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1
Chapter 8: Communication
© 2015 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Chapter 8
Communication
In This Chapter, You’ll Find:
Chapter Overview
Learning Outcomes
Key Terms
PowerPoint Guide
Review Questions and Answers
Discussion & Communication Questions and Suggested Answers
Ethical Dilemma
Self-Assessments
Issues in Diversity
Experiential Exercises
Additional Examples
Case Study: Smartphones
Video: Plant Fantasies
Student Handouts:
Ethical Dilemma
What About You?: Are You an Active Listener?
What About You?: What Kind of a Defender Are You?
Issues in Diversity: Contemporary Media Coverage—Spinning out of Control?
Experiential Exercise: Communicate, Listen, Understand
Experiential Exercise: Preparing for an Employment Selection Interview
Experiential Exercise: Degrees of Truth in Feedback
Case Study: Smartphones
Chapter Overview
This chapter deals with the interpersonal and technological dimensions of communication in
organizations. Communication is a skill that can be improved through reflective listening. Five
keys to effective supervisory communication are presented along with five barriers to
communication. Finally, the chapter discusses defensive and nondefensive communication,
nonverbal communication, and the latest technologies for information management in
organizations.

2
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, students should be able to do the following:
1 Describe the interpersonal communication process and the role of listening in the process.
Communication evokes a shared, or common, meaning in another person. Interpersonal
communication occurs between two or more people in an organization. The communicator is the
person sending the message. The receiver is the person accepting the message. Perceptual
screens are the windows through which people interact. The message contains the thoughts and
feelings that the communicator intends to evoke in the receiver. Feedback may or may not be
activated in communication. The language of the message is important. Data are the
uninterpreted, unanalyzed elements of a message. Information is data with meaning to the person
who interprets or analyzes them. Since messages are conveyed through a medium, such as a
telephone or face-to-face discussion, they differ in richness according to the ability of that
medium to transmit meaning to a receiver. Reflective listening is the skill of carefully listening to
a message and immediately repeating it back to the speaker. Reflective listening better enables
the listener to comprehend the communicator’s meaning, reduce perceptual distortions, and
overcome interpersonal barriers that lead to communication failures.
2 Describe the five communication skills of effective supervisors.
Research on manager–employee communication identifies five communication skills that
distinguish good supervisors from bad ones. A good supervisor is an expressive speaker, an
empathetic listener, a persuasive leader, a sensitive person, and an informative manager.
3 Explain five communication barriers and the gateways through them.
Barriers to communication are factors that distort, disrupt, or even halt successful
communication. Gateways to communication are the openings that break down communication
barriers. Awareness and recognition of communication barriers are the first steps in opening the
gateways. Obvious barriers are physical separation (employees in different geographic locations
or buildings) and status differences (related to the organizational hierarchy). Not so obvious are
the barriers caused by gender differences, cultural diversity, and language. An important gateway
through the gender barrier is the development of an awareness and appreciation of gender-
specific differences in conversational style. A second gateway is to actively seek clarification of
the person’s meaning rather than freely interpreting meaning from one’s own frame of reference.
One gateway through the barrier of diversity is increasing cultural awareness and sensitivity. A

3
second gateway is developing or acquiring a guide for understanding and interacting with
members of other cultures. When doing business, it’s best to use simple, direct, declarative
language. One should not use jargon or technical language except with those who are already
familiar with it.
4 Distinguish between civility and incivility, and defensive and nondefensive communication.
Incivility is discourteous communication and rude behavior that are disrespectful, hurtful, or
injurious. It can create a barrier between people and jar people’s emotions. There are, however,
some instances in which incivility can have positive effects when it is strategically used. The
consequences of incivility depend on its source. Civility is communication and behavior that
respect the integrity and dignity of the individual. Civil communication and behavior carry the
potential to avoid hurt feelings, prevent harm and damage to working relationships, and
contribute to well-being in the workplace. Defensive communication includes aggressive,
malevolent messages as well as passive, withdrawn messages. Nondefensive communication is
an assertive, direct, and powerful.
5 Explain the impact of nonverbal communication.
Most of a message’s meaning (an estimated 65 to 90 percent) is conveyed through nonverbal
communication. Nonverbal communication includes all elements of communication that do not
involve words or language such as gestures and the use of space. The four basic types of
nonverbal communication that managers need to understand are proxemics, kinesics, facial and
eye behavior, and paralanguage.
6 Explain positive, healthy communication.
The absence of heartfelt communication in relationships leads to loneliness and social isolation.
This condition has been labeled communicative disease by James Lynch. Positive, healthy
communication is an important aspect of working together—that is, cooperating to reach a
shared goal—in both the interpersonal and intrapersonal settings. Such communication requires
trust and truthfulness. Healthy communication is at the core of personal integrity and managerial
success.
7 Identify how new communication technologies and social media affect the communication
process.
Nonverbal behaviors can be important in establishing trust in working relationships, but modern

4
technologies may challenge our ability to maintain that trust. Too much emphasis on technology
tools in communication may have an adverse impact on rich interpersonal communication and
relationships. Computer-mediated communication influences virtually all behavior in the work
environment. E-mail, voice mail, instant messaging, and facsimile (fax) machines have been
common in the business world for more than a decade. Information communication technology
(ICT) is an extensive category of new developments in interpersonal communication that allow
fast, even immediate, access to information. E-mail, teleconferencing, and Wi-Fi are all
classified as ICT. Computer-mediated communication is impersonal in nature. Instant
messaging, e-mail, and other forms of online communication can therefore depreciate the
richness of personal interaction. Another effect of computer-mediated communication is that the
nonverbal cues people rely on to decipher a message are absent. Gesturing, touching, facial
expressions, and eye contact are not possible, so the emotional aspect of the message is difficult
to discern. Communication via technology also changes group dynamics by equalizing
participation. As a result, charismatic or higher-status members may lose some power. The
potential for information overload is particularly great when individuals are first introduced to
new communication technologies. Both the sheer volume of information available and its speed
of delivery are staggering. While modern ICT may make work easier and increase employees’
productivity, it can also prove precarious for managers. In the wake of mobile e-mail, instant
messaging, and texting, managers are more accessible to coworkers, subordinates, and the boss
today than they’ve ever been. Many new technologies encourage polyphasic activity, or
multitasking (that is, doing more than one thing at a time). Polyphasic activity has its advantages
in terms of getting more done—but only up to a point. New technologies may make people less
patient with face-to-face communication. The speed of electronic media may lead to expectations
of acceleration in all forms of communication.
Key Terms
Communication (p. 121)
Interpersonal communication (p. 121)
Communicator (p. 121)
Receiver (p. 121)
Perceptual screen (p. 121)
Message (p. 121)
Feedback (p. 121)
Language (p. 122)
Data (p. 122)
Information (p. 122)
Richness (p. 122)
Reflective listening (p. 122)
Two-way communication (p. 124)

