Physics Work and simple machines

sections
1 Work and Power
Lab Building the Pyramids
2 Using Machines
3 Simple Machines
Lab Pulley Power
Virtual Lab What is the rela-
tionship between work, force,
and distance?
Heavy Lifting
It took the ancient Egyptians more than
100 years to build the pyramids without
machines like these. But now, even tall sky-
scrapers can be built in a few years. Complex
or simple, machines have the same purpose.
They make doing work easier.
Describe three machines you used
today, and how they made doing a task easier.
Science Journal
Work and
Simple Machines
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Simple Machines Many of the
devices that you use every day
are simple machines. Make the
following Foldable to help you understand the
characteristics of simple machines.
Draw a mark at the
midpoint of a sheet of
paper along the side
edge. Then fold the
top and bottom
edges in to touch
the midpoint.
Fold in half from side
to side.
Turn the paper verti-
cally. Open and cut
along the inside fold
lines to form four tabs.
Label the tabs Inclined
Plane, Lever, Wheel and
Axle, and Pulley.
Read for Main Ideas As you read the chapter, list
the characteristics of inclined planes, levers, wheels
and axles, and pulleys under the appropriate tab.
STEP 4
STEP 3
STEP 2
STEP 1
Compare Forces
Two of the world’s greatest structures were
built using different tools. The Great
Pyramid at Giza in Egypt was built nearly
5,000 years ago using blocks of limestone
moved into place by hand with ramps and
levers. In comparison, the Sears Tower in
Chicago was built in 1973 using tons of
steel that were hoisted into place by gaso-
line-powered cranes. How do machines
such as ramps, levers, and cranes change
the forces needed to do a job?
1. Place a ruler
on an eraser.
Place a book
on one end
of the ruler.
2. Using one finger, push down on the free
end of the ruler to lift the book.
3. Repeat the experiment, placing the eraser
in various positions beneath the ruler.
Observe how much force is needed in each
instance to lift the book.
4. Think Critically In your Science Journal,
describe your observations. How did
changing the distance between the book
and the eraser affect the force needed to
lift the book?
Start-Up Activities
Preview this chapter’s content
and activities at
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579
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580 CHAPTER 20 Work and Simple Machines
What is work?
What does the term work mean to you? You might think of
household chores; a job at an office, a factory, a farm; or the
homework you do after school. In science, the definition of
work is more specific. Work is done when a force causes an
object to move in the same direction that the force is applied.
Can you think of a way in which you did work today? Maybe
it would help to know that you do work when you lift your
books, turn a doorknob, raise window blinds, or write with a
pen or pencil. You also do work when you walk up a flight of
stairs or open and close your school locker. In what other ways
do you do work every day?
Work and Motion Your teacher has asked you to move a box
of books to the back of the classroom. Try as you might, though,
you just can’t budge the box because it is too heavy. Although
you exerted a force on the box and you feel tired from it, you
have not done any work. In order for you to do work, two things
must occur. First, you must apply a force to an object. Second,
the object must move in the same direction as
your applied force. You do work on an object
only when the object moves as a result of the
force you exert. The girl in Figure 1 might
think she is working by holding the bags of
groceries. However, if she is not moving, she is
not doing any work because she is not causing
something to move.
To do work, how must a
force make an object move?
■ Recognize when work is done.
■ Calculate how much work is
done.
■ Explain the relation between
work and power.
If you understand work, you can
make your work easier.
Review Vocabulary
force: a push or a pull
New Vocabulary
•work
•power
Figure 1 This girl is holding bags of
groceries, yet she isn’t doing any work.
Explain what must happen for work to
be done.
Work and Power
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Force
Motion
Applying Force and Doing Work Picture yourself lifting
the basket of clothes in Figure 2. You can feel your arms exert-
ing a force upward as you lift the basket, and the basket moves
upward in the direction of the force your arms applied.
Therefore, your arms have done work. Now, suppose you carry
the basket forward. You can still feel your arms applying an
upward force on the basket to keep it from falling, but now the
basket is moving forward instead of upward. Because the direc-
tion of motion is not in the same direction of the force applied
by your arms, no work is done by your arms.
Force in Two Directions Sometimes only part of the force
you exert moves an object. Think about what happens when you
push a lawn mower.You push at an angle to the ground as shown
in Figure 3. Part of the force is to the right and part of the force
is downward. Only the part of the force that is in the same direc-
tion as the motion of the mower—to the right—does work.
SECTION 1 Work and Power 581
Force
Motion
Figure 2 To do work, an object
must move in the direction a force
is applied.
The boy’s arms still exert an
upward force on the basket. But
when the boy walks forward, no
work is done by his arms.
The boy’s arms do work when they
exert an upward force on the bas-
ket and the basket moves upward.
Forward
force
Total
force
Downward
force
Motion
Figure 3 When you exert a
force at an angle, only part of
your force does work—the part
that is in the same direction as
the motion of the object.
(t)Richard Hutchings, (b)Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit, Inc.

Calculating Work
Work is done when a force makes an object move. More work
is done when the force is increased or the object is moved a greater
distance.Work can be calculated using the work equation below. In
SI units, the unit for work is the joule, named for the nineteenth-
century scientist James Prescott Joule.
Work and Distance Suppose you give a book a push and it
slides across a table. To calculate the work you did, the distance
in the above equation is not the distance the book moved. The
distance in the work equation is the distance an object moves
while the force is being applied. So the distance in the work equa-
tion is the distance the book moved while you were pushing.
Work Equation
work (in joules) force (in newtons) distance (in meters)
W Fd
Solve a One-Step Equation
1. As you push a lawn mower, the horizontal force is 300 N. If you push the mower a
distance of 500 m, how much work do you do?
2. A librarian lifts a box of books that weighs 93 N a distance of 1.5 m. How much work
does he do?
CALCULATING WORK A painter lifts a can of paint that weighs 40 N a distance of 2 m.
