Packet switching

" ASSIGNMENT REPORT"
Under the guidance of :-
Usha Mary Sharma (Asst. Professor),
course teacher for, Data Communication and Networks -1(MCCSGC3009)
Don Bosco College of Engineering and Technology, Azara, Guwahati, Assam

Acknowledgement
I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude and
deep regards to my guide Usha Mary Sharma (Asst. Professor),
for his exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant
encouragement throughout the course of this thesis. The
blessing, help and guidance given by him time to time shall
carry me a long way in the journey of life on which I am about
to embark.
I also thank almighty, my parents, and friends for their constant
encouragement without which this assignment would not be possible.
BIKASH KUMAR DHAL
DC2013MCA0028 (MCA-3)

Content
Sl no. Topic Page No.
1. Introduction to Packet Switching, What is packet
Switching ? , DATAGRAM NETWORKS,
figure : 1 Datagram Network
4
2. Efficiency Of DATAGRAM ,
VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS ,
Figure : 2 Virtual network
5
3. Efficiency in virtual-circuit network ,
Introduction Of Encryption, Encryption 6
4. Introduction to Encryption Continue , Figure : 3 Stage
of Encryption and Decryption
7
5.
Why Encryption Across packet Switching Networks
is Important ? , Figure : 4 Points of Vulnerability
8,9
6. Approaches of Encryption Across packet Switching
Networks , Figure : 5 Packet Switching Networks
10
7. Link Encryption , End to End Encryption . 11
8. End - to - End Encryption continue , Logical
Placement of End-to-End Encryption Function
12
9. Figure : 6 Encryption with Store-and-Forward
communication
13
10
Figure : 7 Relationship between Encryption and
Protocol Levels
14
11 Table : 1 Different characteristics between Link
Encryption And End-to-End Encryption
15
12 Conclusion 16
13 Glossary / Acronyms 17
14 Bibliography 18

Introduction to Packet Switching
What is packet Switching?
In a packet switched network , data transmitted in potential variable length blocks called Packets.
The maximum length of the packet is established by a network . Longer transmission are broken
up into multiple packets Each packet not only contain data but header with control information
(Such as priority code , source and destination address).The packet are sent over the network
node to node
Basically it has two Approaches
1. DATAGRAM NETWORKS
2. VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
DATAGRAM NETWORKS
In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others. Even if a packet is
part of a multi-packet transmission, the network treats it as though it existed alone. Packets in
this approach are referred to as datagrams. Datagram switching is normally done at the network
layer.
figure : 1 Datagram Network
In this example, all four packets (or datagrams) belong to the same message, but may travel
different paths to reach their destination. This is so because the links may be involved in carrying
packets from other sources and do not have the necessary bandwidth available to carry all the
packets from A to X. This approach can cause the datagrams of a transmission to arrive at their
destination out of order with different delays between the packets. Packets may also be lost or
dropped because of a lack of resources.

Efficiency Of DATAGRAM
The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a circuit-switched network resources
are allocated only when there are packets to be transferred. If a source sends a packet and there is
a delay of a few minutes before another packet can be sent, the resources can be reallocated
during these minutes for other packets from other sources.
VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
In Virtual - circuit approach , the relationship between all packets belonging to a message or
session is preserved . A single route is chosen between sender and receiver at the beginning of
the session .When data are sent all packets of transmission travel one after another along that
route.
Figure : 2 Virtual network
Figure 2 (Virtual network)is an example of a virtual-circuit network. The network has switches
that allow traffic from sources to destinations. A source or destination can be a computer, packet
switch, bridge, or any other device that connects other networks.

Efficiency in virtual-circuit network
As we said before, resource reservation in a virtual-circuit network can be made during the setup
or can be on demand during the data transfer phase. In the first case, the delay for each packet is
the same; in the second case, each packet may encounter different delays. There is one big
advantage in a virtual-circuit network even if resource allocation is on demand. The source can
check the availability of the resources, without actually reserving it. Consider a family that wants
to dine at a restaurant. Although the restaurant may not accept reservations (allocation of the
tables is on demand), the family can call and find out the waiting time. This can save the family
time and effort.
Introduction Of Encryption
Encryption
Encryption is the conversion of data into a form, called a Ciphertext , that cannot be easily
understood by unauthorized people. Decryption is the process of converting encrypted data back
into its original form, so it can be understood.
The use of encryption/decryption is as old as the art of communication. In wartime, a cipher,
often incorrectly called a code, can be employed to keep the enemy from obtaining the contents
of transmissions. (Technically, a code is a means of representing a signal without the intent of
keeping it secret; examples are Morse- Code and ASCII.) Simple ciphers include the substitution
of letters for numbers, the rotation of letters in the alphabet, and the "scrambling" of voice
signals by inverting the sideband frequencies. More complex ciphers work according to
sophisticated computer algorithms that rearrange the data bits in digital signals.
In order to easily recover the contents of an encrypted signal, the correct decryption key is
required. The key is an algorithm that undoes the work of the encryption algorithm.
Alternatively, a computer can be used in an attempt to break the cipher. The more complex the
encryption algorithm, the more difficult it becomes to eavesdrop on the communications without
access to the key.
Encryption/decryption is especially important in wireless communications. This is because
wireless circuits are easier to tap than their hard-wired counterparts. Nevertheless
,encryption/decryption is a good idea when carrying out any kind of sensitive transaction, such as
a credit-card purchase online, or the discussion of a company secret between different
departments in the organization. The stronger the cipher -- that is, the harder it is for
unauthorized people to break it -- the better, in general. However, as the strength of
encryption/decryption increases, so does the cost.