5
One-way communication (p. 124)
Barriers to communication (p. 125)
Gateways to communication (p. 126)
Incivility (p. 127)
Civility (p. 127)
Defensive communication (p. 127)
Nondefensive communication (p. 127)
Nonverbal communication (p. 129)
Proxemics (p. 130)
Territorial space (p. 130)
Kinesics (p. 131)
Communicative disease (p. 131)
Information communication technology (ICT) (p. 133)
PowerPoint Guide
Introduction
Slide 2-3 – Learning Outcomes
LO1 Describe the interpersonal communication process and the role of listening in the
process.
Slide 4 – Learning Outcome
Slide 5-7 – Interpersonal Communication
Slide 8 – Figure 8.1 – Basic Interpersonal Communication Model
Slide 9 – Table 8.1 – Communication Media: Information Richness and Data Capacity
Slide 10 – Reflective Listening
Slide 11 – Reflective Listening: Levels of Verbal Responses
Slide 12 – Nonverbal Responses of Reflective Listening
Slide 13 – Beyond the Book: Listen Up!
Slide 14 – One-Way vs. Two-Way Communication
LO2 Describe the five communication skills of effective supervisors.
Slide 16 – Keys to Effective Supervisory Communication
LO3 Explain five communication barriers and the gateways through them.
Slide 18 – Barriers and Gateways to Communication
Slide 19 – Gateways to Communication

6
LO4 Distinguish between civility and incivility, and defensive and nondefensive
communication.
Slide 21 – Civility and Incivility
Slide 22 – Defensive and Nondefensive Communication
Slide 23 – Outcomes of Defensive and Nondefensive Communication
Slide 24 – Defensiveness Patterns
Slide 25 – Defensive Tactics
Slide 26 – Advantages of Nondefensive Communication
LO5 Explain the impact of nonverbal communication.
Slide 28 – Nonverbal Communication
Slide 29 – Figure 8.2 – Zones of Territorial Space in U.S. Culture
Slide 30 – Figure 8.3 – Seating Dynamics
Slide 31 – Nonverbal Communication
LO6 Explain positive, healthy communication.
Slide 33 – Positive, Healthy Communication
LO7 Identify communication technologies and how they affect the communication process.
Slide 35 – Communicating through New Technologies and Social Media
Slide 36 – Written Communication
Slide 37 – Communication
Slide 38 – Information Communication Technology (ICT)
Slide 39 – Characteristics of ICT
Slide 40 – How ICT Affects Behavior
Slide 41 – Friday Night Lights
Slide 42 – Plant Fantasies
Review Questions and Answers
1. What different components of a person’s perceptual screens may distort communication?
The components of a person’s perceptual screens that may distort communication are age,
gender, values, beliefs, past experiences, cultural influences, and individual needs.
2. What are the three defining features of reflective listening?

7
Reflecting listening can be characterized as personal, feeling oriented, and responsive.
3. What are the four levels of verbal response in reflective listening?
The four levels of verbal response in reflective listening include affirming contact,
paraphrasing expressed thoughts and feelings, clarifying implicit thoughts and feelings, and
reflecting core feelings not fully expressed.
4. Compare one-way communication and two-way communication.
One-way communication occurs when a person sends a message to another person and no
feedback, questions, or interaction follows. Giving instructions and giving directions are
examples of one-way communication.
Two-way communication is an interactive form of communication in which there is an
exchange of thoughts, feelings, or both, and through which shared meaning often occurs.
Problem solving and decision making are often examples of two-way communication.
One-way communication tends to be efficient, although how efficient it is depends on the
amount and complexity of information communicated and the medium chosen. Even though
it is faster than two-way communication, one-way communication is often less accurate.
This is especially true for complex tasks that require clarification for completion.
5. What are the five communication skills of effective supervisors and managers?
Effective supervisors and managers are expressive speakers, empathetic listeners, persuasive
leaders, sensitive people, and informative managers.
6. Describe dominant and subordinate defensive communication. Describe nondefensive
communication.
Dominant defensiveness is characterized by overtly aggressive and domineering behavior. It
is offensive in nature, sometimes culminating in verbal or physical harassment. The
psychological attitude of the dominantly defensive person is “I am right, and you are
wrong.”
Subordinate defensiveness is characterized by passive or submissive behavior. The
psychological attitude of the subordinately defensive person is “You are right, and I am
wrong.”
Nondefensive communication is assertive, direct, and powerful. Nondefensive
communication is powerful because the speaker exhibits self-control and self-possession
without rejecting the listener.

8
7. What four kinds of nonverbal communication are important in interpersonal relationships?
The four kinds of nonverbal communication that are important in interpersonal relationships
are:
• Proxemics—it is the study of an individual’s perception and use of space, including
territorial space.
• Kinesics—it is the study of body movement and posture. It is bound to culture.
• Facial and eye behavior—it is used to communicate an emotional state, reveal
behavioral intentions, and cue the receiver. It may even give unintended clues to
emotions the sender is trying to hide.
• Paralanguage—it consists of variations in speech, such as pitch, loudness, tempo, tone,
duration, laughing, and crying. People make assumptions about the communicator by
deciphering paralanguage cues.
8. What is communicative disease?
The absence of heartfelt communication in relationships leads to loneliness and social
isolation. This condition has been labeled communicative disease by James Lynch.
Communicative disease has adverse effects on the heart and cardiovascular system and can
ultimately lead to premature death. According to Lynch, the only cure for communicative
disease is to reengage in thoughtful, heartwarming conversation with friends and loved ones.
Positive, healthy communication is an important aspect of working together—that is,
cooperating to reach a shared goal—in both the interpersonal and intrapersonal settings.
Such communication requires trust and truthfulness.
9. Describe few new communication technologies in terms of data richness.
E-mail, voice mail, instant messaging, and facsimile (fax) machines have been common in
the business world for more than a decade. These databases provide a tremendous amount of
information at the push of a button.
The newest technology to impact the work environment is the smartphone. Smartphones
combine the capabilities of advanced cell phones with computer-like applications and
connectivity.
Discussion & Communication Questions and Suggested
Answers
1. Who is the best communicator you know? Why do you consider that person to be so?

