Post Mortem Design Report (featuring Building Structures)

A Structural Design Post-Mortem on
Road to Healing
A VISITOR INTERPRETIVE CENTRE
BUILDING STRUCTURE (BLD61003)
Tutor : Mr Adib Mohd Ramli
Students :
1. Akif Zolkeplee 0322927
2. Carmen Chan Shen Wen 0326485
3. Darishini Anandan 0327428
4. Kua Zexin 0327784
5. Shannon Yeong Xen Jie 0328316

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction tof Visitor Interpretive Centre
2. Original Drawings of the Visitor Interpretive Centre
3. Structural Component 1 : Wall
i) Fire Safety of Masonry Brick Wall
ii) Fire Safety of Wooden Ventilation Block Wall
4. Structural Component 2 : Post and Beam
i) Columns of the Upper Storey
ii) Cantilever
iii) Columns as Support for the Roof
iv) Integration of the Column Support for the Roof
5. Structural Component 3 : Roof
i) Roof Tiling and Underlayment
ii) Integration of Gutter and Drainage
6. Feasibility of Materials and Type of Structural Components used
i) Possible material selection
ii) Introduction to cross laminated timber (CLT)
iii) Brick wall masonry
iv) Criteria for walls
7. Modified Drawings of the Visitor Interpretive Centre
8. References

1. INTRODUCTION TO THE VISITOR INTERPRETIVE CENTRE
Located in northern part of the Pusat Kawalan Kusta Negara in Sungai Buloh, The Road to Healing - a
two-storey Visitor Interpretive Centre is built to educate the visitors on how the former patients of the area
recover by interaction with the other patients. The massing of the centre is shaped like a ‘T’. It consists of
two storeys, consisting of facilities such as the art gallery displaying the former patients’ works, the
courtyard at the intersection of the spaces, a cafe that is connected to the Hokkien Association, the
administration office that is linked to the neighbouring police station, a meditation space and a souvenir
shop, which will direct visitors to exit the centre to the heritage houses.
i) Structural Components of the Building
The centre lies on a simple footing foundation. It has 3 large mono-pitch roofs supported on steel columns.
All columns used as load-bearing supports for walls are cast in-situ columns. There are two types of walls -
timber walls which are perforated with ventilation blocks and the plastered masonry walls. A single straight
staircase connects the ground floor to the meditation space in the upper storey. For the upper storey, it is
cantilevered over the first storey, providing shade and shelter over the users for the administration office and
cafe.
Structural Components Materials
Roof Tiles Clay
Roof Structural Framing Steel
Wall Timber, Concrete Masonry
Stairs Concrete
Floor Concrete
ii) Material used :
The materials used for the centre are as follows :

Component 1A : WALL
FIRE SAFETY OF BRICK WALL
BRICK WALL
Problem Statement
An analysation on the structural and fire safety
problems faced on the Visitor Interpretive Centre
and ways to improve it.
Problem I
The problem with the existing bricks in the
building is that it is made with stacked of fire kiln,
although they’re already highly resistant to fire but
the durability decreases when stack with each
other. Given the height and width of the building, it
is best to use other material to improve on the fire
resistance capabilities.
Problem II
Since the brick walls are left bare, moulds and
cracks tend to form due to water sipping in that can
cause in degradation of material, compromising its
strength and integrity.
DOOR
Problem Statement
The existence building use timber as the back
entrance heading to the office, and untreated timber
enhances the intensity of fire. Furthermore, the
doors doesn’t have any lining boards fixed to the
structural components and other suitable materials
such as insulation, air gaps and battens.
Diagram above showing an untreated brick wall that are slowly
being covered by mold.
Source :27+ Brick Pictures | Download Free Images on
Unsplash
https://unsplash.com/search/photos/brick
Diagram above showing a timbre door that are left to rot.
Source : Old wooden door with green patina photo by
Kiwihug (@kiwihug) on Unsplash
https://unsplash.com/photos/-bMMBdyGIw4

