Types of Backup and Recovery Options 152
Oracle Secure Backup 154
Information Lifecycle Management 154
ILM in Oracle Database 12c 155
Working with Oracle Support 155
Reporting Problems 156
Automated Patching 157
6. Oracle Security, Auditing, and Compliance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Security 159
Usernames, Privileges, Groups, and Roles 160
Identity Management 161
Security Privileges 161
vi | Table of Contents

Special Roles: DBA, SYSDBA, and SYSOPER 162
Policies 164
Restricting Data-Specific Access 164
Label Security Option 166
Security and Application Roles and Privileges 166
Distributed Database and Multitier Security 167
Advanced Security Option 169
Encryption 170
Data Redaction 170
Secure Backup 170
Auditing 171
Compliance 172
Oracle Database Vault Option 173
Oracle Audit Vault Server 174
Flashback Data Archive 175
Transparent Sensitive Data Protection 175
7. Oracle Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Oracle and Resource Usage 178
Oracle and Disk I/O Resources 179
I/O Planning Principles for an Oracle Database 179
Oracle and Parallelism 184
Block-Range Parallelism 185
Parallelism for Tables and Partitions of Tables 186
What Can Be Parallelized? 187
Partition-Based Parallelism 190
Oracle and Memory Resources 191
How Oracle Uses the System Global Area 191
How Oracle Uses the Program Global Area 194
Oracle and CPU Resources 196
Performance Tuning Basics 198
Defining Performance and Performance Problems 199
Monitoring and Tuning the Oracle Database for Performance 199
Using the Oracle Database Resource Manager 202
Additional Monitoring and Tuning Available for Oracle Exadata 203
A Final Note on Performance Tuning 204
8. Oracle Multiuser Concurrency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Basics of Concurrent Access 206
Transactions 206
Locks 207
Concurrency and Contention 208
Table of Contents | vii

Integrity Problems 208
Serialization 209
Oracle and Concurrent User Access 209
Oracle’s Isolation Levels 210
Oracle Concurrency Features 211
How Oracle Handles Locking 213
A Simple Write Operation 213
A Conflicting Write Operation 214
A Read Operation 215
Concurrent Access and Performance 217
Workspaces 218
Workspace Implementation 218
Workspace Operations 219
Workspace Enhancements 219
9. Oracle and Transaction Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
OLTP Basics 221
What Is a Transaction? 222
What Does OLTP Mean? 222
OLTP Versus Business Intelligence 224
Transactions and High Availability 225
Oracle’s OLTP Heritage 225
Architectures for OLTP 227
Traditional Two-Tier Client/Server 227
Stored Procedures 228
Three-Tier Systems 228
Application Servers and Web Servers 230
The Grid 231
OLTP and the Cloud 232
Oracle Features for OLTP 232
General Concurrency and Performance 232
Scalability 234
Real Application Clusters 237
Exadata and OLTP 239
High Availability 240
10. Oracle Data Warehousing and Business Intelligence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Data Warehousing Basics 244
The Evolution of Data Warehousing and Business Intelligence 245
A Topology for Business Intelligence 246
Data Marts 247
The Operational Data Store and Enterprise Warehouse 248
viii | Table of Contents

OLTP Systems and Business Intelligence 249
Big Data and the Data Warehouse 249
Data Warehouse Design 250
Query Optimization 252
Bitmap Indexes and Parallelism 253
Optimization Provided by the Exadata Storage Server Software 255
Dimensional Data and Hierarchies in the Database 256
Summary Tables 256
Materialized Views 257
OLAP Option 257
Analytics and Statistics in the Database 258
Basic Analytic and Statistical Functions 258
Other SQL Extensions 259
Advanced Analytics Option 260
Other Datatypes and Big Data 262
Loading Data into the Data Warehouse 263
Managing the Data Warehouse 265
Business Intelligence Tools 267
Oracle Business Intelligence Foundation Suite 267
Business Intelligence Applications 269
Data Discovery and Oracle Endeca Information Discovery 270
Oracle Exalytics 271
The Metadata Challenge 271
Putting It All Together 272
A Complete Analytics Infrastructure 272
Best Practices 273
Common Misconceptions 274
Effective Strategy 275
11. Oracle and High Availability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
What Is High Availability? 278
Measuring High Availability 278
The System Stack and Availability 280
Server Hardware, Storage, and Database Instance Failure 281
What Is Instance Recovery? 282
Phases of Instance Recovery 283
Protecting Against System Failure 284
Component Redundancy 284
Disk Redundancy 285
Automatic Storage Management 287
Site and Computer Server Failover 288
Oracle Data Guard and Site Failures 289
Table of Contents | ix

Oracle Active Data Guard and Zero Data Loss 291
Oracle GoldenGate and Replication 291
Real Application Clusters and Instance Failures 293
Oracle Transparent Application Failover 296
Oracle Application Continuity 298
Recovering from Failures and Data Corruption 299
Developing a Backup-and-Recovery Strategy 299
Taking Oracle Backups 300
Using Backups to Recover 300
Recovery Manager 302
Read-Only Tablespaces and Backups 304
Old-Fashioned Data Redundancy 304
Point-in-Time Recovery 305
Flashback 305
Planned Downtime 307
12. Oracle and Hardware Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
System Basics 310
Symmetric Multiprocessing Systems and Nodes 311
Clustered Solutions, Grid Computing, and the Cloud 313
Disk and Storage Technology 316
Oracle’s Engineered Systems 317
Oracle Exadata Database Machine 317
Oracle Exalogic 320
Oracle SuperCluster 321
Oracle Database Appliance 322
Other Engineered Systems 322
Choosing and Defining the Right Platform 323
Sizing and Planning for Growth 323
Maximum Availability Architecture Considerations 324
Justifying an Oracle Engineered System 325
13. Oracle Distributed Databases and Distributed Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Accessing Distributed Databases 328
Distributed Data Across Multiple Oracle Databases 328
Access to and from Non-Oracle Databases 329
Two-Phase Commit 330
Oracle Tuxedo 331
Replication and Data Transport 333
Replication Basics 333
History of Oracle Replication Offerings 334
Oracle GoldenGate 335
x | Table of Contents

Global Data Services 336
Data Transport Using Database Features 337
14. Oracle Extended Datatypes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Object-Oriented Development 340
Object-Relational Features 340
Java’s Role and Web Services 343
JavaBeans 344
Extensibility Features and Options 345
Oracle Multimedia 345
Oracle Text 346
XML DB 346
Oracle Spatial and Graph Option 347
The Extensibility Architecture Framework 350
15. Oracle and the Cloud. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Cloud Definitions 351
Common Characteristics 352
Cloud Levels 353
Is the Cloud New? 354
Use Cases for Cloud Computing 356
Oracle Database in the Cloud 357
Oracle as a DBaaS 357
Oracle as a PaaS 357
Consumer and Provider 358
Oracle Database Cloud Service 358
History of Application Express 360
Architecture 361
Development with the Database Cloud Service 364
SQL Developer and the Database Cloud 369
Implementing Provider Clouds 369
A. What’s New in This Book for Oracle Database 12c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
B. Additional Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Table of Contents | xi

Preface
We dedicate this book to the memory of one of our original coauthors, Jonathan Stern.
Jonathan unexpectedly passed away in March of 2007. Yet his memory lives on for those
of us who knew him and, in many ways, for those who will read this book. Let us explain.
The original outline for this book was first assembled at the ubiquitous coffee shop
located in the Sears Tower in Chicago. It was 1998 and the authors had gathered there
with a common goal. We were all Oracle employees working in technical sales roles and
had visited many organizations and companies. We found that many IT managers,
Oracle Database Administrators (DBAs), and Oracle developers were quite adept at
reading Oracle’s documentation, but seemed to be missing an understanding of the
overall Oracle footprint and how to practically apply what they were reading. It was as
if they had a recipe book, but were unclear on how to gather the right ingredients and
mix them together successfully. This bothered all of us, but it particularly frustrated
Jonathan.
Jonathanwasthekindofpersonwhosoughttounderstandhowthingsworked.Nothing
delighted Jonathan more than gaining such an understanding, then spending hours
thinking of ways to translate his understanding into something that would be more
meaningful to others. He believed that a key role for himself while at Oracle was the
transfer of such knowledge to others. He continued to perform similar roles later at
other companies at which he worked.
Writing the first edition of Oracle Essentials was a lengthy process. Jonathan wrote
several of the original chapters, and he also reviewed some of the other original work
and was quick to identify where he thought something was wrong. For Jonathan,
“wrong” meant that the text could be misinterpreted and that further clarity was needed
tomakesuretherightconclusionwasdrawn.Thefirsteditionbecamemuchmoreuseful
through Jonathan’s efforts. He was always quite proud of that effort. Even as the book
changed with succeeding editions and Jonathan moved on to other companies, he con‐
tinued to feel that this book remained an important accomplishment in his life.
xiii

Some explanations of how Oracle works are fundamental to the database and have not
changedinsubsequenteditionsofthebook,sosomeofJonathan’soriginalworkremains
here, although much of the surrounding text is now considerably different. Of course,
some entire sections describing the complex steps that were once needed to manage
and deploy older releases of the database are no longer relevant and thus are no longer
included.JonathanwouldprobablyviewOracle’sself-managing,self-tuning,andcloud-
enabling improvements as incredible achievements, but would also wonder whether it
is a good thing that people can know even less today about how the database works but
still deploy it.
So, we introduce you to the fifth edition of Oracle Essentials. We have made many
changes in this edition. Some, of course, result from changes in features in Oracle Da‐
tabase12candthewaysthatyoucannowuseanddeploythelatestreleaseofthedatabase.
But we have also made a considerable effort to go back and rewrite parts of the book
thatwedidnotbelievepossessedtheclarityneededbyourreaders—claritythatJonathan
would want in such a book. So, he influences us still.
Goals of This Book
Our main goal is to give you a foundation for using the Oracle Database effectively and
efficiently. Therefore, we wrote with these principles in mind:
Focus
We’ve tried to concentrate on the most important Oracle issues. Every topic pro‐
vides a comprehensive but concise discussion of how Oracle handles an issue and
the repercussions of that action.
Brevity
One of the first decisions we made was to concentrate on principles rather than
syntax. There simply isn’t room for myriad syntax diagrams and examples in this
book.
Uniqueness
We’ve tried to make this an ideal first Oracle book for a wide spectrum of Oracle
users—but not the last! You will very likely have to refer to Oracle documentation
or other, more specific books for more details about using Oracle. However, we
hope this book will act as an accelerator for you. Using the foundation you get from
this book, you can take detailed information from other sources and put it to the
best use.
This book is the result of more than 65 combined years of experience with Oracle and
other databases. We hope you’ll benefit from that experience.
xiv | Preface

Audience for This Book
We wrote this book for people possessing all levels of Oracle expertise. Our target au‐
diences include DBAs who spend most of their workday managing Oracle, application
developers who build their systems on the data available in an Oracle Database, and
system administrators who are concerned with how Oracle will affect their computing
environments. Of course, IT managers and business users interact more peripherally
with the actual Oracle Database, but can still gain from a better understanding of the
product.Ontheonehand,anticipatingtheappropriatetechnicallevelofallourpotential
readers presented difficulties; on the other hand, we’ve tried to build a solid foundation
from the ground up and believe that some introductory material benefits everyone.
We’ve also tried to ensure that every reader receives all the fundamental information
necessary to truly understand the topics presented.
If you’re an experienced Oracle user, you may be tempted to skip over material in this
book with which you are already familiar. But experience has shown that some of the
most basic Oracle principles can be overlooked, even by experts. We’ve also seen how
the same small “gotchas” trip up even the most experienced Oracle practitioners and
causeimmensedamageiftheygounnoticed.Afterall,anounceofprevention,tempered
by understanding, is worth a pound of cure, especially when you are trying to keep your
systems running optimally. So we hope that even experienced Oracle users will find
valuable information in every chapter of this book—information that will save hours in
their busy professional lives.
Our guiding principle has been to present this information compactly without making
it overly tutorial. We think that the most important ratio in a book like this is the amount
ofusefulinformationyougetbalancedagainstthetimeittakesyoutogetit.Wesincerely
hope this volume provides a terrific bang for the buck.
About the Fifth Edition (Oracle Database 12c)
The first four editions of this book, covering the Oracle Database up to the Oracle
Database 11g version, have been well received, and we were pleased that O’Reilly Media
agreed to publish this fifth edition. In this update to the book, we have added informa‐
tion describing the latest release of Oracle, Oracle Database 12c.
For the most part, the task of preparing this fifth edition was fairly clear-cut, because
theOracleDatabase12creleaseisprimarilyincremental—thenewfeaturesintherelease
extend existing features of the database. We’ve added the information about these ex‐
tensions to each of the chapters, wherever this information was most relevant and ap‐
propriate. However, manageability has greatly changed over the release, and is reflected
in many of the most significant changes to content.
Preface | xv