9
Students’ answers will vary. Many students will name a prominent figure because they can
more readily express why they think the person is a good communicator. Others will identify
individuals they actually know. The difficult aspect of this question is to get them to analyze
why those individuals are good communicators.
2. Who is the best listener you have ever known? Describe what that person does that makes
him or her so good at listening.
Students’ answers will vary. Most often this will be a family member, and the most typical
response is someone who is skilled at reflective listening, especially as an empathetic
listener. Be sure to point out to students that two-way communication is an important
element of this question.
3. What methods have you found most helpful in overcoming barriers to communication that
are physical, status based, cultural, and linguistic?
Students’ answers will vary. This question provides an excellent opportunity for
international students to contribute to class discussions.
4. Who makes you the most defensive when you talk with that person? What does the person
do that makes you so defensive or uncomfortable?
Students’ answers will vary. Ask students to characterize the individual, rather than naming
the individual. Some students might be bold enough to mention professors. Encourage
students to focus on specific behaviors rather than personalities.
5. With whom are you the most comfortable and nondefensive in conversation? What does the
person do that makes you so comfortable or nondefensive?
Students’ answers will vary. Typical answers are friends and partners. Mentors should have
these characteristics as well. Encourage students to focus on specific behaviors rather than
personalities.
6. What nonverbal behaviors do you find most helpful in others when you are attempting to
talk with them and when you try to listen to them?
Students’ answers will vary. You could have students tell you what nonverbal clues you
send while lecturing. Are there annoying habits that get in the way of your information (i.e.,
twisting a paper clip, the inflection in your voice, etc.)?

10
7. Identify a person at work or at school who is difficult to talk to and arrange an interview in
which you practice good reflective listening skills. Ask the person questions about a topic
you think may interest her or him. Pay particular attention to being patient, calm, and
nonreactive. After the interview, summarize what you learned.
Students’ answers will vary. Have the students share what they learned from this interview
in class. Following are some questions that will help stimulate class discussion:
• What were the difficulties they encountered using reflective listening skills?
• How did this conversation compare with previous conversations the student had with
this person?
• What reflective listening skills were most difficult to use and why?
8. Go to the library and read about communication problems and barriers. Write a memo
categorizing the problems and barriers you find in the current literature (last five years).
What changes do organizations or people need to make to solve these problems?
Students’ answers will vary. In addition to enhancing students’ skills at memo writing, this
activity highlights for students the most current communication problems. In identifying
solutions to these problems, encourage students to move beyond the suggestions in the
textbook and to think creatively about their solutions.
9. Develop a role-playing activity for class that demonstrates defensive (dominant or
subordinate) and nondefensive communication. Write brief role descriptions that classmates
can act out.
Students’ answers will vary. Not only does this activity enhance understanding of defensive
and non-defensive communication, but it also can be a lot of fun and a good way to get to
know class members.
10. Read everything you can find in the library about a new communication technology. Write a
two-page memo summarizing what you have learned and the conclusions you draw about
the new technology’s advantages and disadvantages.
Students’ answers will vary. Take time in class for several students to share the information
they gathered on a new communication technology. You can also discuss the environments
in which each new communication technology might be most/least effective.
Ethical Dilemma
The purpose of the Ethical Dilemmas is to encourage students to develop their awareness of

11
ethical issues in the workplace and the managerial challenges they present. The dilemmas are set
up to present situations in which there is no clear ethical choice. The goal for the instructor is to
guide students through the process of analyzing the situation and examining possible alternative
solutions. There are no “right” answers to the questions at the end of each scenario, only
opportunities to explore alternatives and generate discussions on the appropriateness of each
alternative. The student portion of the activity is on a handout at the end of this chapter guide.
Dan’s options are to keep Kyle on his team, and continue to devote the necessary time to making
sure Kyle understands things correctly, or to move Kyle into a job on Ken’s team knowing that
Ken is unlikely to take extra time with Kyle to be sure he understands things correctly.
1. Using consequential, rule-based, and character theories, evaluate Dan’s options.
Consequential theory—if Dan keeps Kyle on his team, he will have to continue spending
extra time with Kyle to be sure he understands everything correctly, but he will have more
control over Kyle’s potential for errors. If Dan moves Kyle to Ken’s team, he will have more
time to devote to other things, but will also have less control over Kyle’s potential for errors
and will be increasing the likelihood that those errors will occur since Ken is unlikely to take
the time to ensure Kyle understands correctly.
Rule-based theory—Dan’s obligation in this situation is to protect the company and the
other workers from any injuries that might result from Kyle’s improper understanding of
what is being communicated to him.
Character theory—Dan seems to care a great deal about communication, as evidenced by his
extensive efforts to ensure that his team clearly and accurately understands what he is trying
to communicate to them. Moreover, he has been willing thus far to devote whatever extra
time is necessary to ensure that Kyle does not misunderstand or misinterpret his
communications. Keeping Kyle on his team would be in line with this character trait,
whereas moving him to Ken’s team would contradict this trait.
2. What should Dan do? Why?
According to the rule-based and character theories, Dan should keep Kyle on his team rather
than move him to Ken’s team. While moving Kyle would free up some of Dan’s time and
remove Kyle as a source of frustration, doing so would also jeopardize Dan’s obligation to
protect the company and other workers from the possibility of harm caused by Kyle’s
misunderstandings or misinterpretations, and would also contradict Dan’s character in that
he would no longer be ensuring that Kyle accurately understands what is being
communicated to him.