Solutions :
The walls are being improved by adding reinforcement within the cavities located inside the brick. To avoid
such problems as the statements above, the use of reinforcement in walls allow the bricks to overcome tension
forces and heavy compressive loads, with the help of reinforcement, bricks are also protected from cracks and
heightened the ability to overcome lateral forces during heavy rain, wind and to also protect the occupants
during the event of fire.
The walls are then covered with lime based plaster, which is non-flammable and non-combustible. This is
because of its low chemical reactivity but can also perform as an oxidising agent under extreme conditions.
Final improvement on wall is with the added ridge on top of the wall. This is to help avoid fire from entering
the vicinity in case of fire occurred in the room next door.
Timber doors are replaced with casement type doors. The frame of the doors are made with aluminium which
is a non-combustible material. When aluminium is presented to flame, its expansive warm conductivity enables
it to rapidly disperse a lot of warmth from the fire and retain much more thermal energy from the focal point of
the fire, 'cooling' the environment and confining 'extremely hot areas'. These heat levels are nearly more
prominent than those of iron nor timber when presented to flame, in this manner aluminium offers a relatively
higher reaction time to fire fighters.
The use of dual-panned insulated glass windows, which, in addition to providing energy efficiency, also double
the time it would take for fire to break the windows.
Component 1A : WALL

Component 1A : WALL

Component 1B : WALL
FIRE SAFETY OF WOODEN WALL WITH
VENTILATION BLOCK
TIMBER WALL
Problem Statement
The problem with the existing building is that almost 40% of
the exterior walls are made with untreated or unpainted timber
walls. Furthermore the interior of the timber walls have no
insulation and no known connection between the other two
concrete walls located side by side.
This does not only reduce the strength of the building rapidly
but also a fire safety concern as any structure made of timbers
is rapidly destroyed in fire. Timber enhances the intensity of
fire. Uses of heavy sections of timber in buildings is not
desirable.
Solutions :
Steel Construction and CLT.
Since the timber walls are a load-bearing wall, the inner parts
of it are made with steel and uses a Cross Laminated Timber
(CLT) as the finishes, One of the real points of interest of Cross
Laminated Timber is its characteristic imperviousness to fire.
CLT can be intended to suit generous imperviousness to fire
and not at all like steel remains basically stable when subjected
to high temperatures. CLT boards can be delivered with flame
protections of 30, 60 to an hour and a half.
Diagram above showcasing a type of steel
framing system that are used as a reference for
Carmen’s new and improved building design
Source : Steel frame construction - Smarter
Homes Practical advice on smarter home
essentials
https://www.smarterhomes.org.nz/smart-guides/c
onstruction-and-materials/light-steel-frame-constr
uction/
Diagram above shows pallets of Cross Laminated
Timber stacks on top of each other. A design
consideration to improve Carmen’s VIC.
Source : Construction Concerns: Cross
Laminated Timber
https://www.fireengineering.com/articles/2013/07/
construction-concerns-for-firefighters-cross-lamin
ated-timber.html

Component 1B : WALL
FIRE SAFETY OF WOODEN WALL WITH
VENTILATION BLOCK
Solutions :
Fiberglass and Mineral Wool Insulation.
The inner hollow sections of the walls will be covered with
fiberglass and mineral wool insulation which are a
non-combustible materials and are known to have high fire
resistance-y of up to 400 °C. The materials are also chemical free
and uses no additional fire -retardant chemical treatments,
furthermore, fiberglass and mineral wool are acknowledged as a
fire hinder in wood and steel frames.
Load Bearing Steel Connection
The original design has no known connection between the concrete
walls sandwiched in between the timber, if left untouched, can
cause a lot of structural problems. The steel connection is designed
to grip on the front and back side of the concrete walls to provide
more strength to the building. Steel as a material is
non-combustible and does not melt until around 1,500°C.
Diagram above showing one of the common
types of fibreglass and mineral wool insulation.
Given the soft and malleable of nature of the
product, it can be cut and be fitted in to the tiny
cavity of the hollow sections of the timber
walls.
Source : Mineral wool vs. Fiberglass
insulation - some impromptu research at the
International Builders' Show - Fine
Homebuilding
https://www.finehomebuilding.com/2015/01/22
/mineral-wool-vs-fiberglass-insulation-some-im
promptu-research-at-the-international-builders-
show
Diagram above shows a load bearing
connection. We use this as the basis to create a
more sturdy connection from concrete walls to
timber wall.
Source : Structural Framing
http://www.bmp-group.com/products/structural-framin
g