Introduction to Encryption Continue
In recent years, a controversy has arisen over so-called strong encryption. This refers to ciphers
that are essentially unbreakable without the decryption keys. While most companies and their
customers view it as a means of keeping secrets and minimizing fraud, some governments view
strong encryption as a potential vehicle by which terrorists might evade authorities. These
governments, including that of the United States, want to set up a key-escrow arrangement. This
means everyone who uses a cipher would be required to provide the government with a copy of
the key. Decryption keys would be stored in a supposedly secure place, used only by authorities,
and used only if backed up by a court order. Opponents of this scheme argue that criminals could
hack into the key-escrow database and illegally obtain, steal, or alter the keys. Supporters claim
that while this is a possibility, implementing the key escrow scheme would be better than doing
nothing to prevent criminals from freely using encryption/decryption
Figure : 3 Stage of Encryption and Decryption

Why Encryption Across packetSwitching Networks is Important ?
As an example, consider a user workstation in a typical business organization. Figure 4.0
suggests the types of communications facilities that might be employed by such a workstation
and therefore gives an indication of the points of vulnerability.
Figure : 4 Points of Vulnerability
Factors of vulnerability
 In most organizations, workstations are attached to local area networks (LANs).
Typically, the user can reach other workstations, hosts , and servers directly on the LAN
or on other LANs in the same building that are interconnected with bridges and routers.
Here, then, is the first point of vulnerability. In this case, the main concern is
eavesdropping by another employee. Typically, a LAN is a broadcast network:
Transmission from any station to any other station is visible on the LAN medium to all
stations . Data are transmitted in the form of frames , with each frame containing the
source and destination address. An eavesdropper can monitor the traffic on the LAN and
capture any traffic desired on the basis of source and destination addresses. If part or all
of the LAN is wireless, then the potential for eavesdropping is greater.

 Furthermore, the eavesdropper need not necessarily be an employee in the building. If the
LAN, through a communications server or one of the hosts on the LAN, offers a dial-in
capability, then it is possible for an intruder to gain access to the LAN and monitor
traffic.
 Access to the outside world from the LAN is almost always available in the form of a
router that connects to the Internet, a bank of dial-out modems, or some other type of
communications server. From the communications server, there is a line leading to a
wiring closet . The wiring closet serves as a patch panel for interconnecting internal data
and phone lines and for providing a staging point for external communications.
 The wiring closet itself is vulnerable. If an intruder can penetrate to the closet, he or she
can tap into each wire to determine which are used for data transmission. After isolating
one or more lines, the intruder can attach a low-power radio transmitter. The resulting
signals can be picked up from a nearby location (e.g., a parked van or a nearby building).
 Several routes out of the wiring closet are possible. A standard configuration provides
access to the nearest central office of the local telephone company. Wires in the closet are
gathered into a cable, which is usually consolidated with other cables in the basement of
the building. From there, a larger cable runs underground to the central office.
 In addition, the wiring closet may provide a link to a microwave antenna, either an earth
station for a satellite link or a point-to-point terrestrial microwave link. The antenna link
can be part of a private network, or it can be a local bypass to hook in to a long-distance
carrier.
 The wiring closet may also provide a link to a node of a packet-switching network. This
link can be a leased line, a direct private line, or a switched connection through a public
telecommunications network. Inside the network, data pass through a number of nodes
and links between nodes until the data arrive at the node to which the destination end
system is connected.
 An attack can take place on any of the communications links. For active attacks, the
attacker needs to gain physical control of a portion of the link and be able to insert and
capture transmissions. For a passive attack, the attacker merely needs to be able to
observe transmissions. The communications links involved can be cable (telephone
twisted pair, coaxial cable, or optical fiber), microwave links, or satellite channels.
Twisted pair and coaxial cable can be attacked using either invasive taps or inductive
devices that monitor electromagnetic emanations. Invasive taps allow both active and
passive attacks, whereas inductive taps are useful for passive attacks. Neither type of tap
is as effective with optical fiber, which is one of the advantages of this medium. The fiber
does not generate electromagnetic emanations and hence is not vulnerable to inductive
taps. Physically breaking the cable seriously degrades signal quality and is therefore
detectable. Microwave and satellite transmissions can be intercepted with little risk to the
attacker. This is especially true of satellite transmissions, which cover a broad geographic
area. Active attacks on microwave and satellite are also possible, although they are more
difficult technically and can be quite expensive.