How much work does she do? Hint: to lift a can weighing 40 N, the painter must exert
a force of 40 N.
Solution
This is what you know:
This is what you need to find out:
This is the procedure you need
to use:
Check your answer: Check your answer by dividing the work you cal-
culated by the distance given in the problem. The
result should be the force given in the problem.
Substitute the known values F 40 N and
d 2 m into the work equation:
W Fd (40 N)(2 m) 80 N•m 80 J
work: W ? J
● force: F 40 N
● distance: d 2 m
James Prescott Joule This
English physicist experi-
mentally verified the law of
conservation of energy. He
showed that various forms
of energy—mechanical,
electrical, and thermal—are
essentially the same and
can be converted one into
another. The SI unit of
energy and work, the
joule, is named after him.
Research the work of Joule
and write what you learn
in your Science Journal.
For more practice, visit
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SECTION 1 Work and Power 583
What is power?
What does it mean to be powerful? Imagine two weightlifters
lifting the same amount of weight the same vertical distance. They
both do the same amount of work. However, the amount of power
they use depends on how long it took to do the work.Power is how
quickly work is done. The weightlifter who lifted the weight in less
time is more powerful.
Calculating Power Power can be calculated by dividing the
amount of work done by the time needed to do the work.
In SI units, the unit of power is the watt, in honor of James Watt,
a nineteenth-century British scientist who invented a practical
version of the steam engine.
Power Equation
power (in watts)
P
Work and Power
Procedure
1. Weigh yourself on a scale.
2. Multiply your weight in
pounds by 4.45 to convert
your weight to newtons.
3. Measure the vertical
height of a stairway.
WARNING: Make sure the
stairway is clear of all
objects.
4. Time yourself walking
slowly and quickly up the
stairway.
Analysis
Calculate and compare
the work and power in
each case.
CALCULATING POWER You do 200 J of work in 12 s. How much power did you use?
Solution
to use:
Check your answer: Check your answer by multiplying the power you
calculated by the time given in the problem. The
result should be the work given in the problem.
Substitute the known values W 200 J and
t 12 s into the power equation:
P 17 watts
● power: P ? watts
● work: W 200 J
● time: t 12 s
W
t
work (in joules)
time (in seconds)
1. In the course of a short race, a car does 50,000 J of work in 7 s. What is the power of the
car during the race?
2. A teacher does 140 J of work in 20 s. How much
power did he use?
W
t
200 J
12 s
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Self Check
1. Describe a situation in which work is done on an object.
2. Evaluate which of the following situations involves
more power: 200 J of work done in 20 s or 50 J of work
done in 4 s? Explain your answer.
3. Determine two ways power can be increased.
4. Calculate how much power, in watts, is needed to cut a
lawn in 50 min if the work involved is 100,000 J.
5. Think Critically Suppose you are pulling a wagon with
the handle at an angle. How can you make your task
easier?
Summary
What is work?
•Work is done when a force causes an object to
move in the same direction that the force is
applied.
•If the movement caused by a force is at an angle
to the direction the force is applied, only the part
of the force in the direction of motion does work.
•Work can be calculated by multiplying the
force applied by the distance:
W Fd
•The distance in the work equation is the distance
an object moves while the force is being applied.
What is power?
•Power is how quickly work is done. Something
is more powerful if it can do a given amount
of work in less time.
•Power can be calculated by dividing the work
done by the time needed to do the work:
P W
t
6. Calculate Work How much work was done to lift a
1,000-kg block to the top of the Great Pyramid, 146 m
above ground?
7. Calculate Work Done by an Engine An engine is used
to lift a beam weighing 9,800 N up to 145 m. How
much work must the engine do to lift this beam?
How much work must be done to lift it 290 m?
Work and Energy If you push a chair and make it move, you
do work on the chair and change its energy. Recall that when
something is moving it has energy of motion, or kinetic energy.
By making the chair move, you increase its kinetic energy.
You also change the energy of an object when you do work
and lift it higher. An object has potential energy that increases
when it is higher above Earth’s surface. By lifting an object, you
do work and increase its potential energy.
Power and Energy When you do work on an object you
increase the energy of the object. Because energy can never be
created or destroyed, if the object gains energy then you must
lose energy. When you do work on an object you transfer energy
to the object, and your energy decreases. The amount of work
done is the amount of energy transferred. So power is also equal
to the amount of energy transferred in a certain amount of time.
Sometimes energy can be transferred even when no work
is done, such as when heat flows from a warm to a cold object. In
fact,there are many ways energy can be transferred even if no work
is done. Power is always the rate at which energy is transferred, or
the amount of energy transferred divided by the time needed.
Topic: James Watt
Visit for Web
links to information about James
Watt and his steam engine.
Activity Draw a diagram show-
ing how his steam engine worked.
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Imagine moving 2.3 million blocks of limestone,
each weighing more than 1,000 kg. That is
exactly what the builders of the Great Pyramid
at Giza did. Although no one knows for sure
exactly how they did it, they probably pulled
the blocks most of the way.
Real-World Question
How is the force needed to lift a block related to
the distance it travels?
Goals
■ Compare the force needed to lift a block
with the force needed to pull it up a ramp.
Materials
wood block thin notebooks
tape meterstick
spring scale several books
ruler
Safety Precautions
Procedure
1. Stack several books together on a tabletop to
model a half-completed pyramid. Measure
the height of the books in centimeters.
Record the height on the first row of the
data table under Distance.
2. Use the wood block as a model for a block of
stone. Use tape to attach the block to the
spring scale.
3. Place the block on the table and lift it
straight up the side of the stack of books
until the top of the block is even with the
top of the books. Record the force shown on
the scale in the data table under Force.
4. Arrange a notebook so that one end is on
the stack of books and the other end is on the
table. Measure the length of the notebook
and record this length as distance in the sec-
ond row of the data table under Distance.
5. Measure the force needed to pull the block
up the ramp. Record the force in the data
table.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 using a longer note-
book to make the ramp longer.