12
Self-Assessments—What about You?
8.1 Are You an Active Listener?
Reflective listening is a skill people can practice and learn. This exercise offers ten tips to help
students become better listeners. After students think of situations in which they have had
difficult communications with others at work or school and evaluated themselves against the ten
items, it might be very useful to have them gather in small groups to see what commonalities
exist among them, if any, and which items the largest number of students have difficulty with.
Another option is to have group members suggest ways in which the students might have
handled their own communications in the situations better. The student portion of the activity is
on the review card in the student edition of ORGB and on a handout at the end of this chapter
guide.
8.2 What Kind of a Defender Are You?
Not all of our communication is defensive, but each of us has a tendency to engage in either
subordinate or dominant defensiveness. This exercise presents twelve sets of choices that help
students understand whether they tend to be more subordinate or dominant when they engage in
defensive communication. As a follow up to this assessment, encourage students to develop an
action plan for overcoming their tendencies toward defensiveness. The student portion of the
activity is on a handout at the end of this chapter guide.
Issues in Diversity
Contemporary Media Coverage—Spinning Out of Control?
Before she was asked to resign in July 2010 for making racist remarks, Shirley Sherrod was one
of the highest-ranking black employees in the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA),
serving nearly a year as the head of USDA’s Rural Development office in Georgia. Sherrod is
hardly the first high-ranking employee who has been asked to resign a position. She is, perhaps,
the only one whose resignation was the direct result of inaccurate and misleading media
coverage.
Sherrod’s troubles began when Andrew Breitbart, a conservative blogger, posted a video clip on
his website containing remarks Sherrod made at the NAACP Freedom Fund banquet held earlier
during the year. In her remarks, Sherrod told a story about how she had once provided “just
enough” assistance to a white farmer who risked losing his farm. She admitted that her
reluctance to help the farmer was initially driven by his race. After all, many black farmers in the

13
region had already lost their farms. Sherrod’s story didn’t end there. She went on to tell the
banquet audience how she came to the realization that the issue was not one of race, but of class.
Instead of Sherrod’s remarks demonstrating how she used race to deny white farmers
government assistance, her remarks demonstrated just the opposite.
However, Breitbart’s heavily edited video clip did not show Sherrod’s complete remarks. As a
result, Sherrod was accused of being a “reverse racist,” using her power at the USDA to advance
her racist agenda. What followed was a type of warfare among cable news outlets that has
become symbolic of the 24-hour news culture in this country. By the time the unedited video clip
was widely released, it was too late for Sherrod to get her job back. The damage had already
been done.
1. Do you believe media outlets should receive increased scrutiny when they report stories that
involve race? Explain your position.
Students who believe media outlets should receive increased scrutiny on stories involving
race may argue that the issue of race relations is so sensitive that any stories with the
potential to inflame racial tensions should be given every possible scrutiny before airing.
Conversely, students who do not believe media outlets should receive increased scrutiny
may argue that giving such stories increased scrutiny constitutes a racist approach in itself
and that these stories should be treated in the same way any other news story is treated.
2. How do you reconcile the public’s need to know with the time it often takes to ensure news
stories are properly vetted before they are aired?
The question is misleading as there is nothing to reconcile. The public’s need to know isn’t
being denied by properly vetting stories, only delayed. Moreover, the public has no need to
know untrue or inaccurate information, so thoroughly vetting news stories is the only way to
ensure that the public’s need to know is upheld. Alternatively, one might argue that the
public doesn’t have a need to know, per se. The public may have a desire to know and even
a right to know, but the public would be just fine without knowing—especially if stories are
inaccurate or false—thus, they do not have a need to know.
Experiential Exercises
8.1 Communicate, Listen, Understand
One of the biggest barriers to effective communication between people is the natural tendency to
judge or evaluate the communication before it is fully understood. This especially happens
during times of conflict, opposition, disagreement, boredom, and extreme agreement. More

14
effective communication will result if a clear message is sent and the other person really listens
and understands the message as it is intended to be understood. One way you can be sure that
you understand the other person as he or she intends for you to understand is to make a listening
check. A listening check is merely a summary in your own words of what you understand the
other person to have said. If you have misunderstood the message, it gives you the opportunity to
hear it again and really gain an understanding before moving on in the conversation. The ability
to skillfully make listening checks is crucial in all human interactions and especially crucial
when you are in a managerial role. To gain skills in utilizing listening checks, there will be three
rounds of conversations. During each round, two people will have a conversation while the other
person acts as an observer. One of the two people will initiate the conversation. However, it is
two-way conversation. The student portion of the activity is on a handout at the end of this
chapter guide.
Introduce the activity by saying, “since the management process is performed through
communicating with others, our focus in this session will be on communication skill building.
We are going to do a skill-building exercise in groups of threes, triads. Letter off A, B, and C and
go to an area of the room in which you can carry on a private conversation.” Each round of
conversation will last 5-8 minutes. Call time at the end of each round, reminding students about
switching roles. Following round three, give students time to respond to the questions listed in
Step 5 of the textbook exercise. Have each group share its responses to the questions with the
class. More detailed descriptions of each round follow.
Round 1. In this round, A picks one of the controversial topics that is posted and initiates a
conversation with B. A and B carry on a two-way conversation while observing the following
rule. Before either A or B may speak, they must summarize to the other what the person has just
said to the satisfaction of the speaker. If they summarize back to the other one and it does not
satisfy the other, they must hear the statement or comment again and keep summarizing until it
meets the satisfaction of the one who spoke last. No new statement or any other response may be
given until the last person who spoke is satisfied that the other person has understood what was
said. Again, it is to be a two-way conversation, but you must summarize back to the last person
what they just said to their satisfaction before you can add any new information. Once you have
summarized it, you can make some statements about your position on the topic, then the other
person must summarize back to your satisfaction, before she or he can add any new information.
During this round, C is the observer. As the observer, you are to referee and enforce the ground
rules. If A or B interrupt each other and start talking before they have summarized, you stop
them and remind them that they must summarize what the last person said before they can make
their own statement.
Round 2. During this round, B and C will have a discussion. B will pick a topic off the list