Of course, this fifth edition cannot possibly cover everything that is new in Oracle
Database 12c. In general, we have followed the same guidelines for this edition that we
did for the first four editions. If a new feature does not seem to be broadly important,
we have not necessarily delved into it. As with earlier editions, we have not tried to
produce a laundry list of every characteristic of the Oracle Database. In addition, if a
feature falls into an area outside the scope of the earlier editions, we have not attempted
to cover it in this edition unless it has assumed new importance.
Structure of This Book
This book is divided into 15 chapters and 2 appendixes, as follows:
Chapter 1 describes the range of Oracle Databases and data stores and Fusion Middle‐
ware products and features and provides a brief history of Oracle and relational data‐
bases.
Chapter 2 describes the core concepts and structures (e.g., files, processes, pluggable
databases, and so on) that are the architectural basis of Oracle.
Chapter 3 briefly describes how to install Oracle and how to configure, start up, and
shut down the database and Oracle Net.
Chapter 4 summarizes the various datatypes supported by Oracle and introduces the
Oracle objects (e.g., tables, views, indexes). This chapter also covers query optimization.
Chapter 5 provides an overview of managing an Oracle system, including the advisors
available as part of Oracle Database 12c, the role of Oracle Enterprise Manager (EM)
12c, information lifecycle management through the use of heat maps, and working with
Oracle Support.
Chapter 6 provides an overview of basic Oracle security, Oracle’s security options, basic
auditing capabilities, and ways you can leverage database security and audit options to
meet compliance needs.
Chapter 7 describes the main issues relevant to Oracle performance—especially the
major performance characteristics of disk, memory, and CPU tuning. It describes how
Oracle Enterprise Manager, the Automatic Workload Repository, and the Automatic
Database Diagnostic Monitor are used for performance monitoring and management,
as well as parallelism and memory management in Oracle.
Chapter 8 describes the basic principles of multiuser concurrency (e.g., transactions,
locks, integrity problems) and explains how Oracle handles concurrency.
Chapter 9 describes online transaction processing (OLTP) in Oracle.
Chapter 10 describes the basic principles of data warehouses and business intelligence,
Oracle Database features used for such solutions, the role of Hadoop in Big Data solu‐
xvi | Preface

tions, Oracle’s business intelligence tools, relevant options such as OLAP and data min‐
ing, how Oracle’s engineered systems fulfill key roles such as in infrastructure, and best
practices.
Chapter 11 discusses availability concepts, what happens when the Oracle Database
recovers, protecting against system failure, Oracle’s backup and recovery facilities, and
high availability and failover solutions.
Chapter 12 describes your choice of computer architectures, configuration considera‐
tions, and deployment strategies for Oracle, including the array of engineered systems
that support that Oracle Database.
Chapter 13 briefly summarizes the Oracle facilities used in distributed processing in‐
cluding two-phase commits and Oracle replication and data transport offerings.
Chapter 14 describes Oracle’s object-oriented features, Java’s role, Web Services support,
multimedia and text extensions to Oracle, XML DB support, spatial capabilities, and
the extensibility framework.
Chapter 15 describes cloud definitions, the Oracle Database in the cloud, and the role
of APEX.
Appendix A lists the Oracle Database 12c changes described in this book.
Appendix B lists a variety of additional resources—both online and offline—so you can
do more detailed reading.
Conventions Used in This Book
The following typographical conventions are used in this book:
Italic
Used for file and directory names, emphasis, and the first occurrence of terms
Constant width
Used for code examples and literals
Constant width italic
In code examples, indicates an element (for example, a parameter) that you supply
UPPERCASE
Generally indicates Oracle keywords
lowercase
In code examples, generally indicates user-defined items such as variables
Preface | xvii

This icon indicates a tip, suggestion, or general note. For example, we’ll
tell you if you need to use a particular version of Oracle or if an oper‐
ation requires certain privileges.
This icon indicates a warning or caution. For example, we’ll tell you if
Oracle doesn’t behave as you’d expect or if a particular operation neg‐
atively impacts performance.
Using Code Examples
This book is here to help you get your job done. Though the nature of this book is such
that you will find minimal code, you may use the code in this book in your programs
and documentation. You do not need to contact us for permission unless you’re repro‐
ducingasignificantportionofthecode.Forexample,writingaprogramthatusesseveral
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Acknowledgments
Each of the authors has arrived at this collaboration through a different path, but we
would all like to thank the team at O’Reilly for making this book both possible and a
joy to write. We’d like to thank our first editor for this edition, Ann Spencer, and the
rest of the O’Reilly crew, especially Chris Hearse, the production editor. Also, we’d like
to thank our editor from the first three editions, Debby Russell, who was among the
first to see the value in such a book and who stepped in to perform final editing on the
fifth edition as well. It’s incredible how all of these folks were able to strike the perfect
balance—always there when we needed something, but leaving us alone when we didn’t.
We’re all grateful to each other. Giving birth to a book is a difficult process, but it can
be harrowing when split multiple ways. Everyone hung in there and did their best
throughout this process. We’d also like to give our sincere thanks to the technical re‐
Preface | xix

viewers for the fifth edition of this book: Penny Avril and Arup Nanda. Thanks as well
to reviewers of previous editions that have included Darryl Hurley, Dwayne King, Arup
Nanda, Bert Scalzo, Craig Shallahamer of OraPub, Domenick Ficarella, Jonathan Gen‐
nick, Jenny Gelhausen, and Dave Klein. This crucially important work really enhanced
thevalueofthebookyou’rereading.AndthanksaswelltoLanceAshdownforclarifying
Oracle Database writes.
Rick thanks the incredibly bright and gifted people who have shared their wealth of
knowledge with him over the years, including Bruce Scott, Earl Stahl, Jerry Chang, and
many others. In particular, he thanks his first technical mentor, Ed Hickland, who has
repeatedly spent time explaining to and discussing with him some of the broader and
finer points of database technology.
In subsequent years, Rick has benefitted from a wealth of brilliant co-workers and col‐
leagues, who were always willing to share their views and knowledge, including Graham
Wood,AndrewHoldsworth,TomKyte,andBrynLlewellyn.Inparticular,Rickcherishes
both the expertise and friendship of the marvelous Maria Colgan.
For the later editions of this book, Rick would also like to thank all those colleagues at
Oracle who helped him in his time of need, checking on those last-minute clarifications,
includingJohnLang,BruceLowenthal,AliceWatson,DaveLeroy,SushilKumar,Mugh‐
ees Minhas, Daniela Hansell, and Mark Drake. And a special thank you to Jenny Tsai-
Smith, who always seemed to have the time and knowledge to clear up any Oracle
Database problem. Rick is part of a fantastic team in development at Oracle, whose
members have been a source of advice and friendship. Those members include Mike
Hichwa, Patrick Wolf, Jason Straub, Hilary Farrell, Shakeeb Rahman, Colm Divilly,
Chris Rice, Joel Kalman, and Dom Lindars. And last, but certainly not least, his primary
coauthor, Bob Stackowiak, who has become a good friend over the years of collabora‐
tion.
BobacknowledgesallhisfriendsovertheyearsaroundtheworldatOracleCorporation,
and from earlier stints at IBM, Harris Computer Systems, and the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers. Through personal relationships and social media, they have shared a lot and
provided him with incredible opportunities for learning. At Oracle, he especially thanks
members of Andy Mendelsohn’s team who have always been helpful in providing ma‐
terial ahead of releases, including George Lumpkin, Hermann Baer, Jean-Pierre Dijcks,
Maria Colgan, and many others. Bob and Rick both call out the memory of Mark
Townsend for his key role in Oracle’s database development over the years and whose
talents are missed by all. Bob also extends special thanks to his team in Oracle’s Enter‐
prise Solutions Group, especially Alan Manewitz, Louis Nagode, and Art Licht. His
management continues to recognize the value of such projects, including David O’Neill
and Joe Strada. Paul Cross has served as a mentor over the years. He’d also like to thank
his customers, who have always had the most practical experience using the products
and tools he has worked with and from whom he continues to learn. Finally, collabo‐
xx | Preface

rating on books with Rick Greenwald always makes this process fun and has led to other
memorable experiences including enjoying live performances of Bruce Springsteen to‐
gether.
In early editions of this book, Jonathan thanked many of his professional contacts,
including Murray Golding, Sam Mele, and the Oracle Server Technologies members
and their teams, including Juan Tellez, Ron Weiss, Juan Loaiza, and Carol Colrain for
their help during his years at Oracle. And we thank him for all that he gave us in too
short a life.
Preface | xxi

CHAPTER 1
Introducing Oracle
Where do we start? One of the problems in comprehending a massive product such as
the Oracle Database is getting a good sense of how the product works without getting
lost in the details. This book aims to provide a thorough grounding in the concepts and
technologies that form the foundation of Oracle’s Database Server, currently known as
Oracle Database 12c. The book is intended for a wide range of Oracle Database admin‐
istrators, developers, and users, from the novice to the experienced. It is our hope that
once you have this basic understanding of the product, you’ll be able to connect the dots
when using Oracle’s voluminous feature set, documentation, and the many other books
and publications that describe the database.
Oracle also offers an Application Server and Fusion Middleware, business intelligence
tools, and business applications (the E-Business Suite, PeopleSoft, JD Edwards, Siebel,
Hyperion, and Fusion, among others). Since this book is focused on the database, we
will only touch on these other software products as they relate to specific Oracle Data‐
base topics covered.
This first chapter lays the groundwork for the rest of the book. Of all the chapters, it
covers the broadest range of topics. Most of these topics are discussed later in more
depth, but some of the basics—for example, the brief history of Oracle and the contents
of the different “flavors” of the Oracle Database products—are unique to this chapter.
Overthepast30-plusyears,Oraclegrewfrombeingoneofmanyvendorsthatdeveloped
and sold a database product to being widely recognized as the database market leader.
Although early products were typical of a startup company, the Oracle Database grew
such that its technical capabilities are now often viewed as the most advanced in the
industry. With each database release, Oracle has improved the scalability, functionality,
and manageability of the database.
1

This book is now in its fifth edition. This edition, like earlier editions, required many
changes, since the database has changed a great deal over this time. Highlights of Oracle
releases covered in the many editions of this book include:
• Oracle8(releasedin1997)improvedtheperformanceandscalabilityofthedatabase
and added the ability to create and store objects in the database.
• Oracle8i (released in 1999) added a new twist to the Oracle Database—a combi‐
nation of enhancements that made the Oracle8i Database a focal point in the world
of Internet computing.
• Oracle9i (released in 2001) introduced Real Application Clusters as a replacement
for Oracle Parallel Server and added many management and data warehousing
features.
• Oracle Database 10g (released in 2003) enabled deployment of “grid” computing.
A grid is simply a pool of computers and software resources providing resources
for applications on an as-needed basis. To support this style of computing, Oracle
added the ability to provision CPUs and data. Oracle Database 10g also further
reduced the time, cost, and complexity of database management through the in‐
troduction of self-managing features such as the Automated Database Diagnostic
Monitor, Automated Shared Memory Tuning, Automated Storage Management,
and Automated Disk Based Backup and Recovery.
• Oracle Database 11g (released in 2007) highlighted improvement in self-tuning and
managing capabilities, especially in the areas of Automatic Memory Management,
partitioning, and security. The lifecycle of database change management was ex‐
tended within Oracle’s Enterprise Manager with improved diagnosis capabilities
and linkage to Oracle Support via a Support Workbench. This version also featured
improved online patching capabilities. In 2008, Oracle announced that its first en‐
gineered system, the Oracle Exadata Database Machine, would support Oracle Da‐
tabase 11g Enterprise Edition.
• Oracle Database 12c (released in 2013) introduces a number of deployment, man‐
ageability, and rapid provisioning features especially useful in private and public
cloud computing environments where hardware infrastructure and the database are
delivered as a service over a network, building upon capabilities introduced in pre‐
vious releases. Typically, many databases are deployed and managed using this
model, so Oracle introduced a capability in the database to share services by defin‐
ing multitenant container and pluggable databases.
Before we dive into further details, let’s step back and look at how databases evolved,
how we arrived at the relational model, and Oracle’s history. We’ll then take an initial
look at Oracle Database packaging and key Oracle features today.
2 | Chapter 1: Introducing Oracle

