Organization Behavior 2.ppt
- 2. MODULE 2 Learning – Meaning, Learning theories – Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning, Cognitive Theory and Social learning theory. Teams and Team Work – Introduction, Differences between Groups and Teams, Types of Teams, Team building Group – Meaning, Types of Group, Stages of Group Development
- 3. Meaning ▸The acquisition of knowledge or skills through experience, practice , study or by being taught. ▸The act, process or experience of gaining knowledge or skill. Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or performance resulting from experience or practice ( Huse; Scott; Luthans )
- 4. Learning Theories Classical Conditio ning Operant Conditio ning Cognitive Theory Social Learning Theory People learn new behaviors through one or more of the four learning processes
- 6. Classical Conditioning • Ivan Pavlov , a Russian psychologist developed Classical conditioning theory based on his experiments to teach a dog to salivate in response to the ringing of the bell. • It is a simple form of learning in which a conditioned response is linked with an unconditioned stimulus. ( A stimulus is something that instigates actions and draws forth a response)
- 7. Before Conditioning ▸When Pavlov offered meat(unconditioned stimulus) to the dog, he noticed a great deal of salvation (unconditioned response). ▸Pavlov termed the food an unconditioned stimulus because food automatically lead to salivation(that is , unconditioned response). When the dog saw the meat, it salivated. ▸On the other hand, when Pavlov merely rang the bell(neutral stimulus), the dog did not salivate.
- 8. After Conditioning ▸Pavlov subsequently introduced the sound of a bell(artificial or conditioned stimulus) each time the meat(unconditioned stimulus) was given to the dog. ▸Thus, when the bell was paired with the meat , it produced a response. The dog eventually learned to salivate in response to the ringing of the bell even when there was no meat. ( Conditioned stimulus leading to conditioned response). ▸Pavlov , thus, had conditioned the dog to respond to a learned stimulus. This is known as the “law of exercise” which states that behaviour can be learned by repetitive association between a stimulus and a response.
- 9. • In Organisations, however, only simple behaviours and responses can be learned in this way. • For example, if the boss were to reprimand(scold) an employee for poor performance every Monday during a month, the next time the employee receives a call from the boss, he/she becomes extremely nervous, because of this association. • This is S-R learning
- 11. Operant Conditioning • Proposed by B. F. Skinner • Operant is defined as voluntary or learned behaviour that produces effects. • Operant conditioning, according to Skinner, is based on the prerequisite that people learn to behave to obtain something they want or avoid something they do not want. • Hence, Skinner suggested that Behaviour is a function of its consequences and not a function of inner thoughts, feelings, emotions or perceptions as suggested by classical conditioning.
- 12. • The consequences of given behaviour would decide whether the same behaviour is likely to occur in future or not • As a result, behaviours that are rewarded (or reinforced) get repeated and behaviours that are punished (or not reinforced) are avoided • An employee who receives a written disciplinary warning after submitting a report 24 hours late, is more likely to submit the report on time next month. • This is R-S Learning
- 14. Cognitive Learning Cognition refers to an individual's ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretations, understanding etc about himself and his environment According to Cognitive Theory – proposed by Tolman and Kohler, learning is considered to be the outcome of deliberate thinking about a problem or situation both possessing and based on known facts and responding in an objective and goal oriented way
- 15. • Cognitive learning is a complex form of learning. It involves interpreting present perceptions in the light of past information to get our way through unfamiliar problems. It is more than just gathering information. It involves new ways of learning, acting and solving. • Cognitive theory relates to "how we gain information from the world, how such information is represented and transformed as knowledge, how it is stored and how that knowledge is used to direct our attention and behaviour" (Solso 1979). • The Cognitive theory does not focus on stimuli-response connections as important factors in learning.
- 16. • Edward Tolman, using rats in his laboratory, explained how rats learned through a complicated maze their goal of food. • It was found that rats developed expectations at every choice point in the maze. • They, thus learned to expect that certain cognitive cues(example/advice) related to the choice point could ultimately lead to food. • If the rat actually got the food, the association between the cue and the expectancy was strengthened and learning took place. • This is S-S learning
- 17. ▸This theory became highly popular in the 1940 -1950s and in fact several training programme were designed along similar lines. ▸The Training programmes were basically aimed at strengthening the relationship between cognitive cues(supervisory, organisational and job procedures) and workers expectations(incentive payments for good performance). ▸The assumption was that the worker would learn to be more productive by building an association between taking orders or following directions and expectancies of monetary reward for this effort.
- 18. Social / Observational Learning Theories
- 19. Social / Observational Learning • People can learn through observation and direct experience( also known as vicarious learning ). • It takes place when people observe the behaviour of others, note their consequences and alter their own behaviour as a result. • Thus, social learning is acquisition of knowledge through processing of information. Example – watching the boss reprimand someone for being late , would simply make you learn the importance of being punctual.