Component 1B : WALL
FIRE SAFETY OF WOODEN WALL WITH VENTILATION BLOCK

Component 1B : WALL
FIRE SAFETY OF WOODEN WALL WITH VENTILATION BLOCK
TopView

Component 2A : POST AND BEAM
STRENGTH AND STABILITY OF COLUMNS
The VIC is currently supported by a reinforced concrete post
and beam system. However, the load distribution is not
properly transferred to the foundation of the structure. The
columns do not extend from the first floor to ground floor.
Certain portions of the first floor cantilever out of the floor
space of the ground floor, creating an overhang by the
entrance of the VIC, but they are not properly supported.
The structural problems identified from the post and beam
system are:
I. Load is not distributed uniformly to be passed on to the
foundation through the columns.
Ii. Cantilever slab is not properly supported by the
load-bearing walls and columns.
Iii. Span-depth ratio of floor slab is not accounted for. Beams
are not integrated into floor slab.
Columns are not aligned properly from the first
floor to the ground.
Cantilever slab spans too far off the edge with
not enough support.
Slab depth is current 240mm, not accounting
beam depth and span-depth ratio.

I. Post and Beam
The post and beam system can be changed by the following:
A. Slab system
Whether the spanning system transfers and distributes
applied forces in one or two directions will determine the
pattern of supports required. The building implements a
one-way slab system based on the floor area. One-way slab
systems transfer applied forces to a pair of parallel
supporting planes, leaving two sides of spatial unit open to
adjacent space.
- Solution:
The cantilevered slabs are a one-way slab system that
transfer loads laterally from the free end to the fixed end at
the load bearing wall then down to the foundation. It is also
applied to structural bays which are rectangular of ratio
1.5:1 which are between two parallel load-bearing walls.
They are suitable for load conditions over relatively short
spans of 1.8-5.5m. The ceilings that span more than 5.5m
require a transverse beam connected to a concrete frame
that transfers the load into the ground.
The direction of beams are placed parallel to the shorter
side of the rectangular bay. Tensile reinforcements are
added in the span’s direction. By adding the one-way
beams. The structure’s bending and deflection moments
are greatly reduced.
A structural grid is setup to align columns to each
other for the ease of placing beams in between
them.
One-way slab system support the load laterally
from slabs and transfers them into foundation.
Thick lines - Primary beams
Thin lines- Secondary beams

B. Load distribution
The beams of the building should be designed to carry the
distributed load appropriate to their use as per UBBL 59 (6).
Building structures are designed to withstand a combination of
dead loads, live loads and lateral loads. Just as importantly as the
magnitude of these loads is the manner in which the loads are
applied to a spanning structure. Loads are applied in a
concentrated or distributed manner
- Concentrated loads
The concentrated loads take place in parts of the building that
support the most moments in the structure. These columns or
bearing walls are placed in the corners of the building,
supporting most of the building’s weak points. There are also
additional concentrated load-bearing columns placed by the
cantilevered slab to support its weight.
- Beams are placed horizontally across the floor slab to
uniformly distribute the loads from the superstructure to the
foundation. Surface forming structures such as the reinforced
concrete slab distributes the load horizontally to supporting
beams in the form of distributed load. One-way slab system distributes loads evenly
across the beams. Load is concentrated on the
corners of the structure, transferred down the
columns into the foundation. Point loads places
in centre of beam are transferred through
transverse beams.

C. Floor system
Reinforced concrete cast in-situ is used because of the
small scale of the first floor making it more
economical and feasible Reinforced concrete beams
are designed to act together with longitudinal
reinforcement in resisting applied forces. The concrete
beams are formed and placed along with the slab it
supports. The slab and beams are formed in a
continuous pour, allowing thickness of slab to
contribute to the depth of the beam and reduce the
overall depth of the structure.
Concrete is cast in-situ as it is more economical and
feasible for the small area needed.
Floor slab is cast integrally with parallel supporting beams, supported by bearing wall. Overall slab-beam depth is reduced.
400mm overall slab-
beam depth
150mm
slab
depth
Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement
perpendicular to main tensile reinforcement
Tensile reinforcement in the span direction