15
posted and begin the conversation with C. It is a two-way conversation, but the only free
statement is the first statement. After that, the other person must make a listening check before
any new information can be added.
A will be the observer, so enforce the ground rules.
Round 3. During this round, C will start the conversation with A, and B will be the observer. It
is important that the observer enforce the ground rules of requiring a listening check before
adding information.
Potential list of controversial topics:
• Gun control
• Background checks on airline passengers
• Assisted suicide
• Restrictions on tobacco advertising
• Abortion
• Provision of welfare benefits to illegal aliens
• Affirmative action programs
• Add your own topics of special interest to your university or community
8.2 Preparing For an Employment-Selection Interview
According to David A. Whetten and Kim S. Cameron (Developing Management Sills: Applied
Communication Skills. New York: HarperCollins, 1993), the employment-selection interview is
one of three important organizational interviews in which applied communication skills are
essential. The other two types of interviews are the information-gathering interview and the
performance-appraisal interview. The student portion of the activity is on a handout at the end of
this chapter guide.
Whetten and Cameron suggest that the supervisor use a PEOPLE-Oriented Process in preparing
for and conducting the employment-selection interview. There are six guidelines for the
supervisor in conducting the interview using this process.
P-Prepare: The supervisor should review the person’s application, resume, transcripts, and other
background information. Using these materials, along with the company’s job description and
performance evaluation form(s), the supervisor should prepare both general and individually-
specific questions. Finally, prepare the physical setting in a suitable and professional manner.
E-Establish Rapport: It is important for the supervisor to help the applicant feel comfortable
and to communicate a genuine interest in the candidate. The supervisor should create a
supportive attitude through both verbal and nonverbal communication.

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Title: English Folk-Song and Dance
Author: Frank Kidson
Mary Neal
Release date: February 12, 2021 [eBook #64536]
Language: English
Credits: Ruth Conway, Paul Marshall and the entire DP
proofreading team.
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENGLISH FOLK-
SONG AND DANCE ***

ENGLISH FOLK-SONG
AND DANCE
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
London: FETTER LANE, E.C.
C. F. CLAY, Manager
Edinburgh: 100 PRINCES STREET
Bombay and Calcutta: MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltd.
Toronto: J. M. DENT & SONS, Ltd.
Tokyo: THE MARUZEN KABUSHIKI-KAISHA
All rights reserved
ENGLISH FOLK-SONG
AND DANCE
BY
FRANK KIDSON

AND
MARY NEAL
Cambridge:
at the University Press
1915

CONTENTS
ENGLISH FOLK-SONG
PAGE
Introduction 3
i. Definition 9
ii. The Origin of Folk-Song 11
iii. The Cante-Fable 15
iv. The Construction of Folk-Music 19
v. Changes that occur in Folk-Music 25
vi. The Quality of Folk-Song, and its Diffusion 36
vii. The Movement for collecting English Folk-Song 40
viii. The Noting of Folk-Music 47
ix. The Different Classes of Folk-Song 52
x. The Narrative Ballad 53
xi. Love Songs and Mystic Songs 57
xii. The Pastoral 60
xiii. Drinking Songs and Humorous Songs 62
xiv. Highwayman and Poacher Songs 64
xv. Soldier Songs 66
xvi. Sea Songs 67
xvii. Pressgang Songs 69
xviii. Hunting and Sporting Songs 70
xix. Songs of Labour 71
xx. Traditional Carols 74
xxi. Children’s Singing-Games 77
xxii. The Ballad Sheet and Song Garland 78
Bibliography 86
ENGLISH FOLK-DANCE

Introduction 97
i. The Morris Dance To-day 125
ii. Tunes 130
iii. Musical Instruments 132
iv. The Dress 136
v. Extra Characters 141
vi. The Sword Dance 145
vii. The Furry Dance 150
viii. The Country Dance 152
ix. The Present-Day Revival of the Folk-Dance 158
x. Conclusions 167
Bibliography 173

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FACING PAGE
Morris Dancers at Bampton-in-the-Bush, Oxon. 97
(By kind permission of The Daily Chronicle)
Abingdon Dances, whose tradition goes back to 1700 104
(From The Espérance Morris Book, Vol. I.,
by kind permission of Messrs J. Curwen & Son)
Morris Dancers in the time of James I. 120
Morris Dance and Music 125
(From the Orchesographie of Thoinot-Arbeau, British
Museum)
Whit-Monday at Bampton-in-the-Bush, Oxon. 145
(By kind permission of The Daily Chronicle)
The Lock; Characteristic of Sword Dances 148
(From The Espérance Morris Book, Vol. II.,
by kind permission of Messrs J. Curwen & Son)

ENGLISH FOLK-SONG
BY FRANK KIDSON
NOTE
I am indebted to Miss Lucy E. Broadwood
for permission to use a folk-tune of her
collecting, and for many helpful suggestions.
F. K.
INTRODUCTION
Writing two centuries ago, Joseph Addison tells us in the character of Mr
Spectator:—
“When I travelled I took a particular delight in hearing the songs and fables
that are come down from father to son, and are most in vogue among the
common people of the countries through which I passed; for it is impossible that
anything should be universally tasted and approved of by a multitude, though they
are only the rabble of the nation, which hath not in it some peculiar aptness to
please and gratify the mind of man” (Spectator, No. 70). He further says:—
“An ordinary song or ballad, that is the delight of the common people, cannot
fail to please all such readers as are not unqualified for the entertainment by their
affectation or ignorance.”
It was not only the cultured Mr Addison who recognised the claims of the
people’s songs as expressive of sentiments that were worthy the consideration of
the more learned, for quotation upon quotation could be given of examples where
the refined and learned have found in the primitive song that which appealed in
the highest degree.
The moderns need no excuse for the study of folk-song, and few will regard
the consideration of people’s-lore as an idle amusement.
The present essay is put forth with all diffidence as a very slight dissertation
upon a complex subject, and it does not pretend to do more than enter into the
fringe of it.