7. Calculate the work done in each row of the
data table.
Conclude and Apply
1. Evaluate how much work you did in each
instance.
2. Determine what happened to the force
needed as the length of the ramp increased.
3. Infer How could the builders of the pyramids
have designed their task to use less force than
they would lifting the blocks straight up? Draw
a diagram to support your answer.
Building the Pyramids
Add your data to that found by other
groups. For more help, refer to the Science
Skill Handbook.
LAB 585
Work Done Using Different Ramps
Distance (cm) Force (N) Work (J)
Do not write in this book.
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What is a machine?
Did you use a machine today? When you think of a machine
you might think of a device, such as a car, with many moving
parts powered by an engine or an electric motor. But if you used
a pair of scissors or a broom, or cut your food with a knife, you
used a machine. A machine is simply a device that makes doing
work easier. Even a sloping surface can be a machine.
Mechanical Advantage
Even though machines make work easier, they don’t decrease
the amount of work you need to do. Instead, a machine changes
the way in which you do work. When you use a machine, you
exert a force over some distance. For example, you exert a force
to move a rake or lift the handles of a wheelbarrow. The force
that you apply on a machine is the input force. The work you do
on the machine is equal to the input force times the distance
over which your force moves the machine. The work that you do
on the machine is the input work.
The machine also does work by exerting a force to move an
object over some distance. A rake, for example, exerts a force to
move leaves. Sometimes this force is called the resistance force
because the machine is trying to overcome some resistance. The
force that the machine applies is the output force. The work
that the machine does is the output work. Figure 4 shows how a
machine transforms input work to output work.
When you use a machine, the output work can never be
greater than the input work. So what is the advantage of using a
machine? A machine makes work easier by changing the
amount of force you need to exert, the distance over which the
force is exerted, or the direction in which you exert your force.
■ Explain how a machine makes
work easier.
■ Calculate the mechanical advan-
tages and efficiency of a machine.
■ Explain how friction reduces
efficiency.
Machines can’t change the amount
of work you need to do, but they
can make doing work easier.
Review Vocabulary
friction: force that opposes
motion between two touching
surfaces
New Vocabulary
•input force
•output force
•mechanical advantage
•efficiency
Using Machines
Machine
Input work Output work
Figure 4 No matter what type
of machine is used, the output
work is never greater than the
input work.
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Changing Force Some machines make doing work easier by
reducing the force you have to apply to do work. This type of
machine increases the input force,so that the output force is greater
than the input force. The number of times a machine increases the
input force is the mechanical advantage of the machine. The
mechanical advantage of a machine is the ratio of the output force
to the input force and can be calculated from this equation:
Mechanical advantage does not have any units, because it is the
ratio of two numbers with the same units.
Mechanical Advantage Equation
mechanical advantage
output force (in newtons)
input force (in newtons)
MA
Topic: Historical Tools
Visit for Web
links to information about early
types of tools and how they took
advantage of simple machines.
Activity Write a paragraph
describing how simple machines
were used to design early tools.
blue.msscience.com
CALCULATING MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE To pry the lid off a paint can, you apply a force of
50 N to the handle of the screwdriver. What is the mechanical advantage of the
screwdriver if it applies a force of 500 N to the lid?
Solution
to use:
Check your answer: Check your answer by multiplying the mechani-
cal advantage you calculated by the input force
given in the problem. The result should be the
output force given in the problem.
Substitute the known values Fin 50 N and Fout
500 N into the mechanical advantage equation:
MA 10
mechanical advantage: MA ?
● input force: Fin 50 N
● output force: Fout 500 N
Fout
Fin
Fout
Fin
500 N
50 N
SECTION 2 Using Machines 587
1. To open a bottle, you apply a force of 50 N to the bottle opener. The bottle opener applies
a force of 775 N to the bottle cap. What is the mechanical advantage of the bottle opener?
2. To crack a pecan, you apply a force of 50 N to the nutcracker. The nutcracker applies a
force of 750 N to the pecan. What is the mechanical
advantage of the nutcracker?
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Changing Distance Some machines allow you to exert your
force over a shorter distance. In these machines, the output force
is less than the input force. The rake in Figure 5 is this type of
machine.You move your hands a small distance at the top of the
handle, but the bottom of the rake moves a greater distance as it
moves the leaves. The mechanical advantage of this type of
machine is less than one because the output force is less than the
input force.
Changing Direction Sometimes it is easier to apply a force
in a certain direction. For example, it is easier to pull down on
the rope in Figure 5 than to pull up on it. Some machines enable
you to change the direction of the input force. In these machines
neither the force nor the distance is changed. The mechanical
advantage of this type of machine is equal to one because the
output force is equal to the input force. The three ways machines
make doing work easier are summarized in Figure 6.
Increases
force
Input force
Larger force
applied over a
shorter distance
Increases
distance
Input force
Smaller force
applied over a
longer distance
Input force
Force
applied over same
distance in a
different direction
Changes
direction
of force
Figure 5 Changing the direction
or the distance that a force is applied
can make a task easier.
Sometimes it is easier to exert your
force in a certain direction. This boy
would rather pull down on the rope to
lift the flag than to climb to the top of
the pole and pull up.
Figure 6 Machines are useful
because they can increase force,
increase distance, or change the
direction in which a force is
applied.
When you rake leaves, you
move your hands a short dis-
tance, but the end of the rake
moves over a longer distance.
(l)David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit, Inc., (r)Frank Siteman/Stock Boston
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SECTION 2 Using Machines 589
Efficiency
A machine doesn’t increase the input work. For a real
machine, the output work done by the machine is always less than
the input work that is done on the machine. In a real machine,
there is friction as parts of the machine move. Friction converts
some of the input work into heat, so that the output work is
reduced. The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the output
work to the input work, and can be calculated from this equation:
If the amount of friction in the machine is reduced, the effi-
ciency of the machine increases.