Component 2B : POST AND BEAM
CANTILEVER
II. Cantilever slab
Cantilever slabs are a typical one way slabs. They are
projections from wall face of lintel beams or floor slabs.
When a load sits on a cantilever beam, two reactions occur at
its support. There is the vertical shear force, which
counteracts the object's weight, but the greater force is often
the bending moment, which keeps the beam from rotating.
Overhangs reduce the positive moment at midspan while
developing a negative moment at the base of the cantilever
over the support.
Distribution steel reinforcement should then be provided at
the transverse direction to strengthen the concrete. The top
rebar from the cantilever slab span must extend into the
adjacent continuous span at least for a length which is
greatest of the following:
- 1.5 times the length of cantilever
-tension anchorage length
- 0.3 times the length of adjacent continuous span
Proper selection of depth and detailing of reinforcements
will safeguard against excessive deflections and cracking of
the cantilever slabs.
TL - Tension Lap
CL - Compression Lap
TA - Tension Anchorage
H- Slab thickness
Lc - Cantilever length
Ls - Length of adjacent span
Overhangs reduce the positive moment at
midspan while developing a negative moment at
the base of the cantilever over the support. It
requires an additional reinforcement to offset the
forces and be structurally stable.

CANTILEVER
The current cantilever length is 3400mm, while the length of
the adjacent span is 4415mm. However, the slab cantilevers
too far off the edge from the wall. Thus, an additional column
is required to be added at the edge of the cantilever slab in
order to avoid bending or deflection moments in the slab.
The other cantilever slab over the entrance also cannot work
as the cantilever length is greater than the adjacent span.
Additional columns are added along the line of the wall to
distribute the load of the walls from the first floor to the
foundation.
Additional column supports the cantilever slab that
spans too long off the edge. Now, only a triangular
portion of the slab overhangs.
Columns are placed as supports where direct load is
applied to cantilever slab. Forces now transfer from
the slab to the columns, down to the foundation.

III. Slab depth
Excessive deflections of slab will cause damage to the ceiling,
floor finishes and other architectural details. To avoid this, limits
are set on the span-depth ratios. The depth of the floor is directly
related to the size and proportion of the structural bays it must
span, the magnitude of the live loads and the strength of materials
used. As a slab is usually a slender member the restrictions on the
span-depth ratio become more important and this can often
control the depth of slab required.
Beam depth is an important consideration for reducing bending
stresses and limiting vertical deflection. Having a beam span or
doubling its width reduces the bending stresses by a factor of 2,
but doubling the depth reduces bending stresses by a factor of 4
(DK. Ching).
Currently, the slab depth is 2000mm of reinforced concrete slab.
The span of the slabs vary from 2700 - 7700mm. The thickness of
the load bearing walls that support these slabs are 300mm.
A typical reinforced concrete slab cast in-situ is 150-300mm in
thickness, for the case of this building, 150mm slab is used for
saving up on economical purposes. The thickness of the walls are
set as 230mm, the standard size for masonry bricks. The beam
spans are placed between two columns as such the average beam
span is placed at every 2400mm o.c. Rule of thumb for estimating
beam depth is span/16, thus making the beam depth 400mm,
inclusive of slab depth.
Beams: placed 2400mm o.c.
Material: Cast in-situ reinforced concrete
System: One-way slab system
Wall thickness: 230mm
Slab thickness: 150mm
Slab-beam depth: 400mm

i) Stability of the Roof Columns due to Faulty Placement
of Columns
Besides the columns being too skinny, certain columns that are
providing support for the roof are not aligned with the columns in
the upper storey. This will result in excessive point loads acting
on the upper storey walls.
Solution :
The location of these columns are readjusted to align with the
columns in the upper storey. The roof columns are properly
connected to the columns in the upper storey via mechanical
fixings to the plate.
Component 2C : POST AND BEAM
SUPPORT FOR THE ROOF
Faulty location of columns that are supposed to
support the roof structure
The load distribution diagram shows how live loads from rain and
wind act on the mono pitch roofs. The loads are then transferred to
the bearing members like rafters and purlins, which are then
transferred to the columns supporting the roof structure.