The Evolution of the Relational Database
The relational database concept was described first by Dr. Edgar F. Codd in an IBM
research publication entitled “System R4 Relational” that was published in 1970. Ini‐
tially,itwasunclearwhetheranysystembasedonthisconceptcouldachievecommercial
success. Nevertheless, a company named Software Development Laboratories Rela‐
tional Software came into being in 1977 and released a product named Oracle V.2 as the
world’s first commercial relational database within a couple of years (also changing its
name to Relational Software, Incorporated). By 1985, Oracle could claim more than
1,000 relational database customer sites. Curiously, IBM would not embrace relational
technology in a commercial product until the Query Management Facility in 1983.
Why did relational database technology grow to become the de facto database technol‐
ogy?Alookbackatpreviousdatabasetechnologymayhelptoexplainthisphenomenon.
Database management systems were first defined in the 1960s to provide a common
organizationalframeworkfordataformerlystoredinindependentfiles.In1964,Charles
Bachman of General Electric proposed a network model with data records linked to‐
gether, forming intersecting sets of data, as shown on the left in Figure 1-1. This work
formed the basis of the CODASYL Data Base Task Group. Meanwhile, the North Amer‐
ican Aviation’s Space Division and IBM developed a second approach based on a hier‐
archicalmodelin1965.Inthismodel,dataisrepresentedastreestructuresinahierarchy
of records, as shown on the right in Figure 1-1. IBM’s product based on this model was
brought to market in 1969 as the Information Management System (IMS). As recently
as 1980, almost all database implementations used either the network or hierarchical
approach. Although several competitors sold similar technologies around 1980, only
IMS could still be found in many large organizations just 20 years later.
Figure 1-1. Network model (left) and hierarchical model (right)
The Evolution of the Relational Database | 3

Relational Basics
The relational database uses the concept of linked two-dimensional tables consisting of
rows and columns, as shown in Figure 1-2. Unlike the hierarchical approach, no pre‐
determined relationship exists between distinct tables. This means that data needed to
link together the different areas of the network or hierarchical model need not be de‐
fined. Because relational users don’t need to understand the representation of data in
storage to retrieve it (many such business users create ad hoc queries), ease of access
combinedwithimprovedflexibilitytochangedatamodelstoadapttochangingbusiness
needs and helped popularize the relational model.
Figure 1-2. Relational model with two tables
Relational programming is nonprocedural and operates on a set of rows at a time. In a
master-detail relationship between tables, there can be one or many detail rows for each
individual master row, yet the statements used to access, insert, or modify the data
simplydescribethesetofresults.Inmanyearlyrelationaldatabases,dataaccessrequired
the use of procedural languages that worked one record at a time. Because of this set
orientation, programs access more than one record in a relational database more easily.
Relational databases can be used more productively to extract value from large groups
of data.
The contents of the rows in Figure 1-2 are sometimes referred to as records. A column
within a row is referred to as a field. Tables are stored in a database schema, which is a
logical organizational unit within the database. Other logical structures in the schema
often include the following:
Views
Provide a single view of data derived from one or more tables or views. The view
is an alternative interface to the data, which is stored in the underlying table(s) that
makes up the view.

Sequences
Provide unique numbers, typically used for column values.
Stored procedures
Contain logical modules that can be called from programs.
Synonyms
Provide alternative names for database objects.
Indexes
Provide faster access to table rows.
Database links
Provide links between distributed databases.
The relationships between columns in different tables are typically described through
the use of keys, which are implemented through referential integrity constraints and
their supporting indexes. For example, in Figure 1-2, you can establish a link between
the DEPTNO column in the second table, which is called a foreign key, to the DEPTNO
column in the first table, which is referred to as the primary key of that table.
Finally, even if you define many different indexes for a table, you don’t have to under‐
stand them or manage the data they contain. Relational databases include a query op‐
timizer that chooses whether to use indexes, and the best way to use those indexes, to
access the data for any particular query.
The relational approach lent itself to the Structured Query Language (SQL). SQL was
initially defined over a period of years by IBM Research, but it was Oracle Corporation
that first introduced it to the market in 1979. SQL was noteworthy at the time for being
the only language needed for relational databases since you could use SQL:
• For queries (using a SELECT statement)
• As a Data Manipulation Language or DML (using INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
statements)
• As a Data Definition Language or DDL (using CREATE or DROP statements when
adding or deleting tables)
• To set privileges for users or groups (using GRANT or REVOKE statements)
Today, SQL contains many extensions and follows ANSI/ISO standards that define its
basic syntax.
How Oracle Grew
In 1983, Relational Software Incorporated was renamed Oracle Corporation to avoid
confusion with a competitor named Relational Technologies Incorporated. At this time,
the developers made a critical decision to create a portable version of Oracle written in
The Evolution of the Relational Database | 5

C (version 3) that ran not only on Digital VAX/VMS systems, but also on Unix and
other platforms. By 1985, Oracle claimed the ability to run on more than 30 platforms.
Some of these platforms are historical curiosities today, but others remain in use. (In
addition to VMS, early operating systems supported by Oracle included IBM MVS, HP/
UX, IBM AIX, and Sun’s Solaris version of Unix.) Oracle was able to leverage and helped
accelerate the growth in popularity of minicomputers and Unix servers in the 1980s.
Today, this portability also includes releases for operating systems such as Microsoft
Windows and Linux.
In addition to multiple platform support, other core Oracle messages from the
mid-1980s still ring true today, including complementary software development and
decision support (business intelligence) tools, ANSI standard SQL across platforms,
and connectivity over standard networks. Since the mid-1980s, the database deploy‐
ment model has evolved from single database and application servers to client/server,
then to Internet computing implemented using browser-based clients accessing data‐
base applications, and now to private and public cloud deployment where the Oracle
Database might be deployed as a service (DBaaS) or used as the foundation for a Cloud
Platform as a Service (PaaS).
Oracle introduced many innovative technical features to the database as computing and
deployment models changed (from offering the first distributed database to supporting
the first Java Virtual Machine in the core database engine to enabling grid computing
andprovidingneededservicesforpublicandprivateClouddeployment).Oracleoffered
support for emerging standards such as XML, important in deploying a Service-
Oriented Architecture (SOA). Table 1-1 presents a short list of Oracle’s major product
introductions.
Table 1-1. History of Oracle introductions
Year Feature
1977 Software Development Laboratories founded by Larry Ellison, Bob Miner, Ed Oates
1979 Oracle version 2: first commercially available relational database to use SQL
1983 Oracle version 3: single code base for Oracle across multiple platforms
1984 Oracle version 4: with portable toolset, read consistency
1986 Oracle version 5 generally available: client/server Oracle relational database
1987 CASE and 4GL toolset
1988 Oracle Financial Applications built on relational database
1989 Oracle6 generally available: row-level locking and hot backups
1991 Oracle Parallel Server on massively parallel platforms
1993 Oracle7: with cost-based optimizer
1994 Oracle version 7.1 generally available: parallel operations including query, load, and create index
1996 Universal database with extended SQL via cartridges, thin client, and application server
1997 Oracle8 generally available: object-relational and Very Large Database (VLDB) features

Year Feature
1999 Oracle8i generally available: Java Virtual Machine (JVM) in the database
2000 Oracle9i Application server generally available: Oracle tools integrated in middle tier
2001 Oracle9i Database Server generally available: Real Application Clusters, OLAP, and data mining in the database
2003 Oracle Database 10g and Oracle Application Server 10g: “grid” computing enabled; Oracle Database 10g automates key
management tasks
2005 Oracle completes PeopleSoft acquisition and announces Siebel acquisition, thus growing ERP and CRM applications and
business intelligence offerings
2007 Oracle Database 11g: extension of self-managing capabilities and end-to-end database change management; Hyperion
acquisition adds database-independent OLAP and Financial Performance Management applications; Oracle Virtual
Machine (Oracle VM) announced
2008 Oracle acquires BEA Systems (middleware software); Oracle’s first engineered system, Oracle Exadata, is introduced for
data warehousing
2009 Oracle Exadata featuring Smart Flash Cache is enhanced as a platform for all Oracle Database use cases, including data
warehousing, transaction processing, and database consolidation
2010 Oracle completes Sun acquisition; Oracle Exalogic Elastic Cloud engineered system introduced
2011 Oracle Database Appliance, SuperCluster, Exalytics (for business intelligence), and Big Data Appliance are introduced;
Fusion Applications announced as available
2012 Oracle announces Oracle Database 12c: support for public and private Cloud deployment with multitenant container
databases, pluggable databases, and improved management capabilities highlighted; Oracle continues acquisitions of
Cloud-based applications solutions
2013 Oracle Database 12c generally available
The Oracle Database Family
Oracle Database 12c is the most recent version of the Oracle Relational Database Man‐
agement System (RDBMS) family of products that share common source code. The
family of database products includes:
Oracle Enterprise Edition
Flagship database product and main topic of this book, aimed at large-scale im‐
plementations that require Oracle’s full suite of database features and options. For
advanced security, only the Enterprise Edition features Virtual Private Database
(VPD) support, Fine-Grained Auditing, and options including the Database Vault,
Advanced Security, and Label Security. Data warehousing features only in Enter‐
prise Edition include compression of repeating stored data values, cross-platform
transportable tablespaces, Information Lifecycle Management (ILM), materialized
views query rewrite, and the Partitioning, OLAP, and Advanced Analytics Options.
High-availability features unique to the Enterprise Edition include Data Guard and
Flashback Database, Flashback Table, and Flashback Transaction Query. The En‐
terprise Edition is the database version supported on Oracle’s engineered systems.
The Oracle Database Family | 7

Oracle Standard Edition
Oracle’s database intended for small- and medium-sized implementations. This
database can be deployed onto server configurations containing up to 4 CPUs on
a single system or on a cluster using Real Application Clusters (RAC).
Oracle Standard Edition One
Designed for small implementations, this database can support up to 2 CPUs and
does not support RAC. The feature list is otherwise similar to Oracle Standard
Edition.
Oracle Personal Edition
Database used by single developers to develop code for implementation on Oracle
multiuser databases. It requires a license, unlike Express Edition, but gives you the
full Enterprise Edition set of functionality.
Oracle Express Edition
Entry-level database from Oracle available at no charge for Windows and Linux
and unsupported as a product, this database is limited to 1 GB of memory and 4
GBofdisk.ItprovidesasubsetofthefunctionalityinStandardEditionOne,lacking
features such as a Java Virtual Machine, server-managed backup and recovery, and
Automatic Storage Management. Although this database is not manageable by
Oracle Enterprise Manager, you can deploy it for and manage multiple users
through the Oracle Application Express administration interface.
Oracle releases new versions of the flagship database every three to five years. New
releases typically follow themes and introduce a significant number of new features. In
recent releases, these themes are indicated in the product version naming. In 1998,
Oracle announced Oracle8i, with the “i” added to denote new functionality supporting
Internet deployment. Oracle9i continued using this theme. In 2003, Oracle announced
Oracle Database 10g, with the “g” denoting Oracle’s focus on emerging grid computing
deployment models, then announced Database 11g with further improvements in man‐
ageability in 2007. In 2012, Oracle announced Oracle Database 12c, the “c” denoting
new database functionality supporting Cloud deployment. In between major versions,
Oracle issues point releases that also add features but are more typically focused on
improvements to earlier capabilities.
The terms “Oracle,” “Oracle Database,” “database,” “Oracle8,” “Oracle8i,” “Oracle9i,”
“Oracle Database 10g,” “Oracle Database 11g,” and “Oracle Database 12c” might appear
to be used somewhat interchangeably in this book because Oracle Database 12c includes
all the features of previous versions. When we describe a new feature that was first made
available specifically in a certain release, we’ve tried to note that fact to avoid confusion,
recognizing that many of you maintain older releases of Oracle. We typically use the
simple terms “Oracle” and “database” when describing features that are common to all
these releases.