The younger of the present generation have seen the gradual speeding up of
technique in composition and performance, but with this increased standard there
has been a tendency to let fall certain very sacred and essential things that belong
to musical art. In too many cases the composer has not quite justified the
complexity of his composition; while glorying in the skill of his craftsmanship he
has too frequently forgotten the primitive demand for art and beauty, apart from
technical elaboration.
That type of simple melody that formerly pleased what we might regard as a
less cultured age, holds no place in present-day composition or in the esteem of a
certain class.
It is probable that this melodic starvation turned so many, who had not lost the
feeling for simple tune, towards folk-music when this was dragged from obscurity
and declared by competent musical judges to be worthy of consideration. Then
people began to revel in its charm, and to feel that here was something that had
been withheld from them, but which was good for their musical souls.
A simple air of eight or sixteen bars may not appear difficult to evolve, or even
worth evolving at all, much less of record; but when the matter is further
considered, we have to acknowledge that seemingly trivial melodies have wrought
effects which have upset thrones and changed the fate of nations. Where they
have not had this great political influence their histories show that they have
rooted themselves deeply into the hearts of a people, and put into shade the finest
compositions of great musicians. An undying vitality appears to be inherent in
them, and this is shown by their general appeal throughout periods of thought and
life totally unlike. Many examples prove this, and such an air as “Greensleeves”
might be cited in this connexion.
One would suppose that nothing could be more apart in thought, action, and
habit than the gallant of Elizabeth’s reign and an English farm labourer of the
present day. And yet the tune “Greensleeves” that pleased the sixteenth century
culture is found the cherished possession of countrymen in the Midlands, who
execute a rustic dance to a traditional survival of it. Further proof that it is one of
those immortal tunes to which reference has been made is shown by the fact that
it exists in various forms, and has had all kinds of songs fitted to it from its first
recorded appearance in Shakespeare’s time (who mentions it) down to the present
day.
“Greensleeves” is probably an “art” tune and not strictly folk-music. Hence in
its passage downwards it has gradually got stripped of some of its subtilty, as it
has been chiefly passed onward by tradition. This change will be noted further on.
Other tunes that, coming from remote antiquity, still find a welcome with the
people are, “John Anderson my Jo,” and “Scots wha hae,” while “Lillibulero,” and
“Boyne Water,” though of lesser age, fall into the same category.

We have even taken to our hearts tunes of other nationalities, and perhaps
have more French airs among our popular music than of any other country. As
every student of national song knows, “We won’t go home till morning” is but
“Malbrook,” the favourite of Marie Antoinette, who learned it from the peasant
woman called in to nurse her first child. “Ah vous dirai je” is known as “Baa baa
black sheep” in every nursery, while “In my cottage near a wood” is a literal
translation from an old French song to its proper tune.
Such of these, or of this class, as are not folk-tunes have the same spirit, and it
is this indefinable quality that causes folk-music to be so tenacious of existence. If
it be good enough it is almost impossible for it to die and be totally forgotten. A
tune may lie dormant for half a century, but it rises again and has its period of
renewed popularity. One might name many a music-hall air, over which the people
have for a period gone half wild, that is merely a resuscitation of a tune that has
pleased a former generation. Thus such airs pass through strata of widely differing
thought and mode of life.
It is folk-music that appeals to the bed-rock temperament of the people.
Artificial music can only do so to a culture, which may change its standards with a
change of thought, and that which is the applauded of one generation becomes
the despised of a succeeding one; musical history can furnish many such
examples. These facts justify our appreciation of folk-music and elevate its study.
I. DEFINITION
The word “folk-song” is so elastic in definition that it has been freely used to
indicate types of song and melody that greatly differ from each other. The word
conveys a different signification to different people, and writers have got sadly
confused from this circumstance. Even the word “song” has not a fixed meaning,
for it can imply both a lyric with its music, and the words of the lyric only.
“Folk-song,” or “people’s song,” may be understood to imply, in its broadest
sense, as Volkslied does to the German, a song and its music which is generally
approved by the bulk of the people. Thus any current popular drawing-room song,
or the latest music-hall production, would naturally hold this meaning, though it
would not come into line with the other conceptions of folk-song, and probably not
altogether satisfy the German ideal. Then, what may fitly be called “national”
songs have a strong claim upon the word. “God save the King,” “Home sweet
Home,” “Tom Bowling,” “Heart of Oak,” and countless others that form our national
store of song and melody could under this meaning be called folk-songs, and this
might come closer to the German idea of a Volkslied.

The type, however, which lies nearest the definition of folk-song, as understood
by the modern expert, is a song born of the people and used by the people—
practically exclusively used by them before being noted down by collectors and
placed before a different class of singers. To pursue the subject further one might
split straws over the word “people,” but it may be generally accepted that “the
people,” in this instance, stands for a stratum of society where education of a
literary kind is, in a greater or lesser degree, absent.
This last definition of folk-song, as “song and melody born of the people and
used by the people as an expression of their emotions, and (as in the case of
historical ballads) for lyrical narrative,” is the one adopted in these pages and that
generally recognised by the chief collectors and by the Folk-Song Society. In
addition it may be mentioned that folk-song is practically almost always traditional,
so far as its melody is concerned, and, like all traditional lore, subject to corruption
and alteration. Also, that we have no definite knowledge of its original birth, and
frequently but a very vague idea as to its period.
It has been cleverly said that a proverb is the “wit of one and the wisdom of
many.” In a folk-song or folk-ballad we may accept a similar definition, to the effect
that it is in the power of one person to put into tangible form a history, a legend,
or a sentiment which is generally known to, or felt by, the community at large, but
which few are able to put into definite shape. We may suppose that such effort
from one individual may be either crude or polished; that matters little if the
sentiment is a commonly felt one, for common usage will give it some degree of
polish, or at any rate round off some of its corners.
II. THE ORIGIN OF FOLK-SONG
Every nation, both savage and civilized, has its folk-song, and this folk-song is a
reflection of the current thought of the class among which it is popular. It is
frequently a spontaneous production that invests in lyric form the commonly felt
emotion or sentiment of the moment.
This type is more observable among savage tribes than among civilized
nations. Folk-song is therefore not so permanent among the former as it is among
the latter. So far as we can gather, though it is difficult to get at the truth of this
matter, among primitive people the savage does not appear to retain his song-
traditions, but invents new lyrics as occasion calls. For example, one is continually
reading in books of travel of negroes, or natives of wild countries, chanting
extemporary songs descriptive of things which have been the happenings of the
day, and telling of the white man who has come among them, of the feast he has
provided, of the dangers they have encountered during the journey, and so forth.