Post Mortem Design Report (featuring Building Structures)

i) Ratio of Cross Section to Height of Column is not
Appropriate
The structure of the roof support is not stable. The current length
of the cross section of one roof column is 115mm. The height of
the columns ranges from 700mm to 5600mm. The ratio of the size
of the cross section to the height of the columns supporting the
roof is too small, due to this, the reduced carrying capacity of steel
columns may not be able to bear the stress of the load especially
wind loads that will act upon the roof, which will result in
buckling of the columns. Although multiple columns are
supporting the roof, contributing to aesthetical details, but they are
not be able to support the singular slab of such weight.
Solution :
The cross section size of the columns located at the ends of each
mono-pitch roof and vital points to the upper storey wall is
increased to 300mm. The remaining columns are replaced by
steel roof trusses which will be attached to the vertical columns.
The steel roof trusses will be connected to the main roof columns
via metal plates and mechanical fixings. The bracing structure of
the steel roof trusses not only can distribute the loads more
evenly to the upper storey wall, it also improves the aesthetics of
the roof by enhancing the visual composition of the roof.
Original dimension of
cross section of roof column
Amended dimension of
cross section of roof column
Proposed steel roof truss whose bracings provide additional support to the roof
Example of how bracings are connected to girder
and roof column (Source from Pinterest)

iii) Rain Infiltration into the Gaps set by Roof Columns
The building is mainly covered by huge single sloped roofs. The
sloping roofs protect the building from external weather and
therefore the rain. Since the distance between the roof structure and
the walls are broaden by long steel columns, the chances of rain
water to enter into the interior spaces during downpours are high.
When the rain gets through the masonry walls that without damp
proof course, there possibilities of crumbling plasters, bubbling
paint, damp patches on wall surfaces close to the ceiling.
Solution :
Louvres are integrated into the columns to create a protective
barrier from rain and direct sunlight from entering the interior
space. Louvres are angled shutters that prevent rain and sun from
entering the interior space. However, louvres still preserve the
function of the openings by allowing prevailing winds to pass
through the Visitor Interpretive Center, naturally ventilating it. The
framing of the louvres also provide additional structural support to
the roof.
The louvres are made out of timber to match the timber walls of
the building. They are fixed onto the steel columns through slotting
them into place then nailing them down. These louvres are found in
the front and back of the building.
Timber louvres found in the front and back of
the building
Example of connection of wooden louvres to
beam and column (Sourced from Weiku)
Example of connection of louvres to beam or
column via support frame (Source from Exone)

Component 3A : ROOF
STABILITY OF
ROOF TILING ASSEMBLY
i) Pitch of the roof subjected to Wind Uplift
The slope for the front roof is at an inclination of less than 30
degrees, hence the front roof is subjected to negative wind
pressure.
ii) Underlayment and Overlapping of Roof Tiles
The roof slabs are French Tuileries Romain Boyers clay roof tiles,
recycled from the site of Sungai Buloh. Their main advantage is to
provide cooling effects to the hot Sungai Buloh climate, while
maintaining its durability and water-tight features. However,
because they are long lasting, the material is also heavy. The
heaviness further increases when roof tiles are composed together
to form three large seamless mono-pitched roofs. This increase the
stress upon the already skinny columns.
Besides, the roof tiles are not overlapping one another, they have
become water-shedding systems in which they allow rainwater to
seep in. The roof tiles are also not connected to a roof deck, which
will be affected by wind uplift.
Solution :
The roof tiles will remain to provide the original function,
however, they will be arranged to overlap each other. The roof
tiles are also secured with mechanical fixing such as nails to
ensure all tiles are installed tightly to resist against wind loads. A
roof deck is installed below the roof tiles.
Roof tiles are not overlapping one
another
Roof tiles are now overlapping one another,
secured with nails. Below the roof batten
layer is a layer of underlayment to prevent
leakage and a roof deck.

Component 3B : ROOF
INTEGRATION OF THE GUTTER
AND DRAINAGE
Problem statement
The sloped roof is built without a proper drainage system.
Therefore, during rainfall the water flows through the sloped roof
directly to the ground. At the same time, it also spills over to the
facade of the building which may cause growth of the fungus and
mold on the walls, which can be aesthetically unpleasant and also
damages the structure in time. In addition, during downpours, the
water enters the interior spaces because of through the opening
created by long columns between the roof and walls.
Solution
A water drainage system should be installed on the edge of the
roof to preserve the building structure.
The slope allows rainwater to drain down from the roof where
it is channelled through a standard guttering and then discharged
by vertical pipes called downpipes to the sewer system.
The image above shows the damp walls
caused by rain seeping through roofs
without a proper roof drainage system.