Oracle Development has developed releases using a single source code model for the
core family of database products since 1983. While each database implementation in‐
cludes some operating-system-specific source code at very low levels in order to better
leveragespecificplatforms,theinterfacesthatusers,developers,andadministratorsdeal
with for each version are consistent. This development strategy enables Oracle to focus
on implementing new features only once across its product set.
The introduction of Oracle’s engineered systems, Exadata storage, and the Exadata
Storage Server software enabled Oracle to optimize the database for specific hardware
server and storage configurations. Today, Oracle offers a family of engineered systems
capable of running the Oracle Database. The Oracle Exadata Database Machine was the
most popular engineered system as this edition of the book was published. The Oracle
SuperCluster is a general purpose platform also featuring Exadata storage (and some
general purpose storage) and is designed to run both the Oracle Database and Oracle
Fusion Middleware. The Oracle Database Appliance is a two-node configuration de‐
signed to be a smaller departmental server. The Exalogic Elastic Cloud system is opti‐
mally designed to run Oracle’s Fusion Middleware and often is deployed as a middle-
tier server in front of Exadata, but occasionally is deployed with the Oracle Database
also running on it. Neither the Oracle Database Appliance nor Exalogic Elastic Cloud
support Exadata storage.
Summary of Oracle Database Features
The Oracle Database is a broad and deep product. To give some initial perspective, we
begin describing Oracle with a high-level overview of the basic areas of functionality.
By the end of this portion of the chapter, you will have orientation points to guide you
in exploring the topics in the rest of this book.
To give some structure to the broad spectrum of the Oracle Database, we’ve organized
our initial discussion of these features and complementary software components into
the following sections:
• Database application development features
• Database connection features
• The role of Oracle Fusion Middleware
• Distributed database features
• Data movement features
• Database performance features
• Managing the Oracle Database
• Database security features
Summary of Oracle Database Features | 9

• Database development tools
In this chapter, we’ve included a lot of terminology and rather abbre‐
viated descriptions of features. Oracle is a huge system. Our goal here
is to quickly familiarize you with the full range of features in the sys‐
tem and introduce the concepts we are covering in this book. Subse‐
quent chapters will provide additional details about these features and
concepts. Obviously, though, whole books have been written about
some of the feature areas summarized here, so this book is often used
as a starting point in understanding where to go next.
Database Application Development Features
The Oracle Database is typically used to store and retrieve data through applications.
The features of the Oracle Database and related products described in this section are
used to create applications. We’ve divided the discussion in the following subsections
into database programming and database extensibility options. Later in this chapter, we
willdescribeOracle’sdevelopmenttoolsandOracle’sotherembeddeddatabaseproducts
that meet unique applications deployment needs.
Database Programming
All flavors of the Oracle Database include languages and interfaces that enable pro‐
grammers to access and manipulate the data in the database. Database programming
features usually interest developers who are creating Oracle-based applications to be
sold commercially, or IT organizations building applications unique to their businesses.
Data in Oracle can be accessed using SQL, SQL/XML, XQuery, and WebDAV. Programs
deployed within the database can be written in PL/SQL and Java.
SQL
The ANSI standard Structured Query Language (SQL) provides basic functions for data
manipulation, transaction control, and record retrieval from the database. Most busi‐
ness users of the database interact with Oracle through applications or business intel‐
ligence tools that provide interfaces hiding the underlying SQL and its complexity.
PL/SQL
Oracle’s PL/SQL, a procedural language extension to SQL, is commonly used to imple‐
ment program logic modules for applications. PL/SQL can be used to build stored pro‐
cedures and triggers, looping controls, conditional statements, and error handling. You
can compile and store PL/SQL procedures in the database. You can also execute
PL/SQL blocks via SQL*Plus, an interactive tool provided with all versions of Oracle.
PL/SQL program units can be precompiled. Additionally, Oracle supplies a lot of ad‐

ditional functionality using PL/SQL programs included with the database, referred to
as packages, which can be called from standard PL/SQL code.
Java
Oracle8i introduced the use of Java as a procedural language and a Java Virtual Machine
(JVM) in the database (originally called JServer). The JVM includes support for Java
stored procedures, methods, triggers, Enterprise Java Beans (EJBs), CORBA, IIOP, and
HTTP.
The inclusion of Java within the Oracle Database allows Java developers to leverage their
skills as Oracle applications developers. Java applications can be deployed in the client,
Application Server, or database, depending on what is most appropriate. Current Oracle
Database versions include a just-in-time Java compiler that is enabled by default. The
importance of Java to Oracle is illustrated by the acquisition of Sun by Oracle in 2010
and continued development efforts around Java since.
Oracle and Web Services
As of Oracle Database 11g, the Database can serve as a Web Services provider imple‐
mentedthroughXMLDBinthedatabase.WebservicesenableSQLorXQuerytosubmit
queries and receive results as XML, or invoke PL/SQL functions or package functions
and to receive results. XQuery provides support for the JSR standard and is further
optimized for performance in the Oracle Database. As of Oracle Database 12c, XQuery
updates are supported. You can also define RESTful Web Services to access both SQL
and PL/SQL in an Oracle Database through the APEX Listener, described in Chapter 15.
Large objects
The Oracle Database has been able to store large objects since Oracle8 added the capa‐
bility to store multiple LOB columns in each table. Oracle Database 10g essentially
removed the space limitation on large objects. Oracle Database 11g greatly improved
the performance of query and insert operations when used with LOBs through the
introduction of SecureFiles. SecureFiles serve as a place to securely store LOBs in the
Oracle Database instead of in filesystems while delivering performance similar to that
experienced when LOBs are stored in filesystems. Transparent Data Encryption, a se‐
curity feature described below and later in the book, is supported for SecureFiles LOB
data.
Object-oriented programming
Support of object structures has existed since Oracle8i to provide support for an object-
orientedapproachtoprogramming.Forexample,programmerscancreateuser-defined
data types, complete with their own methods and attributes. Oracle’s object support
includes a feature called Object Views through which object-oriented programs can
make use of relational data already stored in the database. You can also store objects in
the database as varying arrays (VARRAYs), nested tables, or index-organized tables
(IOTs).
Database Application Development Features | 11

Third-generation languages (3GLs)
Programmers can interact with the Oracle Database from C, C++, Java, or COBOL by
embedding SQL in those applications. Prior to compiling the applications using a plat‐
form’s native compilers, you must run the embedded SQL code through a precompiler.
The precompiler replaces SQL statements with library calls the native compiler can
accept. Oracle provides support for this capability through optional “programmer”
precompilers for C and C++ using Pro*C and for COBOL using Pro*COBOL. In recent
Oracle versions, Oracle features SQLJ, a precompiler for Java that replaces SQL state‐
ments embedded in Java with calls to a SQLJ runtime library, also written in Java.
Database drivers
All versions of Oracle include database drivers that allow applications to access Oracle
via ODBC (the Open Database Connectivity standard) or JDBC (the Java Database
Connectivity open standard). Also available are Oracle Data Access Connectors
(ODAC) for .NET. ODAC provides a data provider for .NET, providers for ASP.NET
and .NET stored procedures, and tools for developers using Visual Studio.
The Oracle Call Interface
If you’re an experienced programmer seeking optimum performance or a finer level of
control, you may choose to define SQL statements within host-language character
strings and then explicitly parse the statements, bind variables for them, and execute
them using the Oracle Call Interface (OCI). OCI is a much more detailed interface that
requires more programmer time and effort to create and debug. Developing an appli‐
cation that uses OCI can be time-consuming, but the added functionality and incre‐
mental performance gains could make spending the extra time worthwhile.
In certain programming scenarios, OCI improves application performance or adds
functionality. For instance, in high-availability implementations in which multiple sys‐
tems share disks using Real Application Clusters, you could write programs using OCI
that allow users to reattach to a second server transparently if the first fails. As of Oracle
Database12c,theTransactionGuardAPItothedatabasecanbeusedinordertopreserve
guaranteed commits where data is accessed via OCI (or alternatively via JDBC thin
drivers, OOCI, or ODP.NET).
National Language Support
National Language Support (NLS) provides character sets and associated functionality,
such as date and numeric formats, for a variety of languages. The initial release of Oracle
Database 12c features Unicode 6.1 support. All data may be stored as Unicode, or select
columns may be incrementally stored as Unicode. UTF-8 encoding and UTF-16 en‐
coding provide support for more than 57 languages and 200 character sets. Extensive
localization is provided (for example, for data formats), and customized localization
can be added through the Oracle Locale Builder. Oracle includes a Globalization Toolkit
for creating applications that will be used in multiple languages.

Database Extensibility
The Internet and corporate intranets have created a growing demand for storage and
manipulation of nontraditional data types within the database. There is a need for ex‐
tensions to the standard functionality of a database for storing and manipulating image,
audio,video,spatial,andtimeseriesinformation.Thesecapabilitiesareenabledthrough
extensions to standard SQL.
Oracle Multimedia
Oracle Multimedia (formerly interMedia) provides text manipulation and additional
image, audio, video, and locator functions in the database. Oracle Multimedia offers the
following major capabilities:
• The text portion of Multimedia (Oracle Text) can identify the gist of a document
by searching for themes and key phrases within the document.
• The image portion of Multimedia can store and retrieve images of various formats;
since Oracle Database 11g, DICOM medical images are supported in the database.
• The audio and video portions of Multimedia can store and retrieve audio and video
clips, respectively.
• The locator portion of Multimedia can retrieve data that includes spatial coordinate
information.
Oracle Spatial and Graph Option
The Spatial and Graph Option is available for the Oracle Enterprise Edition. This option
canbeusedtooptimizethedisplayandretrievalofdatalinkedtocoordinates,determine
distance, and compute other geometric values such as area. It is often is used in the
development of spatial information systems by vendors of Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) products. Oracle Database 12c added support of named graphs in the
database as defined by the Worldwide Web Consortium (W3C) in its Resource De‐
scription Framework (RDF).
XML DB
Oracle added native XML data type support to the Oracle9i Database with XML and
SQL interchangeability for searching. The structured XML object is held natively in
object relational storage, meeting the W3C DOM specification. XML standards sup‐
ported include XML Schema, XPath (syntax for searching in SQL), XQuery, XSLT, and
DOM. XMLIndex can be used with all forms of XML data in the database. As of Oracle
Database 12c, XML DB is a mandatory part of the database and cannot be uninstalled.
Database Application Development Features | 13

Database Connection Features
The connection between the client and the database server is a key component of the
overall architecture. The database connection is responsible for supporting all com‐
munications between an application and the data it uses. Database users connect to the
database by establishing a network connection. You can also link database servers via
network connections. Oracle provides a number of features to establish connections
between users and the database and/or between database servers, as described in the
following subsections.
Oracle Net Services
Oracle’s Net Services provide the interface between networks and distributed Oracle
Databases establishing database sessions for purposes of distributed processing. You
can use Oracle Net Services over a wide variety of network protocols including
TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, and WebDAV. The Services include Oracle Net, used to establish
sessions, and the Oracle Database Server Listener. Client requests can be handled
through dedicated or shared servers.
Oracle Internet Directory
The Oracle Internet Directory (OID) is an LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Pro‐
tocol) directory and supports Oracle Net and other LDAP-enabled protocols. Database
supportfirstappearedinOracle8iandreplacedOracleNames,whichwasusedtoenable
user connections to an Oracle Database server without having a client-side configura‐
tion file. The directory services are provided by the Oracle Fusion Middleware Identity
Management platform.
Oracle Connection Manager
Each connection to the database takes up valuable network resources, which can impact
the overall performance of a database application. Oracle’s Connection Manager
(CMAN), illustrated in Figure 1-3, reduces the number of Oracle Net client network
connections to the database through the use of concentrators, which provide connection
multiplexing to implement multiple connections over a single network connection.
Connection multiplexing provides the greatest benefit when there are a large number
of active users.

Figure 1-3. Concentrators with Connection Managers for a large number of users
You can also use the Connection Manager to provide multiprotocol connectivity if you
still have some clients and servers not using TCP/IP. Oracle Database 10g first intro‐
duced the dynamic Connection Manager configuration, enabling the changing of
CMAN parameters without shutting down the CMAN process.
The Role of Oracle Fusion Middleware
The growing popularity of Internet and intranet applications in the late 1990s led to a
change in deployment from client/server (with fat clients running a significant piece of
theapplication)toathree-tierarchitecture(withabrowsersupplyingeverythingneeded
for a thin client). Hence, middleware is an important part of any database connection
strategy discussion. Oracle’s WebLogic Server enables deployment of the middle tier in
a three-tier solution for web-based applications, component-based applications, and
enterprise application integration. Oracle WebLogic Server is a key part of Oracle’s Fu‐
sion Middleware, replacing Oracle’s earlier generation Internet Application Server, and
is a component of Oracle’s Cloud Application Foundation.
Other Fusion Middleware components address transaction management, data integra‐
tion, business process management, business intelligence, identity management,
service-oriented architectures (SOA), and portal, social, and content platforms (Web‐
Center). We’ll introduce those after first describing the WebLogic Server.
The Role of Oracle Fusion Middleware | 15

Oracle’s WebLogic Server
The Oracle WebLogic Server comes in two editions, a Standard Edition and an Enter‐
prise Edition. Both editions include support for the latest Java Enterprise Edition (EE)
specification. At the time this edition of the book was published, the WebLogic Server
was fully Java EE 6 compatible with the following: JSF 2.0, Servlet 3.0, EJB 3.1, Java
Persistence API (JPA) 2.0, CDI 1.0, JAX-RS 1.1, and Java Bean Validation 1.0. Reference
implementations used include the EclipseLink JPA and Jersey 1.1. (Oracle also offers an
open source application server named Oracle GlassFish that is based on the Java EE 6
specification but not based upon the WebLogic Server—it is often positioned by Oracle
as more of a lightweight platform and is less likely to appear where Oracle Databases
are deployed as enterprise class solutions.)
The WebLogic Server Standard Edition includes the Hotspot and JRockit Java Virtual
Machines (JVMs). Supported development and testing environments include:
TopLink
TopLink provides a Java persistence framework that includes support for Object-
Relation Mapping with the JPA, Object-XML Binding with JAXB and SDO, and
Database Web Services for data access using JAX-WS. It can be used to link Java
objects to the Oracle Database via JDBC such that the Java developer need not build
SQL calls or face broken Java applications resulting from database schema changes.
Application Development Framework (ADF)
ADF is built upon the Enterprise Java platform and provides infrastructure and
developmentframeworkforModelViewController(MVC)layersofanapplication.
JDeveloper
JDeveloper is Oracle’s Java Integrated Development Environment (IDE) for the
Oracle Database and Fusion Middleware.
Classloader Analysis Tool (CAT)
CAT in the WebLogic Server is used for finding Java class and library conflicts.
Other development environments
Oracle provides Eclipse plug-ins and support for the NetBeans IDE, both of which
are open source Java EE development offerings. WebLogic Server also provides a
Maven plug-in for testing and development and can support and leverage Spring
applications.
For deployment, the WebLogic Server Standard Edition features an administration
console with a change center, a WebLogic Diagnostic Framework (WLDF), and support
for command line and scripting control.