Efficiency Equation
efficiency (in percent)
output work (in joules)
100%
input work (in joules)
eff 100%
Body Temperature
Chemical reactions that
enable your muscles to
move also produce heat
that helps maintain your
body temperature. When
you shiver, rapid contrac-
tion and relaxation of
muscle fibers produces a
large amount of heat that
helps raise your body
temperature. This causes
the efficiency of your
muscles to decrease as
more energy is converted
into heat.
CALCULATING EFFICIENCY Using a pulley system, a crew does 7,500 J of work to load
a box that requires 4,500 J of work. What is the efficiency of the pulley system?
Solution
to use:
Check your answer: Check your answer by dividing the efficiency by
100% and then multiplying your answer times
the work input. The product should be the work
output given in the problem.
Substitute the known values Win 7,500 J and
Wout 4,500 J into the efficiency equation:
eff 100% 60%
efficiency: eff ? %
● input work: Win 7,500 J
● output work: Wout 4,500 J
Wout
Win
4,500 J
7,500 J
Wout
Win
1. You do 100 J of work in pulling out a nail with a claw hammer. If the hammer does
70 J of work, what is the hammer’s efficiency?
2. You do 150 J of work pushing a box up a ramp. If the ramp does 105 J of work, what is
the efficiency of the ramp?
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Self Check
1. Identify three specific situations in which machines
make work easier.
2. Infer why the output force exerted by a rake must be
less than the input force.
3. Explain how the efficiency of an ideal machine com-
pares with the efficiency of a real machine.
4. Explain how friction reduces the efficiency of machines.
5. Think Critically Can a machine be useful even if its
mechanical advantage is less than one? Explain and
give an example.
Summary
What is a machine?
•A machine is a device that makes doing work
easier.
•A machine can make doing work easier by
reducing the force exerted, changing the
distance over which the force is exerted,
or changing the direction of the force.
•The output work done by a machine can never
be greater than the input work done on the
machine.
Mechanical Advantage and Efficiency
•The mechanical advantage of a machine is the
number of times the machine increases the
input force:
MA
•The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the
output work to the input work:
eff 100%
Wout
Win
6. Calculate Efficiency Find the efficiency of a machine
if the input work is 150 J and the output work is 90 J.
7. Calculate Mechanical Advantage To lift a crate,
a pulley system exerts a force of 2,750 N. Find the
mechanical advantage of the pulley system if the
input force is 250 N.
Friction To help understand friction, imagine pushing a heavy
box up a ramp. As the box begins to move, the bottom surface
of the box slides across the top surface of the ramp. Neither sur-
face is perfectly smooth—each has high spots and low spots, as
shown in Figure 7.
As the two surfaces slide past each other, high spots on the
two surfaces come in contact. At these contact points, shown in
Figure 7, atoms and molecules can bond together. This makes the
contact points stick together. The attractive forces between all the
bonds in the contact points added together is the frictional force
that tries to keep the two surfaces from sliding past each other.
To keep the box moving, a force must be applied to break the
bonds between the contact points. Even after these bonds are
broken and the box moves, new bonds form as different parts of
the two surfaces come into contact.
Friction and Efficiency One way to reduce friction between
two surfaces is to add oil. Figure 7 shows how oil fills the gaps
between the surfaces, and keeps many of the high spots from
making contact. Because there are fewer contact points between
the surfaces, the force of friction is reduced. More of the input
work then is converted to output work by the machine.
Surface
Surface
Oil
Figure 7 Lubrication can reduce
the friction between two surfaces.
Two surfaces in contact can stick
together where the high spots on
each surface come in contact.
Adding oil or another lubricant
separates the surface so that fewer
high spots make contact.
Fout
Fin
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SECTION 3 Simple Machines 591
What is a simple machine?
What do you think of when you hear the word machine?
Many people think of machines as complicated devices such as
cars, elevators, or computers. However, some machines are as
simple as a hammer, shovel, or ramp. A simple machine is a
machine that does work with only one movement. The six sim-
ple machines are the inclined plane, lever, wheel and axle, screw,
wedge, and pulley. A machine made up of a combination of sim-
ple machines is called a compound machine. A can opener is a
compound machine. The bicycle in Figure 8 is a familiar exam-
ple of another compound machine.
Inclined Plane
Ramps might have enabled the ancient Egyptians to build
their pyramids. To move limestone blocks weighing more than
1,000 kg each, archaeologists hypothesize that the Egyptians
built enormous ramps. A ramp is a simple machine known as an
inclined plane. An inclined plane is a flat, sloped surface. Less
force is needed to move an object from one height to another
using an inclined plane than is needed to lift the object. As the
inclined plane becomes longer, the force needed to move the
object becomes smaller.
Simple Machines
■ Distinguish among the different
simple machines.
■ Describe how to find the
mechanical advantage of each
simple machine.
All machines, no matter how
complicated, are made of simple
machines.
Review Vocabulary
compound: made of separate
pieces or parts
New Vocabulary
•simple machine
•screw
•compound
•lever
machine
•wheel and
•inclined plane axle
•wedge
•pulley
Photo/Art ID #
Figure 8 Devices that use com-
binations of simple machines, such
as this bicycle, are called com-
pound machines.
Duomo
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Using Inclined Planes Imagine having to lift a box weigh-
ing 1,500 N to the back of a truck that is 1 m off the ground.
You would have to exert a force of 1,500 N, the weight of the
box, over a distance of 1 m, which equals 1,500 J of work. Now
suppose that instead you use a 5-m-long ramp, as shown in
Figure 9. The amount of work you need to do does not change.
You still need to do 1,500 J of work. However, the distance over
which you exert your force becomes 5 m. You can calculate the
force you need to exert by dividing both sides of the equation for
work by distance.
If you do 1,500 J of work by exerting a force
over 5 m, the force is only 300 N. Because you
exert the input force over a distance that is five
times as long, you can exert a force that is five
times less.