Approaches of Encryption Across packetSwitching Networks
There are two major approaches :
1. Link Encryption
2. End to End Encryption .
Figure : 5 Packet Switching Networks

Link Encryption
With link encryption, each vulnerable communications link is equipped on both ends with an
encryption device. Thus, all traffic over all communications links is secured. Although this
recourse requires a lot of encryption devices in a large network, its value is clear. One of its
disadvantages is that the message must be decrypted each time it enters a packet switch because
the switch must read the address (logical connection number) in the packet header in order to
route the packet. Thus, the message is vulnerable at each switch. If working with a public packet
switching network, the user has no control over the security of the nodes. Several implications of
link encryption should be noted. For this strategy to be effective, all the potential links in a path
from source to destination must use link encryption. Each pair of nodes that share a link should
share a unique key, with a different key used on each link. Thus, many keys must be provided.
However, each key must be distributed to only two nodes.
End - to - End Encryption
With end-to-end encryption, the encryption process is carried out at the two end systems. The
source host or terminal encrypts the data. The data in encrypted form are then transmitted
unaltered across the network to the destination terminal or host. The destination shares a key
with the source and so is able to decrypt the data. This plan seems to secure the transmission
against attacks on the network links or switches. Thus, end-to-end encryption relieves the end
user of concerns about the degree of security of networks and links that support the
communication. There is, however, still a weak spot.
Consider the following situation. A host connects to an X.25 packet-switching network, sets up a
virtual circuit to another host, and is prepared to transfer data to that other host by using end-to-
end encryption. Data are transmitted over such a network in the form of packets that consist of a
header and some user data. What part of each packet will the host encrypt? Suppose that the host
encrypts the entire packet, including the header. This will not work because, remember, only the
other host can perform the decryption. The packet switching node will receive an encrypted
packet and be unable to read the header. Therefore, it will not be able to route the packet. It
follows that the host may encrypt only the user data portion of the packet and must leave the
header in the clear. Thus, with end-to-end encryption, the user data are secure. However, the
traffic pattern is not, because packet headers are transmitted in the clear.
On the other hand, end-to-end encryption does provide a degree of authentication. If two end
systems share an encryption key, then a recipient is assured that any message that it receives
comes from the alleged sender, because only that sender shares the relevant key. Such
authentication is not inherent in a link encryption scheme.

End - to - End Encryption continue
To achieve greater security, both link and end-to-end encryption are needed, as is shown in
Figure 5 (Packet Switching Networks). When both forms of encryption are employed, the host
encrypts the user data portion of a packet using an end-to-end encryption key. The entire packet
is then encrypted using a link encryption key. As the packet traverses the network, each switch
decrypts the packet, using a link encryption key to read the header, and then encrypts the entire
packet again for sending it out on the next link. Now the entire packet is secure except for the
time that the packet is actually in the memory of a packet switch, at which time the packet header
is in the clear.
Logical Placement of End-to-End Encryption Function
With link encryption, the encryption function is performed at a low level of the communications
hierarchy. In terms of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, link encryption occurs at
either the physical or link layers. For end-to-end encryption, several choices are possible for the
logical placement of the encryption function. At the lowest practical level, the encryption
function could be performed at the network layer. Thus, for example, encryption could be
associated with X.25, so that the user data portion of all X.25 packets is encrypted. With
network-layer encryption, the number of identifiable and separately protected entities
corresponds to the number of end systems in the network. Each end system can engage in an
encrypted exchange with another end system if the two share a secret key. All the user processes
and applications within each end system would employ the same encryption scheme with the
same key to reach a particular target end system. With this arrangement, it might be desirable to
off-load the encryption function to some sort of front-end processor (typically a communications
board in the end system). Deployment of encryption services on end-to-end protocols, such as a
network-layer X.25 or TCP, provides end-to-end security for traffic within a fully integrated
internetwork. However, such a scheme cannot deliver the necessary service for traffic that
crosses internetwork boundaries, such as electronic mail, electronic data interchange (EDI), and
file transfers.