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‘So I was—to get half an hour alone with you,’ he announced
bluntly, and saw the ghost of a blush creep up under her skin. He
wanted simply to take her in his arms without more ado. Instead, he
sat down close to the rock, plunged his hands in the heather, and
leaned towards her.
‘I was trying to tell you last night. Didn’t you understand?’
‘N-no. I thought the music and—the sentiment had rather carried
you away.’
‘It was you who carried me away. The music was a kind of safety-
valve, that’s all.’ He leaned still nearer. ‘Bel—is there a ghost of a
chance for me? Is it sheer conceit and impertinence on my part to
ask—so soon?’
‘No—oh no.’ And suddenly she covered her face as if the intensity
of his gaze affected her like strong sunlight.
He was silent a moment, watching her and crushing the heather in
his strong fingers. Then, very gently, he laid a hand on her knee.
‘What is it? Tell me. I must know.’
At that she dropped her hands. By chance or design, one of them
fell on his own and rested there. The light contact sent electric thrills
up his arm.
‘That’s just it,’ she said with her slow smile. ‘You must know. But
we neither of us do—yet. It’s been a wonderful fortnight. And if I
haven’t travelled quite so fast or so far as you, that doesn’t mean
⸺’
‘Of course it doesn’t. I’m not such a conceited ass as to suppose
you could fall in love with me at sight. But now I’ve spoken—isn’t
there any response?’
‘Haven’t you felt any?’ she asked lightly, and the hand that rested
on his moved in a just perceptible caress.
‘For God’s sake don’t play with me!’ he broke out, half angry
again. ‘I’m in deadly earnest.’

‘I know. That’s just why one of us must try to keep a cool head.’
‘Nonsense! You’re simply fencing. And you haven’t answered my
question.’
‘I’m trying to. But I’m half afraid ... to let myself go. No—don’t!’
She warded him off with a gesture, but deliberately replaced her
hand over his. ‘It’s too sudden altogether. Wouldn’t it be wiser—for
both of us—to wait a little? You don’t really know me one bit.’
He bowed his head and kissed the fingers that covered his own. ‘I
know I love you,’ he said simply, his deep voice low and controlled.
‘And if you can say the same, that’s enough for me. The rest will be
an enchanted voyage of discovery.’
‘Voyages of discovery are rather risky things,’ she reminded him.
‘And sometimes—they end in smoke. You see, you’re not just
anyone. I’m outside your world; and—your mother doesn’t like me.’
‘Nonsense,’ he said again, with less conviction than before.
‘It isn’t. I’m sure she wants you to marry Miss Melrose. And I
thought at first—you seem very intimate.’
‘Naturally. Our intimacy began when she was eight and I was
twelve.’ He spoke looking out across the stream. Something in him
winced at her allusion to Sheila in that connection. But it was only
fair on her to explain things; and he forced himself to proceed. ‘Her
people are our nearest neighbours in Hampshire. Her mother’s the
sort of person who subsists chiefly on fads and philanthropy—the
kind of philanthropy that makes you abominate charity and all its
works. When we lost ... Ailsa, my little sister, Mother sort of annexed
Sheila, unofficially. But that doesn’t imply—that she expects me to
do likewise. We’re devoted to her—both of us. She’s a splendid little
person;’ he turned now and spoke with greater naturalness and
warmth. ‘Not very easy to know. But real, right through. You’re
bound to love her. There—are you satisfied?’ Without warning he
slipped an arm round her. ‘Will you give me my answer now?’

He felt her yield under pressure of his hand: then, with a sudden
enchanting simplicity, she lifted her face to his⸺
Presently she sighed; pushed him from her a little and looked
steadily into his eyes—blue, like her own, but a deeper, tenderer
shade, shot through with fine radiations of orange. Hers seemed still
to hold a question. His were purely exultant.
‘Darling, we’ve done it now,’ he said under his breath.
‘Yes. I suppose—we have,’ she answered in the same key.
‘Suppose? You’re not going back on things, after that. Next
question is—when will you marry me? Next week?’
Her flush, that had died down, mounted again, clear carmine,
beautiful to see. ‘Oh, Mark! Give me a few minutes to realise it all.
You’re so impatient. Such a boy. You make me feel ... ages old’⸺
‘Look here, I can’t have you talking that sort of rot,’ he protested;
incorrigibly blunt, even in love. ‘It’s morbid sentimentalism. You see,
I’m the son of a mother who doesn’t know how to feel old at fifty.
“Boy,” indeed! You’re a mere child yourself—the dearest in creation.’
‘No—no. I’m not a child.’ Her emphatic protest rang true. ‘Perhaps
your mother has kept the bloom on life. Mine has never had any
bloom on it, worth mentioning. I was reared in a groove; a very
virtuous groove; and ... I didn’t fit. I wanted to feel and know and
live; to be something more than a vegetable in a Wiltshire village. I
knew I had talents of sorts; and I felt, if I could only get away and
have a fair chance, I might achieve something worth doing, or, at
least ... meet a man worth marrying.’ She spoke looking away from
him across the sun-splashed water. ‘The only brother I cared about
went off to the ends of the earth before he was twenty. If I’d been
old enough to go with him, I wouldn’t be here now!’
‘Poor darling!’ He tightened his hold of her. ‘Dreadful calamity—
isn’t it?—to be here now! But didn’t your mother understand you—
help you?’

‘Poor little mother. She did her best. My unconventional streak
comes from her side. But she’s a very tame edition; watered down
by an early marriage with father, who’s as conventional as a high
road, but unfortunately not as broad! Privately, I think she was half
proud of me and half terrified of what I might do next, like the hen
in Hans Andersen. It was father’s pharisaical attitude towards my
mild vagaries that made me worse, till at last I kicked clean over the
traces, demanded a reasonable allowance (to my amazement, I got
it), and went off to London, to take the world by storm!’
‘To Miss O’Neill?’ Mark queried, a faint anxiety in his tone.
‘Oh no. Harry’s a fairly recent phase. I boarded with a friendly
family in the second-rate theatrical line. That was my chosen road to
achievement. But it didn’t come off—worse luck!’
‘Nor the man worth marrying?’
Her eyes lingered in his. ‘Not to any great extent! They were
rather a mixed lot. And everything seemed in league against me. I
made no headway anywhere. Still—it was experience. It was life.
One was too busy, either hoping or despairing, to be dull. Each new
phase seemed to be the discovery of a new kingdom, till you found
—you hadn’t the key. There was the writing phase, the acting phase,
the American phase⸺’
‘America? Why on earth⸺?’
‘Oh, I don’t know. The chance came. And the notion attracted me.
A bigger, fresher world; experience⸺’
‘You seem mighty keen on experience,’ Mark struck in. ‘D’you
mean knowledge—or simply new sensations?’
She hesitated. ‘After all—new sensations are a form of knowledge.
The most interesting on earth. I’d go almost anywhere to discover
the feel of things⸺’
She stopped short, and Mark frowned into vacancy. For the first
time he caught himself wondering how old was she.

‘I should say better be an ignoramus than a mere connoisseur in
sensations,’ he remarked quietly. ‘But perhaps I missed your
meaning?’
‘Perhaps there wasn’t any meaning to miss! I was talking—rather
at random.’ Then very lightly she leaned her head against his. ‘Mark
—dearest, don’t look like that.’
‘Well, you mustn’t talk like that,’ he said with decision. ‘How long
were you in America?’
‘Eighteen months. Not very pleasant always. But it did me no end
of good. I even went home for a time, full of fine resolves. But the
poor things soon shrivelled up in father’s atmosphere. Then—it was
Harry to the rescue.’
‘And now it’s Mark!’ With sudden fervour he caught her to him. ‘No
more “phases” after this, my Bel. You shall have your freedom and
your chance. I’ll make up to you, all I can, for the bad years. Mother
will love you⸺’
Bel shook her head. ‘She doesn’t like me.’
‘Darling, she doesn’t know you. Mother may have her cranks and
prejudices. But if there’s one woman on earth she can be trusted to
love—it’s my wife. I’ll take you to her to-night.’
‘No—no. To-morrow. To-night—there’s Harry. It’ll be a blow. You
see, when I first came to her, I was so sick—with everything, I swore
I’d never marry. She’s jealous already—’
‘Poor soul!’ Mark said tenderly. ‘But I’m jealous too. I can’t share
you with Miss O’Neill. If it comes to a tug, you’ll have to choose
between us.’
‘I have chosen.’ She spoke with genuine fervour; and leaning
against him, she closed her eyes. So seen, her face looked years
younger and of a saint-like purity. Doubts and qualms seemed
sacrilege. Without a word he kissed her lowered lids, and found, to
his surprise, that her lashes were wet.

THE BATTLEFIELDS OF THE OURCQ.
by edmund gosse, c.b.
In the midst of the delicious Ile de France there lies an open piece
of country roughly bounded by three rivers—the Marne, the Ourcq,
and the Nonette. It is a high plateau, with rolling hills and winding
valleys, fertile and smiling. It forms the northern extremity of the
famous district of Brie, richly productive, the kitchen-garden of Paris,
which lies to the west of it—surprisingly, alarmingly near. This is the
battlefield of the Marne, or more exactly of the Ourcq, and was the
scene, in September 1914, of what will probably be looked upon in
history as one of the most portentous, and most obscurely
enthralling, of the combats of the world. At the courteous invitation
of the French Government, and under the charge of a distinguished
staff-officer, Captain Gabriel Puaux, I paid a visit to these battlefields
towards the end of last September. It was a pilgrimage wholly
objective and sentimental, for I have no pretensions of any kind to a
knowledge of the arts of war. I can but give a visual impression of
what the scenes looked like two years after the stupendous event.
We proceeded in a War Office car almost directly east from the
gates of Paris, along the great high road towards Strasburg. We
reached in some seventeen miles the point, at Claye-Souilly, which
marks the extreme advance of the German armies. Their outposts
came within sight of the village of Claye, where they found the
French awaiting them, but they did not cross the bridge over the
Ourcq canal. It overwhelms the imagination to realise, on the spot,
how close the Germans were to the zone of Paris on this 5th of
September 1914. Civilisation, as observed by the angels in Mr.
Hardy’s drama, might well then seem to hang by a single thread
over the abyss. At this moment, as Mr. Belloc says, ‘at the maximum
of its developed energy, at the highest degree of its momentum,’ the

horrible German machine was first checked and then put out of gear
by the splendid genius of the French Higher Command. We were
eager to see the places where France earned for herself this endless
meed of glory.
Soon after passing Claye we left the high road, and turned north
into a labyrinth of byways. The weather was superb; it was one of
those blue days of late September, which are apt to collect to
themselves all the best beauty of the year in France. From dawn to
sunset not a cloud rose in the sky; there reigned a soft continual
radiance in which the colour of every object took peculiar intensity.
The first hamlet we reached, Charny, brought us to the only
disappointment of our day; for we failed, after much inquiry, to find
the place of death, or even of burial, of the poet Charles Péguy, who
has been the intellectual mascot of this war to France. His gallant
death opened the battle of the Marne. Under the shelter of a slope,
he and his men fought until they were driven into the open. The
officer who led them, and his lieutenant, were soon killed; Péguy
then had no sooner taken the command than a ball struck him full in
the forehead. His death marked the moment of transition between
France in danger and France redeemed. We endeavoured to follow
his track, and we drove through Villeroy, where there is little or
nothing left to see. The rustic calm of these grey hamlets is
unbroken, and at first all that tells us of the tragedy is the
appearance from this point onwards of the flags which mark where
the French soldiers lie.
The dominant feature of these rural battlefields, as we saw them
in the full upland sunshine on that long splendid September day, was
the scattered profusion of little tricolor flags. A long blue horizon,
broken by golden haystacks against the sky, gave a general tone of
greyness to the earth, which, green with oats, livid with beetroot,
brown with parched lucerne, rolled beneath that vast expanse. In
the midst of this harmony of tender hues there stood out sharply the
hard red, white, and blue of the little flags, planted now solitary and
now in clusters, without arrangement or system—the bright flags
flapping and fluttering in the wind as far as the eye could reach, like