The mechanical advantage of an inclined
plane is the length of the inclined plane divided by
its height. In this example, the ramp has a
mechanical advantage of 5.
Wedge An inclined plane that moves is called a
wedge. A wedge can have one or two sloping sides.
The knife shown in Figure 10 is an example of a
wedge. An axe and certain types of doorstops are
also wedges. Just as for an inclined plane, the
mechanical advantage of a wedge increases as it
becomes longer and thinner.
Force
di
w
st
o
a
r
n
k
ce

Figure 10 This chef’s knife is a
wedge that slices through food.
Weight =
1,500 N
Force = 300 N
Force = 1,500 N 5 m
1 m
Figure 9 Using an incline
plane, the force needed to move
the box to the back of the truck is
reduced compared to lifting the
box straight up.
Robert Brenner/PhotoEdit, Inc.
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Wedges in Your Body You have
wedges in your body. The bite marks on
the apple in Figure 11 show how your front teeth are wedge
shaped. A wedge changes the direction of the applied effort
force.As you push your front teeth into the apple, the downward
effort force is changed by your teeth into a sideways force that
pushes the skin of the apple apart.
The teeth of meat eaters, or carnivores, are more wedge
shaped than the teeth of plant eaters, or herbivores. The teeth of
carnivores are used to cut and rip meat, while herbivores’ teeth
are used for grinding plant material. By examining the teeth of
ancient animals, such as the dinosaur in Figure 11, scientists can
determine what the animal ate when it was living.
The Screw Another form of the inclined plane is a screw. A
screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder or post.
The inclined plane on a screw forms the screw threads. Just like
a wedge changes the direction of the effort force
applied to it, a screw also changes the direction of
the applied force. When you turn a screw, the
force applied is changed by the threads to a force
that pulls the screw into the material. Friction
between the threads and the material holds the
screw tightly in place. The mechanical advantage
of the screw is the length of the inclined plane
wrapped around the screw divided by the length
of the screw. The more tightly wrapped the
threads are, the easier it is to turn the screw.
Examples of screws are shown in Figure 12.
How are screws related to the
inclined plane?
Figure 12 The thread around
a screw is an inclined plane. Many
familiar devices use screws to
make work easier.
Figure 11 Wedge-shaped
teeth help tear food.
Your front
teeth help
tear an apple
apart.
The wedge-shaped
teeth of this
Tyrannosaurus rex
show that it was a
carnivore.
(t)Tom McHugh/Photo Researchers, (b)Amanita Pictures
639-S3-MSS05 8/13/04 4:48 PM Page 593

Lever
You step up to the plate. The pitcher throws the ball and you
swing your lever to hit the ball? That’s right! A baseball bat is a
type of simple machine called a lever. A lever is any rigid rod or
plank that pivots, or rotates, about a point. The point about
which the lever pivots is called a fulcrum.
The mechanical advantage of a lever is found by dividing the
distance from the fulcrum to the input force by the distance
from the fulcrum to the output force, as shown in Figure 13.
When the fulcrum is closer to the output force than the input
force, the mechanical advantage is greater than one.
Levers are divided into three classes according to the posi-
tion of the fulcrum with respect to the input force and output
force. Figure 15 shows examples of three classes of levers.
Wheel and Axle
Do you think you could turn a doorknob
easily if it were a narrow rod the size of a pen-
cil? It might be possible, but it would be diffi-
cult. A doorknob makes it easier for you to open
a door because it is a simple machine called a
wheel and axle. A wheel and axle consists of
two circular objects of different sizes that are
attached in such a way that they rotate together.
As you can see in Figure 14, the larger object is
the wheel and the smaller object is the axle.
The mechanical advantage of a wheel and
axle is usually greater than one. It is found by
dividing the radius of the wheel by the radius of
the axle. For example, if the radius of the wheel
is 12 cm and the radius of the axle is 4 cm, the
mechanical advantage is 3.
Figure 13 The mechanical
advantage of a lever changes
as the position of the fulcrum
changes. The mechanical advan-
tage increases as the fulcrum is
moved closer to the output force.
Figure 14 A faucet handle is a
wheel and axle. A wheel and axle
is similar to a circular lever. The
center is the fulcrum, and the
wheel and axle turn around it.
Explain how you can increase the
mechanical advantage of a wheel
and axle.
Wheel
Axle
Output force
Input
force
10 cm 50 cm
Input
force
Output
force Mechanical
advantage
10 cm
50 cm
Input
force
Output
force Mechanical
advantage
= =
10 cm
50 cm
1
5
= =
50 cm
10 cm 5
Amanita Pictures
639-S3-MSS05 8/13/04 4:48 PM Page 594

NGS TITLE
VISUALIZING LEVERS
L
evers are among the simplest of machines, and you prob-
ably use them often in everyday life without even realiz-
ing it. A lever is a bar that pivots around a fixed point
called a fulcrum. As shown here, there are three types
of levers—first class, second class, and third class. They differ
in where two forces—an input force and an output force—
are located in relation to the fulcrum.
Figure 15
In a first-class lever, the fulcrum is
between the input force and the
output force. First-class levers, such
as scissors and pliers, multiply force
or distance depending on where the
fulcrum is placed. They always change
the direction of the input force, too.
In a second-class lever, such
as a wheelbarrow, the out-
put force is between the
input force and the fulcrum.
Second-class levers always
multiply the input force but
don‘t change its direction.
In a third-class lever, such as a baseball
bat, the input force is between the out-
put force and the fulcrum. For a third-
class lever,the output force is less than the
input force,but is in the same direction.
Fulcrum
Input force
Output
force
First-class lever
Second-class lever
Third-class lever
(t)Dorling Kindersley, (br bl)Bob Daemmrich
639-S3-MSS05 8/13/04 4:48 PM Page 595

Using Wheels and Axles In some devices, the input force
is used to turn the wheel and the output force is exerted by the
axle. Because the wheel is larger than the axle, the mechanical
advantage is greater than one. So the output force is greater than
the input force. A doorknob, a steering wheel, and a screwdriver
are examples of this type of wheel and axle.