The tunes of these songs appear to be chiefly monotonous chants, and the
accompanying music of the rudest character, produced on tom-toms, horns, reed-
flutes, or similar kinds of instruments. A very typical description of this class of
folk-song, the like of which may be found in most books of travel, occurs in Day’s
Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan. The author
says:—
“The ordinary folk-songs of the country are called “Lavanis,”
and will be familiar to every one who has heard the coolies sing
as they do their work, the women nursing their children, the
bullock-drivers and dooley-bearers, or Sepoys on the march. The
airs are usually very monotonous, the words, if not impromptu,
are a sort of history, or ballad in praise of some warrior, or ‘burra-
sahib.’ Some have a kind of chorus, each in turn singing an
improvised verse.”
This type appears to be the origin of a nation’s folk-song.
It is a sign of a country’s civilization when it begins to keep records, either by
tradition or more fixed methods, and it is a theory (which may be probably
accepted as correct) that chronicles were first chanted in ballad form and thus
more easily passed downward in remembrance. This may be accepted as the
origin of the folk-ballad. Its music has originated by the same natural instinct that
produces language.
Much has been said of the communal origin of folk-song and folk-music, but it
is somewhat difficult fully to realise what is meant by such a term in relation to
these matters.
Those who hold this theory appear to assert that a folk-song with its music has
had a primal formation at some early and indefinite time, and that this germ,
thrown upon the world, has been fashioned and changed by numberless brains
according to the popular demand, and has only met with general acceptance when
it has fulfilled the requirements that the populace have demanded. This change is
called its “evolution,” and it is sometimes claimed that this evolution still goes on
where folk-songs are yet sung; this means that the folk-song is virtually in a state
of fluidity.
Such, briefly, appears to be the idea of those who hold the evolutionary, or
communal, theory of folk-song origin. It cannot be denied that there is an obvious
truth in such a contention, but before it can be generally accepted surely there
must be much modification. It cannot be altogether decided that the original germ
is absolutely different from the folk-song as found existing to-day, but that both
folk-song and folk-music are subject to change also cannot be disputed. The
parlour game “Gossip,” in which A whispers a short narrative to B, who in turn
whispers it to C, the narrative passing finally to Z, has been used as an illustration

of the variations that folk-song undergoes. In the game, the tale originally put
forth by A is generally found to be much unlike that received by Z. Folk-song in
some degree suffers such change by conscious or unconscious alteration.
Unconscious alteration we can easily understand; that is merely the result of
imperfect remembrance. Conscious alteration may be the effect, in vocal
rendering, of a difficulty in individual singers of attaining certain intervals, or from
choice. Alteration in instrumental rendering of folk-music is chiefly due to lack of
skill in the performer on a particular instrument. Thus, what may be difficult to
render on a flute may be easy on a fiddle; hence we can conceive an alteration
may be purposely made for facility of performance. This is decidedly not evolution,
nor communal origin.
III. THE CANTE-FABLE
The existence of the “Cante-fable” has furnished another theory of folk-song
origin. The Cante-fable is a traditional prose narrative having rhymed passages
incorporated with the tale. These rhymes are generally short verses, or couplets,
which recur at dramatic points of the story. They were probably sung to tunes, but
present-day remembrance has failed to preserve more than a few specimens, and
the verse, or couplet, is now generally recited.
It has been asserted that the Cante-fable is a sort of germ from which both
ballad and prose narrative have evolved. Mr Jacobs, in English Fairy Tales, says
—“The Cante-fable is probably the protoplasm out of which both ballad and folk-
tale have been differentiated; the ballad by omitting the narrative prose, and the
folk-tale by expanding it.”
Mr Cecil J. Sharp, in English Folk-song: Some Conclusions, p. 6, tells of having
noted a version of the ballad “Lord Thomas and Fair Eleanor”—“in which the whole
of the story was sung, with the exception of three lines, which the singer assured
me should be spoken. This was clearly a case of a Cante-fable that had very
nearly, but not quite, passed into the form of a ballad, thus corroborating Mr
Jacobs’ theory.”
The present writer is sorry to differ from Mr Jacobs as well as from Mr Sharp in
this matter, but he does not think that facts quite justify the conclusion. He can
but look upon the speaking of the three lines of the “Fair Eleanor” ballad, instead
of singing them, as merely an individual eccentricity that has no value as pointing
to a nearly completed evolution. Their theory indicates, to put it crudely, that the
Cante-fable is in the condition of a tadpole which by and by will have its fins and
tail turned into legs, will forsake its original element, and hop about a meadow,
instead of being entirely confined to pond water.

An examination of existing Cante-fables will certainly reveal the fact that the
fragments of verse are used either as a literary ornament, or to force some
particular dramatic situation home to the hearer. Also, it must be noticed that the
rhyme passages are not merely fragmentary parts of a prose narrative which is
gradually turning wholly into rhyme, but most frequently consist of a repeated
verse, or couplet, that occurs at parts of the story, which could not be so
effectively told in prose.
The commonly known story of “Orange,” versions of which, all having the same
rhyme passages, are to be found in English, German, and other folk-tales is a good
example. With little variation the story tells of a stepmother who kills her
husband’s child, makes the body into a pie, to be eaten by the father, and buries
the bones in the cellar. First one member of the family goes into this place and
hears the voice of the murdered child sing,—
“My mother did kill me and put me in pies,
My father did eat me and say I was nice;
My two little sisters came picking my bones,
And buried me under cold marble stones.”
Then other members of the family go to the cellar and in turn hear the same voice
repeating the rhyme (see Folk-Song Journal, vol. ii., p. 295, for a version of the
tale and a tune sung to the above words learned from Liverpool children).
Another Cante-fable, surely a genuine one, is given by Charles Dickens in
“Nurses’ Stories” in The Uncommercial Traveller.
In this case the rhyme—
“A lemon has pips,
A yard has ships,
And I’ll have Chips!”
is brought out with vivid effect by the narrator at intervals and with terror-striking
force due to its expected recurrence, just as in the case of the story of “Orange.”
As Dickens puts it—“I don’t know why, but the fact of the Devil expressing himself
in rhyme was peculiarly trying to me.” And again—“For this refrain I had waited
since its last appearance with inexpressible horror, which now culminated.” And
—“The invariable effect of this alarming tautology on the part of the Evil Spirit was
to deprive me of my senses.”
There can be but little doubt that this Cante-fable is a real nurse’s story,
remembered by the great author from his childhood, and Dickens so well describes
the feeling of terror that the rhyme inspires in the childish listener, that we cannot