Roof Drainage system
If the intensity of rainfall does not allow the gutters and downpipes to
perform adequately or it is blocked by other debris, there will still be
possibilities of water entering the building.
Therefore it is important to consider where the water flows - is it
over the edge of the sloped roof or through a dedicated overflow?
Structural design factors:
- Rainfall intensity
- Roof catchment area
- Gutter outlet (sumps)
- Downpipes
- Material selection of gutter
- Roof pitch
- Gutter style
Gutter sump/outlet downpipes drain
Outside box
mitre
Downspout
pipe cleat or
band
elbow
Gutter drop
End cap
Gutter hanger
Diagram : Drainage system
Gutter screen
Component 3B : ROOF
AND DRAINAGE
http://www.raintamer.com/wp-content/upload
s/2015/09/gutter-diagram.jpg

K- Style
With an average rainfall of 250cm a year in Malaysia and a
wide roof catchment area with a steeply sloped roof, the K-style
gutters have been chosen as the gutter system.
K-Style gutters are flat on one side, they can be nailed directly
into the fascia board, which bracket installation is kept to a
minimal. It provides a seamless finish, making the interior less
prone to leaks than other types of gutters. This also helps avoid
water damage. These gutters can hold more water compared to
round style gutters or any other types of gutters
6 “
4 ½ “
15.24cm
11.43cm
Diagram above shows a K style gutter attached
with fascia board.
30
Integration of downpipes into the main columns.
It is certainly possible to embed downpipes in the columns.This
size of cPVC pipes are selected based on the catchment area which
the downpipe has to cater. Therefore, these can be in 150mm based
on the 300x300mm columns in the Visitor Interpretive Centre.
The column size shall also be a function of the pipe diameter
that have selected so that the concrete can flow around the pipe for
the depth of the RCC column since adequate cover /space around
the pipe needs to be provided.
Component 3B : ROOF
AND DRAINAGE

The selection and consideration of materials are influence and
informed by its feasibility within the context of the climate and
geology which then translates to economic sustainability.
Climate is among the most significant factors on the
environmental performance, life span and/or durability of
construction materials in buildings.
The climate of each locality presents a unique natural environment
and is an effective factor on the architectural design and material
use. Identifying, understanding and controlling climatic influences
at the building site are perhaps the most critical part of the design
process. (Ipekogˇlu, B., Böke, H., & Çizer, Ö, 2007).
Geography or Geology informs the type and ways materials are
used, for example Stone. Many types of stone have been used for
construction In historical times, their use was determined by the
proximity of the geological resources, the ease of quarrying and
transportation links to the site. More recently, as transport
connections and quarrying techniques have improved, quality and
durability have become key determinants of building stone
selection.
WALL X
OPTION A LIGHT WOOD FRAME CONSTRUCTION
OPTION B CROSS LAMINATED TIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
WALL Y
OPTION A BRICK MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
OPTION B CONCRETE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
Component 4 : FEASIBILITY OF
MATERIALS AND TYPE OF
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS USED
INTRODUCTION

WALL X (option a or b)
-Light Wood Frame Construction
-Cross Laminated Timber
WALL Y (option a or b)
-Brick Masonry Construction
-Concrete masonry construction
LIGHT WOOD FRAME CONSTRUCTION (1st WALL
TYPE OPTION 1)
● A wood light frame building can be designed to
minimize waste in several ways. It can be dimensioned
to utilize full sheets and lengths of wood products.
Most small buildings can be framed with studs 24
inches (610 mm) o. c. rather than 16 inches (406 mm).
A stud can be eliminated at each corner by using small,
inexpensive metal clips to support the interior wall
finish materials. If joists and rafters are aligned directly
over studs, the top plate can be a single member rather
than a double one. Floor joists can be spliced at points
of inflection rather than over girders; this reduces
bending moments and allows use of smaller joists. Roof
trusses often use less wood than conventional rafters
and ceiling joists.
(REFER TO FIGURE A/B)
a. WALL A- Studs are spaced 16 inches (406mm) The
layout of the wall and its opening is not designed
coordinated to the framing modules and standard
details are used for corners , openings and other
features.
b. WALL B- Studs are spaced 24 inches (610mm) The
length of the wall and location and size of the openings
have been coordinated to the greatest extent possible
with the 24-inch module, and redundant framing
members have been eliminated.
Allen, E., & Iano, J. (2009). Fundamentals of building construction:
Materials and methods. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Wooden light frame dimensioned to utilise full
length and sheet of product (FIGURE A/B)
Component 4 : FEASIBILITY OF
MATERIALS AND TYPE OF STRUCTURAL
COMPONENTS USED POSSIBLE
MATERIAL SELECTION