In other devices, the input force is applied to turn the axle
and the output force is exerted by the wheel. Then the mechan-
ical advantage is less than one and the output force is less than
the input force.A fan and a ferris wheel are examples of this type
of wheel and axle. Figure 16 shows an example of each type of
wheel and axle.
Pulley
To raise a sail, a sailor pulls down on a rope. The rope uses a
simple machine called a pulley to change the direction of the
force needed. A pulley consists of a grooved wheel with a rope
or cable wrapped over it.
Fixed Pulleys Some pulleys, such as the one on a sail, a win-
dow blind, or a flagpole, are attached to a structure above your
head. When you pull down on the rope, you pull something up.
This type of pulley, called a fixed pulley, does not change the
force you exert or the distance over which you exert it. Instead,
it changes the direction in which you exert your force, as shown
in Figure 17. The mechanical advantage of a fixed pulley is 1.
How does a fixed pulley affect the input force?
Axle
Wheel
Output force
Input force
Wheel
Output
force
Input force
Axle
Figure 16 The waterwheel and
Ferris wheel are examples of devices
that rely on a wheel and axle.
Compare and contrast water-
wheels and Ferris wheels in terms
of wheels and axles.
Observing Pulleys
Procedure
1. Obtain two broomsticks.
Tie a 3-m-long rope to the
middle of one stick. Wrap
the rope around both sticks
four times.
2. Have two students pull the
broomsticks apart while a
third pulls on the rope.
3. Repeat with two wraps of
rope.
Analysis
1. Compare the results.
2. Predict whether it will be
easier to pull the broom-
sticks together with ten
wraps of rope.
(l)Wernher Krutein/Liaison Agency/Getty Images, (r)Siegfried Layda/Stone/Getty Images
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Self Check
1. Determine how the mechanical advantage of a ramp
changes as the ramp becomes longer.
2. Explain how a wedge changes an input force.
3. Identify the class of lever for which the fulcrum is
between the input force and the output force.
4. Explain how the mechanical advantage of a wheel and
axle change as the size of the wheel increases.
5. Think Critically How are a lever and a wheel and axle
similar?
Summary
Simple and Compound Machines
•A simple machine is a machine that does
work with only one movement.
•A compound machine is made from a combi-
nation of simple machines.
Types of Simple Machines
•An inclined plane is a flat, sloped surface.
•A wedge is an inclined plane that moves.
•A screw is an inclined plane that is wrapped
around a cylinder or post.
•A lever is a rigid rod that pivots around a fixed
point called the fulcrum.
•A wheel and axle consists of two circular
objects of different sizes that rotate together.
•A pulley is a grooved wheel with a rope or
cable wrapped over it.
6. Calculate Length The Great Pyramid is 146 m high.
How long is a ramp from the top of the pyramid to the
ground that has a mechanical advantage of 4?
7. Calculate Force Find the output force exerted by a
moveable pulley if the input force is 50 N.
Movable Pulleys Another way to use a pulley is to attach it
to the object you are lifting, as shown in Figure 17. This type of
pulley, called a movable pulley, allows you to exert a smaller
force to lift the object. The mechanical advantage of a movable
pulley is always 2.
More often you will see combinations of fixed and movable
pulleys. Such a combination is called a pulley system. The
mechanical advantage of a pulley system is equal to the number
of sections of rope pulling up on the object. For the pulley
system shown in Figure 17 the mechanical advantage is 3.
Fixed pulley Movable pulley Pulley system
Figure 17 Pulleys can change
force and direction.
A pulley system uses
several pulleys to
increase the mechanical
advantage.
A movable pulley
multiplies the
input force.
A fixed pulley changes
the direction of the
input force.
639-S3-MSS05 8/13/04 4:48 PM Page 597

Design Your Own
Design Your Own
Real-World Question
Imagine how long it might have
taken to build the Sears Tower
in Chicago without the aid of a
pulley system attached to a crane.
Hoisting the 1-ton I beams to a
maximum height of 110 stories
required large lifting forces and
precise control of the beam’s
movement.
Construction workers also
use smaller pulleys that are not
attached to cranes to lift supplies
to where they are needed. Pulleys
are not limited to construction
sites. They also are used to lift
automobile engines out of cars, to help load and unload heavy objects
on ships, and to lift heavy appliances and furniture. How can you use a
pulley system to reduce the force needed to lift a load?
Form a Hypothesis
Write a hypothesis about how pulleys can be combined to make a sys-
tem of pulleys to lift a heavy load,such as a brick.Consider the efficiency
of your system.
Test Your Hypothesis
Make a Plan
1. Decide how you are going to support your pulley system. What
materials will you use?
2. How will you measure the effort force and the resistance force?
How will you determine the mechanical advantage? How will you
measure efficiency?
3. Experiment by lifting small weights with a single pulley, double
pulley, and so on. How efficient are the pulleys? In what ways can
you increase the efficiency of your setup?
Goals
■ Design a pulley system.
■ Measure the mechani-
cal advantage and effi-
ciency of the pulley
system.
Possible Materials
single- and multiple-
pulley systems
nylon rope
steel bar to support the
pulley system
meterstick
*metric tape measure
variety of weights to test
pulleys
force spring scale
brick
*heavy book
balance
*scale
*Alternate materials
Safety Precautions
WARNING: The brick could
be dangerous if it falls.
Keep your hands and feet
clear of it.
Pulley PUwer
Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit, Inc.
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4. Use the results of step 3 to design a pulley system to lift the brick. Draw a dia-
gram of your design. Label the different parts of the pulley system and use
arrows to indicate the direction of movement for each section of rope.
Follow Your Plan
1. Make sure your teacher approves your plan before you start.
2. Assemble the pulley system you designed. You might want to test it with a
smaller weight before attaching the brick.