but grant that the original makers of Cante-fable were quite alive to the dramatic
force such recurring rhymes possess.
Other examples of the Cante-fable are to be found in Chambers’ Popular
Rhymes of Scotland and elsewhere. All, however, point to the verse being used as
an ornamental and dramatic addition to the story, and certainly not as indicating a
transitionary stage between a rhyming and a prose narrative.
The question of a Cante-fable origin of the folk-ballad is here somewhat fully
dealt with, as it is a sufficiently romantic theory to lead people, who have not fully
considered all the points involved, to accept it on trust.
IV. THE CONSTRUCTION OF
FOLK-MUSIC
It will be quite evident to the average hearer that much folk-music is built upon
scales different from those that form the foundation of the ordinary modern tune.
This fact is accounted for by the circumstance that a large percentage of folk-
melodies are “modal”; i.e. constructed upon the so-called “ecclesiastical modes”
which, whether adopted from the Greek musical system or not, had Greek
nomenclature, and were employed in the early church services.
The ecclesiastical scales may be realised by playing an octave scale on the
white keys of the piano only. Thus—C to C is Ionian, D to D Dorian, E to E
Phrygian, F to F Lydian (rarely used), G to G Mixolydian, A to A Æolian, and B to B
Locrian (practically unused).
Progress in harmony and polyphony gradually revealed the cramping effect of
many modal intervals, and already by the beginning of the seventeenth century
our modern major and minor scales (the first, however, corresponding to the
Ionian mode in structure) had supplanted the rest, so far as trained musicians
were concerned. Not so with the folk-tune maker; he was conservative enough to
preserve that which had become obsolete elsewhere. We find a large proportion of
folk-airs are in the Dorian, Mixolydian, and Æolian modes, with much fewer in the
Phrygian.
When folk-music began to be first studied scientifically a theory was held that
because of its modal character it was necessarily a reflex of ecclesiastical music,
and that secular melodies were either church chants set to songs, or in some other
way derived from them. It is known that many of the early clerics established
schools for the teaching of music, with intent to enrich the services. But while this
theory is temptingly plausible, yet it is incapable of proof, and a reverse one might,

with equal reason, be held to maintain that the church took its music directly from
the people, or at any rate adapted its form from that mostly popular.
It has also been asserted that the modal character of folk-music is a clear proof
of great age. It is certainly more than likely that most of the modal tunes that are
found are of considerable antiquity, but it is scarcely safe to conclude that all are
so. How old any particular folk-tune may be is a problem incapable of solution, and
all attempts to fix its age and period can be but, at best, mere guesswork.
We may grant that folk-music has been handed down traditionally by many
generations of singers, but if it has pleased these different generations we must
also admit that any new composition of folk-music, to please the people, must
conform to their common demand.
Folk-music seems to have held its own traditional ideals longer and more
closely than music composed for that class which has so persistently ignored it.
The cultured musician is always, consciously or unconsciously, influenced by the
music of his day, and as a consequence adheres to its idioms, or is genius enough
to found a school of his own. His music too is far more elaborate than that
produced by the rustic, or untaught musician. It has harmony, and many more
points of evidence that enable us definitely to fix its period of composition.
The composer of folk-music may be compared, in a sense, to the Indian, or
Chinese art-worker who repeats the class of patterns that has come down to him
from time immemorial. When European influence was brought to bear on his work
his patterns became debased, lost their original beauty, and gained nothing from
the new source of inspiration.
There is no space in this small manual to enter into a disquisition on the
Modes. The reader is referred to such a work as the new edition of Grove’s
Dictionary of Music and Musicians (vol. iii., p. 222), to Carl Engel’s Study of
National Music, and to a most valuable contribution to the subject by Miss A. G.
Gilchrist, “Note on the Modal System of Gaelic Tunes,” in the Journal of the Folk-
Song Society, vol. iv., No. 16.
The following are given as examples of modal folk-tunes, in the modes most
frequently found:—
ONE MOONLIGHT NIGHT
Dorian Sung in a “Cante-Fable”

One moonlight night, as I sat high, I looked for one, but two came by; The
boughs did bend, the leaves did shake, To see the hole the fox did make.
[Listen]
THE BONNY LABOURING BOY
Noted by Miss L. E. Broadwood Sung by Mr Lough, Surrey
Mixolydian
As I roved out one eve - ning, being in the blooming spring,
I heard a love-ly dam-sel fair most grie-vously did sing, Say-ing
“Cru-el were my pa - rents that did me so an - noy. They
did not let me mar-ry with my bon-ny la-b’ring boy.”
[Listen]

CHRISTMAS CAROL AS SUNG IN
NORTH YORKSHIRE
Æolian Mode
God rest you merry, merry gentlemen, Let nothing you dismay, Re-
member Christ our Saviour was born on Christmas day, To
save our souls from Satan’s pow’r that long had gone astray, Oh,
tidings of comfort and joy, and joy, and
joy, Oh, tidings of comfort and joy, and joy.
[Listen]
In addition to modal tunes we have a certain number of folk-airs built upon a
“gapped,” or limited, scale of five notes instead of the usual seven. This
“pentatonic” scale, which appears to be very characteristic of the primitive music
of all nations, was formerly held as an infallible sign of a Scottish origin, and the
old recipe to produce a Scottish air was—“stick to the black keys of the piano.” It is
quite true that a large number of Scottish melodies have the characteristics of the
pentatonic scale, but so also have the Irish tunes, and there are a lesser number
that may claim to be English.

Much nonsense has been written to account for the existence of the pentatonic
scale, the general conclusion arrived at being that it arose from the use of an
imperfect instrument that could only produce five tones. Whatever the instrument
so limited may have been, it was neither the primitive flute (like the tin whistle) of
six vents, which is sufficient to produce well over an octave, nor was it the human
voice. The universal use of the five note scale among many nations wide apart has
never been satisfactorily explained. The following is an Irish pentatonic traditional
air.
THE SHAMROCK SHORE
Pentatonic
[Listen]
V. CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN
FOLK-MUSIC
That all traditional lore is subject to change is of course a well-recognised fact,
and this change is so uncertain in its effects, and so erratic in its selection that no
law appears to govern it. In ballads or prose narratives that exist only by verbal
transmission we may expect the dropping of obsolete words and phrases, and this

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