- 20. Elements of Social Learning Modelling Self Efficacy Self Control Self Reinforcement
- 21. Elements of Social learning 1. Modelling – The person whose behaviour is imitated(usually parents, teachers, peers etc) is referred to as the ‘Model’. ▹According to Bandura, for people to learn by observing models, several processes must occur, they are – Attention – Retention – Reproduction – Reinforcement
- 22. • The learner must have the physical ability to imitate the behaviour observed. • The learner must have some motivation to learn the model. • The learner must have good retention of the model’s behaviour • The learner must pay careful attention to the model • The greater the attention , the more effective the learning will be. Attention Retention Reproduction Reinforcement
- 23. 2. Self Efficacy Behaviour modelling enhances self efficacy. They gain self confidence when they observe others doing the job rather than merely told to execute the same using discretion. 3. Self-Control and Self-Reinforcement When employees show accountability to their work and control their behaviours, managers can spare them from observing too close. Employees should be self driven towards their work rather than being reinforced by external situations.
- 25. A team is a group of people who collaborate on related tasks towards a common goal. Teamwork involves a set of interdependent activities performed by individuals who collaborate towards a common goal.
- 26. •A Team consists of a small group of people who work actively together to achieve a common goal for which they hold themselves collectively accountable • A team comprises of a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, and an approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. • Teams include people with mix of skills appropriate to the task to be done, since team members need technical, problem solving, decision making and inter-pesonal skills to work for a goal
- 27. The following Distinctive features of teams make their meaning more clear • They are empowered to share various management and leadership functions • They plan, control and improve their own work processes • They set their own goals and inspect their own work • They often create their own schedules and review their performance • They may prepare their own budgets and co-ordinate their work with other departments • They often order materials, keep inventories and deal with suppliers • They are frequently responsible for acquiring any new training that may be required Teams are also known by other terms such as empowered teams, self – directed teams and self management teams
- 28. Teams Vs. Groups A group consists of two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent , who have come together to achieve a common goal. Members interact, share information and help each other in order to realise the goals. However, they do not necessarily engage in activities that would lead to a joint, well-coordinated effort. Their performance is equal to the sum total of each member’s individuals contribution
- 30. Types of Teams
- 32. Work Teams • These are primarily concerned with work done by the organizations • Their prime function is to utilize the organizations resources effectively. • Team members ranges from 5 to 12 employees from the same department, who meet for few hours each week to discuss and solve work related problems • Quality circles come under this category • Also called as autonomous teams, where the team is given responsibility of a specific task area with out day to day supervision • They are also given authority to influence and control both team members and their behaviour Problem Solving Teams Self Managing Teams
- 33. Cross Functional Teams • It consists of employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas who come together to accomplish a task. • A task force or a project team comes under this category • These teams are created to deal with a specific problem and are usually disbanded when the task is completed or the problem is solved • A committee is a cross functional team, created in formal organizations usually long lived , created to carry out specific organizational goals
- 34. Virtual Teams • IBM used to create virtual teams in 1970’s. Currently about one out of three teams in IBM work in virtual teams • A virtual team convenes and operates with members linked together electronically via network computers • It uses computer technology and groupware to tie together the members from various geographical locations working towards a common goal • Almost all meetings take place via electronic communication tools through WAN, videoconferencing, fax, e-mail • Virtual teams bring cost effectiveness and speed to teamwork, but members are unable to meet face-to-face. Members who are confident in working with communication networks and works without any emotional considerations would make virtual teams yield positive signs
- 35. Team Building
- 36. Team Building Team building consists of activities which are designed to construct , develop and sustain groups of people who are working together to achieve common goals with a commitment to take responsibility collectively (Watson). Team members and leaders must consciously make efforts to build high performance teams.
- 37. In order to build High Performance Teams certain conditions must be met: 1. Members ( size, skills and roles of team members, Behaviours) 2. Rewards 3. Leaders 4. Building Trust 5. Team Development
- 38. 1. Members – Size(small) - Skills(Technical competence, problem - solving and interpersonal) - Roles (Task specialist role and Socio-emotional role) Behaviours - Team members must exhibit certain behaviours which help in developing close ties with others(S R Lloyd) - speak respectfully to one another and about one another - Listen without interrupting - Ask for help when needed, offer help when possible - Make commitments seriously and keep them - support the team and each other - concentrate on problems and solutions , do not blame and accuse
- 39. 2. Rewards – Rewards are designed to meet individual excellence as well to avoid ‘Social Loafing’ as well as to encourage Selfless contributions to the team effort by Promotions, Pay raises, Special allowances, etc.( Social Loafing is the tendency of individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually) 3. Leaders - The Successful functioning of a team depends , to a large extent on the ‘soft skills’ exhibited by the leader in the form of communication, conflict resolution, motivation, sharing and trust building
- 40. 4. Team Development Balance set of roles Open communication Handling stress Team choices Review mechanisms Shared leaderships Shaking of past constraints
- 41. Groups
- 42. A Group is a collection of two or more interacting individuals(mutual interaction) with a stable pattern of relationships between them(regular face to face interaction over a sustained period of time) who share common goals(shared interest) and who perceive themselves to be a group(mutual awareness and collective identity).
- 47. Types of Groups Formal • Standing task group • Task group Informal • Friendship group • Reference group • Interest group Change of membersh ip • Open group • Closed group In or Out • In group • Out group
- 48. Forming – Awareness, commitment and acceptance Storming – Conflict, clarification and belonging Norming – Co-operation, development and support, leader of the group emerges Performing – Productivity, achievement and pride. Becomes autonomous Adjourning – Separation, recognising and satisfaction Stages of Group Development
- 50. Reference Chapters Groups and Teams • Chapter’s on teams and groups - VSP Rao • Chapter 14,15 in Ashwatappa K.