3. Measure the force needed to lift the brick. How much rope must you pull to
raise the brick 10 cm?
Analyze Your Data
1. Calculate the ideal mechanical advantage of your design.
2. Calculate the actual mechanical advantage of the pulley system you built.
3. Calculate the efficiency of your pulley system.
4. How did the mechanical advantage of your pulley system compare with those
of your classmates?
Conclude and Apply
1. Explain how increasing the number of pulleys
increases the mechanical advantage.
2. Infer How could you modify the pulley system
to lift a weight twice as heavy with the same
effort force used here?
3. Compare this real machine with an ideal
machine.
LAB 599
Show your design diagram to the class.
Review the design and point out good and
bad characteristics of your pulley system.
For more help, refer to the Science Skill
Handbook.
Aaron Haupt
639-S3-MSS05 8/13/04 4:48 PM Page 599

Research Use your school’s media center to find other aspects of
robotics such as walking machines or robots that perform planetary
exploration. What are they used for? How do they work? You could take
it one step further and learn about cyborgs. Report to the class.
For more information, visit
blue.msscience.com/time
SCIENCEAND
Society
SCIENCE
ISSUES
THAT AFFECT
YOU!
Artificial limbs can help
people lead normal lives
Bionic People
Bionic People
Myoelectric arms make life easier for
people who have them.
artificial body parts. A major
focus of bionics is the re-
placement of lost limbs.
Through accident,
birth defect, or dis-
ease, people
sometimes
lack hands
or feet, or
even whole
arms or legs.
For centuries, peo-
ple have used prostheses to replace limbs. In
the past, physically challenged people
used devices like peg legs or artificial arms
that ended in a pair of hooks. These prostheses
didn’t do much to replace lost functions of
arms and legs.
The knowledge that muscles respond to
electricity has helped create more effective
prostheses. One such prostheses is the myo-
electric arm. This battery-powered device
connects muscle nerves in an amputated
arm to a sensor.
The sensor detects when the arm tenses,
then transmits the signal to an artificial hand,
which opens or closes. New prosthetic hands
even give a sense of touch, as well as cold
and heat.
P
eople in need of transplants usually
receive human organs. But many peo-
ple’s medical problems can only be
solved by receiving artificial body parts. These
synthetic devices, called prostheses, are used
to replace anything from a heart valve to a
knee joint. Bionics is the science of creating
(t)Ed Kashi/CORBIS, (b)James Balog
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Copy and complete the following concept map on simple machines.
Work and Power
1. Work is done when a force exerted on an
object causes the object to move.
2. A force can do work only when it is exerted
in the same direction as the object moves.
3. Work is equal to force times distance, and
the unit of work is the joule.
4. Power is the rate at which work is done,
and the unit of power is the watt.
Using Machines
1. A machine can change the size or direction
of an input force or the distance over which
it is exerted.
2. The mechanical advantage of a machine is
its output force divided by its input force.
Simple Machines
1. A machine that does work with only one
movement is a simple machine. A com-
pound machine is a combination of simple
machines.
2. Simple machines include the inclined
plane, lever, wheel and axle, screw, wedge,
and pulley.
3. Wedges and screws are inclined planes.
4. Pulleys can be used to multiply force and
change direction.
CHAPTER STUDY GUIDE 601
Simple
Machines
Lever Pulley
Wheel and
axle
Flat, sloped
surface
Rigid rod
or plank that
rotates about a
fulcrum
Two
circular objects
that rotate
together
is a are
is a is a
example
example example
example
blue.msscience.com/interactive_tutor
(l)Inc. Janeart/The Image Bank/Getty Images, (r)Ryan McVay/PhotoDisc
639-CR-MSS05 8/13/04 4:47 PM Page 601

Each phrase below describes a vocabulary word.
Write the vocabulary word that matches the
phrase describing it.
1. percentage of work in to work out
2. force put into a machine
3. force exerted by a machine
4. two rigidly attached wheels
5. input force divided by output force
6. a machine with only one movement
7. an inclined plane that moves
8. a rigid rod that rotates about a fulcrum
9. a flat, sloped surface
10. amount of work divided by time
Choose the word or phrase that best answers the
question.
11. Which of the following is a requirement
for work to be done?
A) Force is exerted.
B) Object is carried.
C) Force moves an object.
D) Machine is used.
12. How much work is done when a force of
30 N moves an object a distance of 3 m?
A) 3 J C) 30 J
B) 10 J D) 90 J
13. How much power is used when 600 J of
work are done in 10 s?
A) 6 W C) 600 W
B) 60 W D) 610 W
14. Which is a simple machine?
A) baseball bat C) can opener
B) bicycle D) car
15. Mechanical advantage can be calculated by
which of the following expressions?
A) input force/output force
B) output force/input force
C) input work/output work
D) output work/input work
16. What is the ideal mechanical advantage of
a machine that changes only the direction
of the input force?
A) less than 1 C) 1
B) zero D) greater than 1
Use the illustration below to answer question 17.
17. What is the output force if the input force
on the wheel is 100 N?
A) 5 N C) 500 N
B) 200 N D) 2,000 N
18. Which of the following is a form of the
inclined plane?
A) pulley C) wheel and axle
B) screw D) lever
19. For a given input force, a ramp increases
which of the following?
A) height C) output work
B) output force D) efficiency
Wheel
Axle
Output force
Input
force
Radius 1 cm
Radius 3 cm
602 CHAPTER REVIEW
compound
machine p. 591
efficiency p. 589
inclined plane p. 591
input force p. 586
lever p. 594
mechanical
advantage p. 587
output force p. 586
power p. 583
pulley p. 596
screw p. 593
simple machine p. 591
wedge p. 592
wheel and axle p. 594
work p. 580
blue.msscience.com/vocabulary_puzzlemaker
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CHAPTER REVIEW 603
Use the illustration below to answer question 20.