charming indigenous flowers, like brilliant ixias on some pale South
African veldt; and each marking the spot where a hero fell. At first, a
stick with a képi on the top of it, or even a cravat or a medal, had to
serve for a provisional mark, but now the little splendid flag seems
to be a permanent memorial. It leaps from a corner of the beetroot
field, from a slope of the harvest, from the turn of an apple-orchard,
from the edge of the road, and in its singleness and in its multitude
alike, it marks this district of the Brie a holy land for ever.
But this is to anticipate a little. We passed north through Iverny,
where there was a great deal of fighting, and then eastwards,
skirting Montyon, where the Germans, pressed hard in their retreat,
threw nine hundred bombs into a duckpond. It was only in the
neighbourhood of the graceful hill of Montyon that the flags began
to be noticed. In Montyon we observed the first ruined cottage; but
it is at Barcy, the next hamlet to the north-east, that the vestiges of
war begin to be numerous. Barcy was the centre of the enemy’s line
on September 6, and this village has not made much effort to
recover from its heavy devastation. These little communes of the Ile
de France possess nothing of the architectural charm which gives so
exquisite and tender a beauty to many a village of Southern
England, but most of them have a single feature, the church. In the
case of Barcy, the broad village street forms an avenue closed, at its
northern end, by the graceful parish church, with its short pointed
spire. This building is violently injured by the bombardment, and
looks as though some monster had bitten large pieces out of it;
while no attempt has yet been made to restore it.
Other buildings at Barcy have been patched or mended. It is
probable that this work of restoration has been delayed by the
uncertainty which has prevailed as to the part which the State was
prepared to take in this rehabilitation. Only ten days after my visit
the French Government, for the first time, assumed the full
responsibility for the rebuilding of private property destroyed in the
war, and now, therefore, so soon as labour is forthcoming, the work
may be expected to go merrily forward. What is involved is so
enormous that the imagination fails to follow the course which it

must take. Up to the present time it has been left to private
enterprise, and as regards these villages of the Marne and Ourcq,
except where the owner has been in a hurry to resume his normal
life, the bombarded villages have been left in a deplorable disarray.
On the open down above Barcy, and quite close to the road, a
peasant was loading a hay-cart with the help of two sullen-looking
men in rough white clothes. These were German prisoners, and we
were moved by curiosity to stop and talk to the peasant. He, from
his half-built rick, replied with stolidity to our questions. ‘He had no
complaints to make of the prisoners,’ he said; ‘that one’, indicating a
burly captive, ‘really works quite well.’ ‘Had they learned to speak
French?’ we asked. ‘Oh no!’ ‘How, then, did the work get on?’ ‘Ah,’
said the master, ‘we show them what they have to do, and they
point at what they want.’ During this, and more, conversation the
prisoners pursued their slow labour, not glancing at us or taking
more notice than cattle would. Strange it seemed, and almost
inhuman, that these Germans should have lived two years in this
sequestered French village and that neither on the one side nor on
the other should there have been the smallest approximation of
language. The peasant ‘had no complaints to make,’ and that was
the sum of their relations.
It was beyond Barcy that the bright flags began to be abundant.
The eye had no longer any need to seek for them; the garden of
death was now lavish of its bouquets of flowers. They were difficult
to distinguish among the beetroot, easy among the oats, insistent on
the grey expanse of stubble. Soon after leaving Barcy, at the corner
where the road turns abruptly south, there is a great cluster of
them, and, always at a little distance off, the plain black crosses
which mark the spots where Germans are buried. Presently we
paused to examine the great monument raised to the memory of
officers and men who fell in the battle of the Ourcq. It is garish in
colour, and too much adorned with symbols in silvered cardboard
and wreaths of arsenical green. No doubt it is provisional; a
memorial in severer taste will ultimately testify to the riper genius of
France. We descend to Chambry, another tiny village of Brie, and

here we meet with a feature of poignant importance. In the great
‘push,’ the retiring Germans occupied the cemetery of Chambry, a
walled enclosure at the summit of the village; this was a position of
great strength, commanding the countryside in every direction.
The Germans used this cemetery as a citadel, and the holes which
they made for their guns in the wall, and the breaches in the
parapet, are still untouched. As their army retired the enemy were
obliged to withdraw from this position, and there was a violent
struggle, in the course of which the French regained the enclosure,
and used it in their turn. They fired with full effect from behind the
granite tombstones. After the battle the whole cemetery was a scene
of ruin and confusion, but of this nothing remains now, except the
gun-holes and breaches in the wall, which have not been repaired.
All the monuments of the dead, on the other hand, have been
replaced with extreme piety, and, the cemetery not having been
nearly full before, its free spaces have been used to hold the tombs
of officers and men who fell in the battle. I noted, among many of
pathetic interest, the stone erected in memory of Lieut. Quiliquini,
who brought his Tunisian troops, the 8th Tirailleurs, from Sfax. There
seemed something which moved the fancy sorrowfully in the idea of
these loyal Africans who fell to ward off the barbarians’ blow at
Paris. Outside the cemetery local patriotism has fitted up, in a barn,
a sort of rough museum of objects found on the battlefields. No
doubt this will be a great attraction when once the tourist
reassembles in his myriads. At present the solitude is broken only by
occasional privileged mourners, ‘brisés d’émotion et de tristesse.’
Proceeding south, we were soon out of the battlefield of the
Ourcq, the frontier being marked at Penchard by another rather
garish monument to the fallen officers. This is the place where three
thousand Morocco troops dashed with memorable fury of attack up
the Penchard hill. At this point the road turns, revealing, far below,
to the left, the clustered houses of Meaux, with its cathedral, seated
in a rich glade across a curve of the silver Marne. The first stage of
our pilgrimage was over, and we paused an hour in the exquisite city
of which Bossuet was the Eagle-bishop. Meaux is celebrated for the

miracle which snatched it from the very jaws of the dog, and
prevented it from becoming another Arras, another Reims. The
catastrophe seemed inevitable, when at six o’clock on September 5 a
patrol of Uhlans appeared in the city. All day long they were close to
Meaux, the population of which had given themselves up for lost
three days before. The bombardment of the cathedral actually
began, but, as by the direct interposition of God, no shell touched
the building, and then, under the pressure of the English army, the
Germans retired altogether. The situation of Meaux, with its row of
great seventeenth-century mills on a stone bridge spanning the river
—mills which still produce immense quantities of flour for Paris—is
as picturesque as that of any provincial city in France, and on the
occasion of our recent visit, with its brimming river, its ancient russet
mills, its noble church, all bathed in the liquid gold of September, it
seemed lovelier than ever before. The only sign of disturbance is the
modern bridge, which the English blew up for strategical purposes,
without hurting the old town in any respect.
In leaving Meaux to return to the battlefields we took a northward
road almost parallel with that by which we had entered, but
somewhat to the east of it, thus crossing the battlefields at a point a
couple of miles farther on in the German retreat. There is little to
see close to Meaux, but presently the graves begin, many of them
gay with dahlias and chrysanthemums. We descended to the village
of Varreddes, which takes a prominent place in the chronicle of the
fighting. The struggle here was very heavy. Varreddes is a rather
large village, built a little distance to the south of the canal of the
Ourcq, which makes at this place a great bend, surrounding the
village on three sides, while the Marne nearly isolates it on the
fourth. Hence it was held by the enemy with determination as long
as possible. At Varreddes the Germans did dreadful things. They
ordered the population of the village to leave it at once, and a group
of seventeen very old men, who were too infirm to move quickly,
they set up against a wall and shot in cold blood. The priest, a
venerable man of seventy-six years, they seized as a hostage, and
killed in their retreat.

Many bright new roofs and walls testify in the village of Varreddes
to the enterprise of the inhabitants, who have ventured to rebuild
their ruined houses. The church, which has some good thirteenth-
century features, seems to be intact. And yet it is precisely at
Varreddes that the scheme of the battle, as it swept from west to
east, is most intelligible to a civilian. The intensity of the fighting is
proved by the profusion of graves, whose flags glitter and shimmer,
with their petals of red, white, and blue, in every direction. Farther
on, above Etrépilly, a large turfed reservoir, perched on a hillock,
forms a landmark, from which the eye explores in every direction the
rolling country, intersected by scarcely visible glens or trenches,
through which the rivers wind. On the summit of this commanding
height we found a curious monument, which called for an
explanation which no one seemed competent to give. It consists of a
metal shield of brilliant vermilion and azure, surmounted by seven
flags—one of them the American flag—and addressed in large
letters, ‘Les Prisonniers de Guerre aux Héros de la Marne.’ What
prisoners these were we asked one another in vain. But it made our
hearts, with a touch of added mystery, thrill in fresh response to
those myriads of memorial flowers that twinkled and sparkled on the
circle of brown fields around us. There is one object of horror that
attracts attention here. It was a great barn or hangar, in which the
bodies of the fallen Germans were heaped up after the battle, and
then burned by their comrades. It is now nothing but a huge
skeleton of twisted iron, grimacing at the sky.
Between Varreddes and Etrépilly, as we prepare to cross the
Ourcq, we pass a little tavern at the left-hand side of the road, which
carries on a newly painted sign the name ‘À l’Obus.’ The excuse for
this is that on its gable-end, close to a window, it displays an
unexploded German shell, rusty and red, which half penetrated the
wall and stuck there, without bursting. Similar bombs are already
pointed out as curiosities in tree-trunks, and will doubtless be much
exploited when tourists begin to be admitted. On the east from
Varreddes we had seen, through a screen of trees, the Marne below
us, and the great bridge at Germigny-l’Evêque, which the Germans

blew up behind them in their final retreat. We are now in the very
midst of the worst slaughter of September 6 and 7, 1914, but it is
very curious to see how little sign of it is left in the countryside.
Occasional remnants of barbed wire, and here and there the
trenches of defence, might easily be overlooked by a hasty traveller.
He will more readily notice that here are orchards, starred with the
rose-colour of ripening apples; there feathery boskage of acacias
delicately green; here we run between violently contrasted fields,
with the sulphur of mustard on one side, the purple of beetroot on
the other; there the oat-harvest descends to little copses of chestnut
and beech, that brood over some unseen rivulet. Everywhere the
peace of uniform rustic experience, unaltered through the sober
centuries, would seem stamped upon the landscape, if the little
occasional groups of flapping tricolors were not there to remind us
that only two brief years ago the question whether European liberty
should or should not be overwhelmed for ever was fought out here
with unsurpassable fury and tenacity.
The winding walled hamlet of Etrépilly is bright with the sunshine
on its new orange and velvet-brown roofs, by which the damage
done by the German shells is concealed. This is not the case with
the little village of Vincy-Manœuvres, through which we pass next on
our northward course. Vincy was heavily shelled on September 7,
and still presents an appearance of dismal dilapidation. Without
doubt, this is a matter which depends on the enterprise or wealth of
individual proprietors, and it will be curious to see what immediate
effect the decision of the Government to repair all private property
at the cost of the State will have in these remote communes. It was
on September 9, 1914, that the German army made a final stand on
the wooded height between Vincy-Manœuvres and Acy-en-Multien,
from which they were dislodged next day by the army of Manoury.
This was the third and conclusive stage of the great struggle, in the
course of which the sixth French army pushed back the half-
encircling corps of Kluck’s reinforcements, and here we felt it
necessary to bear in mind, as much as the peaceful uniformity of the

landscape would permit, the great double line of attack and retreat
which we had now twice traversed.
We sped on north, and were now no longer in the department of
the Seine-et-Marne, but in that of the Oise. No place was more
prominent in the battle than Acy-en-Multien, which we now
approached. This must have been, and indeed still is, much the most
attractive and picturesque of the villages which the battle of the
Ourcq has immortalised. Acy lies in a wooded dimple of the high
plateau, and it is scattered broadly over its site, more like an English
than a French township. When it is considered with what violence
the Germans were hunted out of Acy, it is surprising how few marks
of their presence are left. One large house, of château pretensions,
is a complete wreck, having been bombed out of existence by
German shells, but the beautiful and curious church, with its twelfth-
century octagonal tower and its rudiments of earliest Gothic
ornament, is, so far as the eye can judge, intact. At Acy a prodigious
number of French soldiers are buried in a vast cemetery, which
seems to have been improvised for the occasion. The piety of
relatives and friends keeps these graves so lavishly covered with
nosegays that the cemetery looks like a flower-garden. The epitaphs
and sentiments on the tombstones are poignant, and we lingered
long and with great emotion in this sacred melancholy place. I was
particularly struck by one inscription—that on the tombstone of a
certain Charles Schulz, who died as a corporal, leading on his men.
He had been, till the war broke out, a Protestant pastor, but in what
locality the epitaph does not say. The text chosen for his place of
burial—‘il tint ferme, parcequ’il voyait celui qui est invisible’—may
well have been the echo of his own sentiments when he exchanged
his ministry for the terrible duty of fighting for his fatherland. By his
name, he was doubtless an Alsatian, and curiosity was eager to
know more of this Protestant pastor-corporal who sleeps in the
pretty cemetery of Acy-en-Multien.
In leaving Acy, our motor lost its way up a lane that led only to a
farmyard. By this happy chance, in our descent or retreat, we
enjoyed an exquisite view of the village, nestled in its grove of