Figure : 6 Encryption with Store-and-Forward communication
Figure: 6 illustrates the issues involved. In this example, an electronic mail gateway is used to
interconnect an internetwork that uses an OSI - Based architecture with one that uses a TCP/IP-
based architecture. In such a configuration, there is no end-to-end protocol below the application
layer. The transport and network connections from each end system terminate at the mail
gateway, which sets up new transport and network connections to link to the other end system.
Furthermore, such a scenario is not limited to the case of a gateway between two different
architectures. Even if both end systems use TCP/IP or OSI, there are plenty of instances in actual
configurations in which mail gateways sit between otherwise isolated internetworks. Thus, for
applications like electronic mail that have a store-and-forward capability, the only place to
achieve end-to-end encryption is at the application layer.
 A drawback of application-layer encryption is that the number of entities to consider
increases dramatically. A network that supports hundreds of hosts may support thousands
of users and processes. Thus, many more secret keys need to be generated and
distributed.
 An interesting way of viewing the alternatives is to note that as we move up the
communications hierarchy, less information is encrypted but it is more secure. Figure 7
highlights this point, using the TCP/IP architecture as an example. In the figure, an
application-level gateway refers to a store-and-forward device that operates at the
application level. Unfortunately, most TCP/IP documents use the term gateway to refer to
what is more commonly referred to as a router .

Figure : 7 Relationship between Encryption and Protocol Levels
With application-level encryption (Figure 7.a), only the user data portion of a TCP segment is
encrypted. The TCP, IP, network-level, and link-level headers and link-level trailer are in the
clear. By contrast, if encryption is performed at the TCP level (Figure 7.b), then, on a single end-
to-end connection, the user data and the TCP header are encrypted. The IP header remains in the
clear because it is needed by routers to route the IP datagram from source to destination. Note,
however, that if a message passes through a gateway, the TCP connection is terminated and a
new transport connection is opened for the next hop. Furthermore, the gateway is treated as a
destination by the underlying IP. Thus, the encrypted portions of the data unit are decrypted at
the gateway. If the next hop is over a TCP/IP network, then the user data and TCP header are
encrypted again before transmission. However, in the gateway itself the data unit is buffered
entirely in the clear. Finally, for link-level encryption (Figure 7.c), the entire data unit except for
the link header and trailer is encrypted on each link, but the entire data unit is in the clear at each
router and gateway. The figure actually shows but one alternative. It is also possible to encrypt
part or even all of the link header and trailer except for the starting and ending frame flags.

Characteristics of Link and End-to-End Encryption
Characteristics of Link and End-to-End Encryption
Link Encryption End-to-End Encryption
Security within End Systems and Intermediate Systems
Message exposed in sending host Message encrypted in sending
host
Message exposed in intermediate nodes Message encrypted in
intermediate nodes
Role of User
Applied by sending host Applied by sending process
Transparent to user User applies encryption
Host maintains encryption facility User must determine algorithm
One facility for all users Users selects encryption scheme
Can be done in hardware Software implementation
All or no messages encrypted User chooses to encrypt, or not,
for each message
Implementation Concerns
Requires one key per (host-intermediate node) pair and
(intermediate node-intermediate node) pair
Requires one key per user pair
Provides host authentication Provides user authentication
Table : 1 Different characteristics between Link Encryption And End-to-End Encryption

Conclusion
From the assignment we can have concrete knowledge of Packet Switching and Encryption
Basically Two Approaches Of Packet Switching
1. DATAGRAM NETWORKS
2. VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
Advantages of Both the Approaches
How Encryption is helping in packet Switching in networks ? How Encryption is helping us from
unseen threats , and how can we stop an intruder or an unauthorized person from getting our
data
public key and Private key: This is a pair of keys that have seen selected so that if one is used
for encryption , the other is used for decryption . The exact transformation is performed by the
algorithm depend on the public or private key that is provided as input.
Ciphertext : This is scrambled message produced as output . It depends on the plain text and the
key . For a given message ,tow different keys will produce two different Ciphertext
Two process used in PSTN (Packet Switching Network)
1. Link Encryption
2. End to End Encryption .

Glossary / Acronyms
PSTN - Packet Switching Networks
IP- Internetworking Protocol
UDP- User Datagram Protocol
TCP- Transmission Control Protocol
DES- Data Encryption standard
Application Layer- The Seventh Layer OSI model ; Provides access to networks.
Datagram approach Packet Switching - A data transmission method in which each data unit
is independent of others
Encryption- Converting a message into unintelligible form that is unreadable unless decrypted.
Decryption- Recovery Of original data from the Encrypted Data
Public key And Private key: This is a pair of keys that have seen selected so that if one is used
for encryption , the other is used for decryption . The exact transformation is performed by the
algorithm depend on the public or private key that is provided as input.
Ciphertext : This is scrambled message produced as output . It depends on the plain text and the
key . For a given message ,two different keys will produce two different Ciphertext .
Virtual-Circuit approach Packet Switching - A Packet Switching method in which all
packets of a message or session follow exact same route .

Bibliography
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