20. Evaluate Would a 9-N force applied 2 m
from the fulcrum lift the weight? Explain.
21. Explain why the output work for any machine
can’t be greater than the input work.
22. Explain A doorknob is an example of a
wheel and axle. Explain why turning the
knob is easier than turning the axle.
23. Infer On the Moon, the force of gravity is
less than on Earth. Infer how the mechan-
ical advantage of an inclined plane would
change if it were on the Moon, instead of
on Earth.
24. Make and Use Graphs A pulley system has a
mechanical advantage of 5. Make a graph
with the input force on the x-axis and the
output force on the y-axis. Choose five dif-
ferent values of the input force, and plot
the resulting output force on your graph.
Use the diagram below to answer question 25.
25. Work The diagram above shows a force
exerted at an angle to pull a sled. How
much work is done if the sled moves 10 m
horizontally?
26. Identify You have levers in your body. Your
muscles and tendons provide the input
force. Your joints act as fulcrums. The out-
put force is used to move everything from
your head to your hands. Describe and
draw any human levers you can identify.
27. Display Make a display of everyday devices
that are simple and compound machines.
For devices that are simple machines,
identify which simple machine it is. For
compound machines, identify the simple
machines that compose it.
Vertical
part = 30
Horizontal
part = 40 N
Total
force = 50 N
9 N
3 m
28. Mechanical Advantage What is the mechanical
advantage of a 6-m long ramp that extends
from a ground-level sidewalk to a 2-m high
porch?
29. Input Force How much input force is required
to lift an 11,000-N beam using a pulley system
with a mechanical advantage of 20?
30. Efficiency The input work done on a pulley
system is 450 J. What is the efficiency of the
pulley system if the output work is 375 J?
Use the table below to answer question 31.
31. Mechanical Advantage According to the table
above, which of the machines listed has the
largest mechanical advantage?
blue.msscience.com/chapter_review
Output Force Exerted by Machines
Machine Input Force (N) Output Force (N)
A 500 750
B 300 200
C 225 225
D 800 1,100
E 75 110
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Record your answers on the answer sheet
provided by your teacher or on a sheet of paper.
1. The work done by a boy pulling a snow sled
up a hill is 425 J. What is the power expended
by the boy if he pulls on the sled for 10.5 s?
A. 24.7 W C. 247 W
B. 40.5 W D. 4460 W
Use the illustration below to answer questions 2 and 3.
2. What is the mechanical advantage of the
lever shown above?
A.
1
6
C. 2
B.
1
2
D. 6
3. What would the mechanical advantage of the
lever be if the triangular block were moved to
a position 40 cm from the edge of the output
force side of the plank?
A.
1
4
C. 2
B.
1
2
D. 4
4. Which of the following causes the efficiency
of a machine to be less than 100%?
A. work
B. power
C. mechanical advantage
D. friction
Use the illustration below to answer questions 5 and 6.
5. The pulley system in the illustration above
uses several pulleys to increase the mechan-
ical advantage. What is the mechanical
advantage of this system?
A. 1 C. 3
B. 2 D. 4
6. Suppose the lower pulley was removed so
that the object was supported only by the
upper pulley. What would the mechanical
advantage be?
A. 0 C. 2
B. 1 D. 3
7. You push a shopping cart with a force of
12 N for a distance of 1.5 m. You stop
pushing the cart, but it continues to roll
for 1.1 m. How much work did you do?
A. 8.0 J C. 18 J
B. 13 J D. 31 J
8. What is the mechanical advantage of a
wheel with a radius of 8.0 cm connected
to an axle with a radius of 2.5 cm?
A. 0.31 C. 3.2
B. 2.5 D. 20
9. You push a 5-kg box across the floor with a
force of 25 N. How far do you have to push
the box to do 63 J of work?
A. 0.40 m C. 2.5 m
B. 1.6 m D. 13 m
20 cm 120 cm
Input
force
Output
force
604 STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
Simplify Diagrams Write directly on complex charts, such as
a Punnett square.
639-CR-MSS05 8/13/04 4:47 PM Page 604

Record your answers on the answer sheet
provided by your teacher or on a sheet of paper.
10. What is the name of the point about
which a lever rotates?
11. Describe how you can determine the
mechanical advantage of a pulley or a
pulley system.
Use the figure below to answer questions 12 and 13.
12. What type of simple machine is the tip of
the dart in the photo above?
13. Would the mechanical advantage of the
dart tip change if the tip were longer and
thinner? Explain.
14. How much energy is used by a 75-W
lightbulb in 15 s?
15. The input and output forces are applied at
the ends of the lever. If the lever is 3 m
long and the output force is applied 1 m
from the fulcrum, what is the mechanical
advantage?
16. Your body contains simple machines.
Name one part that is a wedge and one
part that is a lever.
17. Explain why applying a lubricant, such as
oil, to the surfaces of a machine causes the
efficiency of the machine to increase.
18. Apply the law of conservation of energy to
explain why the output work done by a
real machine is always less than the input
work done on the machine.
Record your answers on a sheet of paper.
19. The output work of a machine can never
be greater than the input work. However,
the advantage of using a machine is that it
makes work easier. Describe and give an
example of the three ways a machine can
make work easier.
20. A wheel and axle may have a mechanical
advantage that is either greater than 1 or
less than 1. Describe both types and give
some examples of each.
21. Draw a sketch showing the cause of fric-
tion as two surfaces slide past each other.
Explain your sketch, and describe how
lubrication can reduce the friction
between the two surfaces.
22. Draw the two types of simple pulleys and
an example of a combination pulley. Draw
arrows to show the direction of force on
your sketches.
Use the figure below to answer question 23.
23. Identify two simple machines in the photo
above and describe how they make riding
a bicycle easier.
24. Explain why the mechanical advantage of
an inclined plane can never be less than 1.
STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE 605
blue.msscience.com/standardized_test
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