chestnuts around the spire of its rather fantastic church—a view
which in other conditions we should have missed, since these
villages, sunken in folds of the upland, have a strange faculty for
making themselves invisible at a little distance. Recovering our
route, we continued northward, over the high rounded plateau of
the Multien, which is the local name for this part of the department
of the Oise. The character of the landscape now changes, and
becomes very English. Proceeding from Acy to Nanteuil-le-Hardouin
is like traversing the high parts of Gloucestershire; the lie of the land
exactly resembles that of the Cotswolds, and I could easily have
persuaded myself that we were driving from Stow-in-the-Wold to
Burford. It is obvious that this rolling country, here entirely deprived
of streams and glens, offers an extraordinary opportunity for the
evolutions of troops, but remarkably little shelter for them.
Nanteuil, a gloomy village, almost a town, with winding narrow
streets, severely grey, and a great church which towers over the
wayfarer, marks the limit of the battle north-eastwards. Although
there was a good deal of fighting around Nanteuil, it shows, so far
as we could perceive, no trace of injury, even on the picturesque
façade of the church. We left it to enter a long avenue of oaks, and
there was no mark of any kind to indicate where the battle ended.
My companion humorously remarked that it was the duty of the
Government to put up a poteau with the inscription, ‘Ici finit le
champ de bataille de l’Ourcq’! But in the absence of such a guide-
post to aid the imagination of the traveller there was nothing in the
rolling agricultural landscape, from which the little flowery flags had
now disappeared, to indicate that here there had been any
disturbance of the peace of the world.
At this point, therefore, a picture of the battlefields of the Ourcq
as they now exist should end. But an impression was awaiting us at
the threshold of the very next village, Baron, which was perhaps the
most poignant and certainly the most extraordinary of our whole
day. As we motored along we noticed, just before reaching Baron, a
high wall on the left hand containing a marble plaque, with an
inscription in gold letters. Curiosity prompted us to stop and read

this inscription, which stated that in the house behind this wall the
musical composer, Albéric Magnard, was shot and burned on
Wednesday, September 3, 1914. A funereal poem by M. Edmond
Rostand described how
Celui-là, qui, rebelle à toute trahison,
had lived there, died to preserve the honour of his art. We were
therefore close to the scene of a horrible crime, which the
magnitude of the events that closely followed it has somewhat
obscured in memory. Albéric Magnard, the author of ‘Guercœur’ and
other operas, born on June 9, 1865, was one of the most eminent
and successful musicians of France. He had for many years
possessed a country-seat at Baron, where he had built a little
château, Le Manoir des Fontaines, in which he had brought together
a collection of musical instruments and books which was famous.
We were reading the inscription on the wall, when a door in the
latter opened and a sad woman appeared, asking us if we would like
to see the place where Monsieur Magnard died. She led us through a
pergola of climbing plants to a point where we suddenly saw before
us what resembled a scene in some opera—a garden blazing with
begonias and African marigolds, surrounded on three sides by a
graceful balustrade, and velvety with green sward. Below the
balustrade a little park, beautifully kept, testified to the elegant taste
of the proprietor. But in the midst of this brilliance and neatness the
livid shell of the house itself stood untouched since the disaster,
producing in the midst of the bright parterres and trim lawns an
extraordinary effect of sinister and ironic horror. It was like seeing a
skeleton in a ball-dress, or a wreath of roses round a skull.
The good woman, who herself had lost in the fighting her two
sons, described to us the murder. A troop of Germans was marching
down the road and, attracted by something in the Manoir des
Fontaines, they had insisted on being admitted by the door at which
we entered. M. Magnard was in his bath-room, at the back of the
house. He is believed to have appeared at the window, and a

German soldier immediately shot him dead. They then set fire to the
house, and they watched it till the half-calcined body of the
composer fell through the rafters on to the floor of the room below.
Meanwhile, they took his son and tied him, facing the scene of his
father’s murder, to the trunk of a tree in the garden, and prepared to
shoot him. But three peasants out of the village of Baron swore that
he was not the son of M. Magnard, but of the gardener; and so,
when their work was done, the Germans went off, leaving the boy
alive, to be released by the villagers. The exact conditions under
which the famous composer was killed are mysterious, and are likely
to remain so, since no French eye witnessed the actual commission
of the crime. It is possible that he offered, or appeared likely to
offer, some resistance to the aggressors.
M. Rostand’s verses suggest that, in the version of the event
which reached him, Magnard was attempting ‘to preserve the honour
of his art.’ Whether he obeyed an instinct of self-preservation, or
whether he fell a passive victim, matters very little. The incident in
any case illustrates that Teutonic spirit of anarchism which Viscount
Grey has stigmatised as a menace to the future of civilisation.

TWO MONUMENTS IN
WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
by sir charles p. lucas, k.c.b., k.c.m.g.
In Westminster Abbey, towards the western end of the nave, on
the northern side, stands a monument of rather special interest at
the present day, upon which there is this inscription:
‘The Province of Massachusets Bay in New England, by an
order of the great and general Court bearing date Feb. 1st,
1759, caused this monument to be erected to the memory of
George Augustus Lord Viscount Howe, Brigadier General of
His Majesty’s forces in America, who was slain July the 6th,
1758, on the march to Ticonderoga, in the 34th year of his
age: in testimony of the sense they had of his services and
military virtues, and of the affection their officers and soldiers
bore to his command. He lived respected and beloved, the
public regretted his loss, to his family it is irreparable.’
Dean Stanley, in his ‘Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey’
(1869 ed.), makes the following reference to this monument, which
apparently stood, at the date when he wrote, in the south aisle of
the nave: ‘Massachusetts and Ticonderoga, not yet divided from us,
appear on the monument in the South aisle of the Nave erected to
Viscount Howe, the unsuccessful elder brother of the famous
Admiral.’ It is difficult to understand why the Dean used the curiously
infelicitous term ‘unsuccessful’ in this case. The word might have
been applied with some accuracy to the younger soldier brother, Sir
William Howe, most successful in his early military career, but not so
in the War of American Independence, though even in that war he

was a constant winner of battles; but unless to die young is, on the
principle of the survival of the fittest, to be considered a mark of
failure, no word could be more inappropriate to a man whose life,
according to the notice of him in the Annual Register for 1758,
presumably written by Edmund Burke, ‘was long enough for his
honour, but not for his country.’
He was the eldest of three brothers. The second was the famous
Admiral, ‘Black Dick,’ the hero of ‘The Glorious First of June,’ which
we recalled on the occasion of the late great sea-fight in the North
Sea. The third was the general already mentioned. They were a
notable trio, but the eldest, the shortest lived, the ‘unsuccessful’ one
of the three, had in him the promise of greatness of the rarest kind.
It would be difficult to pick out any man whose death called forth
such a consensus of eulogy. Possibly he was felix opportunitate
mortis. Possibly the same might be said of his friend Wolfe, who was
killed in his thirty-third year, as Howe in his thirty-fourth. But
assuredly, had these two men lived on, there would have been a
different story to tell of England and America.
Dean Stanley writes of Wolfe’s friendship for Lord Howe the
Admiral, quoting Horace Walpole’s words, that they were ‘friends to
each other as cannon to gunpowder’; but Wolfe’s friendship for the
‘unsuccessful’ brother must have been as great; his admiration for
him at any rate was unbounded. Wolfe was no great respecter of
persons; he was somewhat impatient and critical of other
commanders, but—‘If my Lord Howe had lived, I should have been
very happy to have received his orders.’ In Wolfe’s eyes Howe was
‘the very best officer in the King’s service,’ ‘the noblest Englishman
that has appeared in my time.’ And so said they all: there was no
dissentient voice, no whisper of criticism, no trace of jealousy.
General Abercromby, to whom Howe was second in command, in
reporting his death, wrote, ‘He was, very deservedly, universally
beloved and respected throughout the whole army.’ Pitt’s testimony
ran that ‘he was by the universal voice of army and people a
character of ancient times, a complete model of military virtue in all
its branches.’ Robert Rogers, the bold leader of the Rangers, in

whose company Howe learnt the art of North American bush
fighting, wrote of him as a ‘noble and brave officer,’ ‘universally
beloved by both officers and soldiers of the army’; while the
members of the Massachusetts House of Assembly, no great lovers
of the redcoats from home, and close-fisted enough in ordinary
dealings, voted £250 for a monument to the Englishman, whose
character had impressed them all, and whose person their soldiers
dearly loved.
Howe had been made colonel of the lately raised Royal Americans,
the ancestors of the 60th Rifles, the famous King’s Royal Rifle Corps.
Shortly afterwards he was transferred to the command of the 55th
Regiment. Pitt then appointed him to be brigadier to General
Abercromby, who, in 1758, was placed in chief command of the
Central Advance on Canada, along the line of Lake George and Lake
Champlain. Abercromby neither was, nor had the reputation of
being, a first-rate general, and Lord Chesterfield was no doubt
roughly accurate when he wrote, ‘Abercromby is to be the sedentary
and not the acting commander.’ The inspiration and the motive force
were to come from Howe. Early in July 1758 the army, consisting of
over 6000 regulars and some 9000 provincials, was carried on
bateaux and whaleboats to the northern end of Lake George, where,
near the outlet of that lake into Lake Champlain, stood the
immediate objective, the French fort of Ticonderoga. The force was
landed, an advance was made through dense forest and scrub, Lord
Howe with a party of Rangers was leading the principal column, they
stumbled across a French reconnoitring party, there was a skirmish,
and Howe was killed. ‘The French lost above three hundred men,
and we, though successful, lost as much as it was possible to lose in
one.’ That is one of the many comments made upon the incident, all
on the same note. Here is another: ‘In Lord Howe the soul of
General Abercromby’s army seemed to expire.’ Two days later
Abercromby ordered a headlong, blundering assault upon the works
of the fort, which ended in terrible losses and complete repulse.
In his dispatch of August 26, 1915, reporting upon the operations
at the Dardanelles up to that date, Sir Ian Hamilton wrote:

‘Lieutenant-General Sir W. R. Birdwood has been the soul of
Anzac. Not for one single day has he ever quitted his post.
Cheery and full of human sympathy, he has spent many hours
of each twenty-four inspiring the defenders of the front
trenches, and if he does not know every soldier in his force,
at least every soldier in the force believes he is known to his
chief.’
Here we have something like a modern counterpart, happily still with
us, of Lord Howe.
It is at once the glory of the British Empire, and its chief source of
strength, that it contains within it so many diverse elements, all co-
operating for the common weal, all owing free and willing allegiance
to one sovereign. Many races combine to make the great community
which we call by the strangely inaccurate term of Empire; and the
British race itself, in the process of transplantation, has developed
different types in differing lands, climates, and surroundings. The
home Briton, born and bred within the four seas of the United
Kingdom, necessarily differs somewhat in character and physique
from the Briton of the Canadian prairies or the Australian backblocks.
The Canadian Briton again differs from the Australasian or South
African, while among Australasians the Australian is of one type, the
New Zealander of another. All supplement each other; all contribute
to the common stock some ingredient which the others have not,
and the sum total is greater and richer than if the units of which it is
composed were all alike and uniform. On the other hand, diversities
demand wise handling, or they may become a source not of
strength, but of weakness. It is as easy to drift farther apart as to
come closer, to exaggerate differences as to minimise them. Every
citizen of the Empire is a missionary of the Empire, for by the
individual citizens the types are judged. The home Briton who visits
Australia leaves behind him a good or bad taste for England among
the Australians with whom he has been brought into contact. The
Australian who comes to the Old Country gives to Australia among
the people of the Old Country a better or a worse name. But of

necessity the leaders are most potent in mission work, and among
the leaders those who lead armed men on active service; who are in
touch with them day by day in the camp, on the march, in the
trenches or on the open battlefield; on whom it devolves to enforce
discipline, and with whom it rests whether or not discipline means
friction. It is impossible to measure the amount of lasting good
which is wrought when overseas soldiers associate tact and
sympathy with home leadership or, on the other hand, the mischief
which results from want of personal assimilation. It is not by any
means military capacity alone that makes the soul of an Empire
army. We are all beginning to know each other, to value each other,
to make allowances for each other, to an extent which was
impossible before steamers multiplied the coming and going of men,
and turned uncertain and spasmodic into regular and assured
communication. Doubts can be at once set at rest and
misapprehensions promptly removed by the use of the submarine
cable. Moreover, this familiarising process, and the annihilation of
distance, is a progressive matter. Every year leaves us rather closer
to one another than we were the year before. If, even under these
favourable modern conditions, the personal element still plays a
most important part, it was all-important in the middle years of the
eighteenth century.
In the Seven Years’ War, when, in the words of Frederick the
Great, England, having been long in labour, had at length brought
forth a man, that man, William Pitt, set himself to fight France in
America, and sent out what were for the time comparatively large
armies to conquer Canada. He called upon the British North
American colonies to co-operate and raise their levies; and inasmuch
as his appeal was made in wise and tactful terms, and the colonies
realised that for once England would not leave them in the lurch,
they, or some of them, answered to the call with patriotism and
goodwill. Thus regular soldiers from England, in greater numbers
than ever before, came among the colonists, and provincial
regiments were raised to march and fight side by side with the
troops of the line. Then was seen and felt in its fullest extent the

difference between the home Briton and his brother beyond the
seas, at a time when the divergence was most pronounced. The
regulars were very regular, the Provincials were very provincial; from
a military point of view the two bodies of men were at opposite
poles. The Provincials knew nothing of training or discipline; they
were nondescript, temporary soldiers of small democracies; they
were farmers enlisted for the campaign, their term of service in any
case not exceeding one year: few had uniforms, some brought guns
with them, some had none to bring: the officers were in effect
chosen by the men. The troops of the line, on the other hand,
imported into the backwoods of North America the stiffness and
rigidity of European dress, discipline, and tactics in the eighteenth
century, and between the officers and soldiers there was a great gulf
fixed, as between the ranks of society in Europe.
It was but natural that these officers should regard the provincial
soldiery with disdain, and that a corresponding resentment should
be felt in the provincial ranks. Some of the greatest soldiers of the
day were not exempt from this partisan feeling. After the disaster to
Braddock’s force in 1755, Washington, who had been present on the
field and who contrasted the conduct of the Virginians in the fight
with that of the regulars, wrote in the bitterest terms of the latter.
Wolfe, on the other hand, had, in 1758, no words strong enough to
express his disgust at the shortcomings of the American soldiers.
‘The Americans are in general the dirtiest, most contemptible
cowardly dogs that you can conceive.’ If these were the views of the
foremost men of the day in the colonial levies and in the regular
army respectively, it must be presumed that the lesser men felt at
least as strongly. Mrs. Grant, the authoress of ‘Memoirs of an
American Lady,’ a book which was published at New York, in 1809,
speaks of the ‘secret contempt’ with which ‘many officers justly
esteemed, possessed of capacity, learning, and much knowledge,
both of the usages of the world and the art of war ... regarded the
blunt simplicity and plain appearance of the settlers’; and among the
officers who came out from England there must have been a large
proportion whose contempt was not unspoken or unnoticed.

It was not merely a case of friction between the professional
soldier and the amateur, the one looking down upon the other, and
the other resenting the airs of the superior person. The mischief was
deeper seated. The northern colonies of British America were
cradled in centrifugal traditions: a large proportion of the first
colonists had come out to be rid of the Home Government, its
discipline and its control. Puritanism was the dominant religious and
political creed; and the surroundings, except at a few town centres,
were of a stern and simple kind. Among men and women born and
reared on these lines, and into their family circles, came regimental
officers from England, many, if not most, of whom had been bred in
the ways of fashionable English Society, which, in the middle of the
eighteenth century, was not, to say the least of it, characterised by
high tone or scrupulous refinement. The settlers in the New World,
by the mere fact of their removal out of the Old World into the
wilderness, had preserved for themselves and their descendants the
old-time feeling and modes of thought in the Old World, and to them
the new leaven from an up-to-date Old World was a leaven of
unrighteousness. Mrs. Grant was the daughter of an officer in the
55th Regiment, Howe’s own regiment, but she had spent her
childhood in the American atmosphere, and had been mainly
brought up in a Dutch family. Consequently she tells us that she was
‘a little ashamed of having a military father,’ and writes of ‘the scarlet
coat, which I had been taught to consider as the symbol of
wickedness.’ It was to some extent as though Cavaliers and
Roundheads had come to life again, and were jostling one another,
while fighting under the same flag and for the same cause, as a
prelude to once more springing at each other’s throats.
At this time and place a man of the type of Lord Howe was an
almost priceless asset to the cause of Imperial Unity—a cause which
can never stand still, but either declines or goes forward, and goes
forward only through intelligent appreciation of existing conditions
and active sympathy with living men. Of high social standing in
England, and acknowledged military reputation, he set himself, by

precept and still more by personal example, to the work of
assimilation.
‘This gallant man,’ says the Annual Register for 1758, ‘from
the moment he landed in America, had wisely conformed and
made his regiment conform to the kind of service which the
country required. He did not suffer any under him to
encumber themselves with superfluous baggage; he himself
set the example and fared like a common soldier. The first to
encounter danger, to endure hunger, to support fatigue; rigid
in his discipline but easy in his manners, his officers and
soldiers readily obeyed the commander, because they loved
the man.’
Wolfe wrote of him as a man ‘whom nature has formed for the
war of this country,’ and Mrs. Grant, that he was ‘above the pedantry
of holding up standards of military rules, where it was impossible to
enforce them, and the narrow spirit of preferring the modes of his
own country to those proved by experience to suit that in which he
was to act.’ She christens him ‘This young Lycurgus of the camp.’
Under Howe everything was literally cut down to meet the
exigencies of American warfare. Gold and scarlet was laid aside:
baggage was reduced to a minimum: the muskets were shortened:
their barrels were darkened: the skirts of the long regimental coats
were cut off: Indian leggings were brought into use. Wolfe writes in
May 1758, ‘Our clothes, our arms, our accoutrements, nay even our
shoes and stockings are all improper for this country. Lord Howe is
so well convinced of it that he has taken away all the men’s
breeches.’ A French writer tells us that the officers and men were
only allowed one shirt apiece. ‘Lord H. set the example, by himself
washing his own dirty shirt, and drying it in the sun, while he in the
meantime wore nothing but his coat.’ And here is the unkindest cut
of all—in Mrs. Grant’s words:

‘The greatest privation to the young and vain yet remained.
Hair well dressed, and in great quantity, was then considered
as the greatest possible ornament, which those who had it
took the utmost care to display to advantage, and to wear in
a bag or queue, whichever they fancied. Lord Howe’s was fine
and very abundant; he, however, cropped it and ordered
every one else to do the same.’
In all things the commander set the example: he never asked his
officers or men to do anything or to give up anything which he did
not do or give up himself. Thus his regiment of regulars was set in
order for backwood fighting and, what was more, it was attuned to
the ways of the land and of the people of the land. ‘They were ever
after considered as an example to the whole American Army.’
Mrs. Grant tells a story, which Francis Parkman has repeated in his
delightful ‘Montcalm and Wolfe,’ of Lord Howe giving a dinner to his
officers in his tent. The furniture consisted of logs of wood and
bearskins, ‘and presently the servants set down a large dish of pork
and pease.’ Howe pulled a sheath with a knife and fork in it out of
his pocket, and proceeded to carve the meat. The officers ‘sat in a
kind of awkward suspense’ for want of knives and forks, until Howe,
after expressing surprise that they did not possess ‘portable
implements’ of the kind, ‘finally relieved them from their
embarrassment, by distributing to each a case the same as his own,
which he had provided for that purpose.’ The real point of the story
is that, if Howe had been an ordinary man, his dinner would
probably have been resented by the officers as an impertinent
practical joke. But he was not an ordinary man; among his officers
and soldiers he was like King David: ‘Whatsoever the king did
pleased all the people.’
Albany in New York State was always the base for expeditions
against Canada, by the central route, which lay along the line of
water communication. In war time through Albany regiments came
and went, and in and around it they congregated and encamped.

Albany was pre-eminently a centre for the old New York families of
Dutch descent. On the upper waters of the Hudson and the lower
reaches of the Mohawk River, which joins the Hudson a little above
Albany, were the estates of the ‘patroons’ of the Dutch régime, and
here their descendants lived and thrived. Mrs. Grant, in her Memoirs,
tells of the lives and surroundings of one of the foremost of these
families, the Schuylers, whose homes were in Albany and to the
north of it in the district known as ‘The Flats.’ In her book an old
Mrs. Schuyler (‘Aunt Schuyler’) is the central figure, as she was in
the year 1758 the central figure of the Schuyler clan. The book tells
of Lord Howe’s intimacy with the family, though he never took up his
quarters with them, for he ‘always lay in his tent with the regiment
which he commanded’; how the old lady loved him almost as a son,
how sadly and affectionately she sped him on his last advance, and
her grief when the news came that he was killed. ‘Aunt Schuyler ...
had the utmost esteem for him, and the greatest hope that he would
at some future period redress all those evils that had formerly
impeded the service; and perhaps plant the British standard on the
walls of Quebec.’ We have drawn for us the contrast between the
good and bad type of officer, the gentleman and the bully, though
both may be efficient fighting men. Returning to his friends on one
occasion, Howe found to his great indignation that in his absence
Captain Charles Lee had come through and, ‘as if he were in a
conquered country,’ commandeered the loyal old lady’s stock and
property, without having the necessary warrants for his high-handed
proceedings. Lee’s next visit was after the fight at Ticonderoga,
when he was brought back a wounded man to be nursed by those
whom he had browbeaten and robbed. He was a king’s officer; but it
is difficult to deduce from his case the moral that conduct such as
his brought on the Revolution, seeing that he became a general in
the Revolutionary army, of great though somewhat dubious
reputation.
In 1757 and 1758 Lord Howe was winning the love and esteem of
all who came into contact with him in America. In 1759 the
Assembly of Massachusetts voted the monument to his memory. In

1765 the men of Boston were rioting against the Stamp Act, and in
1773 throwing cargoes of tea into Boston harbour. In 1775 came
open war with the Mother Country and the fight of Bunker Hill. At
Bunker Hill hardest of hard fighters among the Americans was Israel
Putnam: he had been by Howe’s side when the latter was killed. The
night before his death Howe had been in company with John Stark,
noted among the New Hampshire Rangers who followed Robert
Rogers. It was Stark who, in 1777, planned and won the fight at
Bennington, which was the beginning of the end of Burgoyne’s army.
A young member of the Schuyler group, who had taken Howe to
their hearts, was Philip Schuyler, afterwards one of the best known
and most trusted of the Revolutionary leaders. Probably England and
America had drifted too far apart at the time of the Seven Years’ War
for any human influence to bring them wholly into line again. Yet,
had Howes been multiplied and English statesmen and commanders
been modelled on his lines, the parting might well have been
postponed and been less bitter when it came. He stands out in
history as one who in his day did all that man could do to bring the
Colonies and the Mother Country closer together; and he is a type of
the Englishmen who are still wanted to-day, and who happily are not
wanting, as shown by the love and confidence borne towards Sir
William Birdwood by the splendid fighting men from the Southern
Seas, whom he led to less and yet to more than victory.
Just over a year from the date of Lord Howe’s death and
Abercromby’s repulse at Ticonderoga, a much abler general than
Abercromby, Jeffrey Amherst, marched once more against the fort.
The French abandoned their entrenchments in front of it, of which
Amherst promptly took possession; and a rearguard, left to hold the
fort itself, after two or three days’ artillery fire, blew it up and left
the ruins to be occupied by Amherst’s army. As the death of Lord
Howe had immediately preceded Abercromby’s attack, so a day
before the second enterprise ended successfully, another officer, well
known in the army and in English Society, though not comparable
with Lord Howe, was killed. An entry in Knox’s Historical Journal
runs: ‘The Honourable Colonel Townshend was picked off to-day in

the trenches by a cannon shot; he is very deservedly lamented by
the General and the army’; a later entry mentions that his body was
taken to Albany for burial. On the south side of the nave of
Westminster Abbey, much farther up towards the Chancel than the
place where the monument to Lord Howe stands, will be found a
monument—
‘erected by a disconsolate parent, The Lady Viscountess
Townshend, to the memory of her fifth son, The Honble. Lt.-
Colonel Roger Townshend, who was killed by a cannon ball on
the 25th of July 1759 in the 28th year of his age, as he was
reconnoitring the French lines at Ticonderagoe in North
America ... tho’ premature his death, his life was glorious,
enrolling him with the names of those immortal statesmen
and commanders whose wisdom and intrepidity in the cause
of this comprehensive and successful war have extended the
commerce, enlarged the Dominion, and upheld the Majesty of
these Kingdoms beyond the idea of any former age.’
The monument is an elaborate one, and the eulogy is obviously
exaggerated. Horace Walpole would evidently have had it otherwise.
In his ‘Short Notes of My Life’ he tells us, ‘I gave my Lady
Townshend an epitaph and design for a tomb for her youngest son,
killed at Ticonderoga; neither was used.’ He also gives us to
understand that the mother was not so disconsolate as the
monument asserts:
‘My Lady Townshend, who has not learning enough to copy
a Spartan mother, has lost her youngest son. I saw her this
morning—her affectation is on t’other side; she affects grief—
but not so much for the son she has lost, as for t’other that
she may lose.’
And again, ‘Poor Roger, for whom she is not concerned, has given
her a hint that her hero George may be mortal too.’ Whatever may

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