CLT is a panel product that is manufactured by laminating
pieces of timber boards in perpendicular orientation to form
the layers of the panel. The layers for the panel are usually in
odd number that ranges from 3 to 7 layers. Nine layer panel is
feasible but it would be impractical and uneconomical due to
more layers and adhesive being used. The usual width is up to
3 m and length can be up to 18 m. Each individual lumber
thickness can be in the range of 12 mm to 45mm and width in
between 60 mm to 240 mm. Even though the width and length
of the panel is limitless, the manufacturing facilities and
transportation of the panel to construction site have also to be
considered.
Since CLT was pioneered and developed in temperate
climate countries, the main species used for production consist
of softwood that were cultivated from plantation such as
spruce, fir and pine. Hardwood species have also been utilised
in some CLT building projects that include birch, ash or
poplar. The important criteria of selecting species for CLT is
that the resources must be adequate, has the economic value as
well as meeting the minimum requirement in terms of the
mechanical properties.
H. H., M. I., & U. A. (2008). Cross-laminated timber made from Malaysian
pioneer species timber. CROSS-LAMINATED TIMBER: PRODUCTION
OF PANEL USING SESENDUK TIMBER SPECIES. Retrieved October 2,
2018, from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299467854_Cross-laminated_tim
ber_made_from_Malaysian_pioneer_species_timber_Paper_presented_at_I
SNaC_21-23_September_2015_PWTC_Kuala_Lumpur.
Direction of grain for each layer of Cross
Laminated Timber (CLT)
Component 4 : FEASIBILITY OF MATERIALS
AND TYPE OF STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
USED INTRODUCTION TO CROSS
LAMINATED TIMBER (CLT)

WHY USE CLT
Benefit to the construction industry
1. Short construction time and minimized labour usage as the
panel is prefabricated
2. Less waste as panels are manufactured to specific end-use
3. Cost effectiveness as compared to concrete, masonry and
steel building
Benefit of the material
1. Flexibility in design for longer spans by increasing
thickness
2. The cross structure of components guarantees integral
stability
3. Fire resistance is better due to thicker timber member
4. Acoustic performance improves due to the mass of the wall
5. Environmentally sustainable material that has lighter carbon
footprint
Material properties and performance
1. Relatively high in-plane and out-of-plane strength and
stiffness properties
2. High axial load capacity for walls
3. High stiffness/strength-to-mass ratio
4. High shear strength to resist horizontal loads Application of
CLT
5. Termite resistance due to the glue used during the
lamination process.
CLT can be practically used in the following parts of a
building:
1. Load bearing wall
2. Roof
3. Floor
Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) used in
architecture, spans a great distance.
USED INTRODUCTION TO CROSS
LAMINATED TIMBER (CLT)
H. H., M. I., & U. A. (2008). Cross-laminated
timber made from Malaysian pioneer species
timber. CROSS-LAMINATED TIMBER:
PRODUCTION OF PANEL USING SESENDUK
TIMBER SPECIES. Retrieved October 2, 2018,
from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/29946785
4_Cross-laminated_timber_made_from_Malaysian
_pioneer_species_timber_Paper_presented_at_ISN
aC_21-23_September_2015_PWTC_Kuala_Lumpu
r.

• Relatively small amounts of waste are generated on a
construction site during brick masonry work, including partial
bricks, unsatisfactory bricks, and unused mortar.
These wastes generally go into landfills or are buried on the
site.
• Sealers applied to brick masonry to provide water repellency
and protection from staining are potential sources of emissions.
Solvent-based sealers generally have higher emissions than
water-based products.
• The thermal mass effect of brick masonry can be a useful
component of fuel-saving heating and cooling strategies such
as solar heating and night-time cooling.
• Brick masonry is a durable form of construction that requires
relatively little maintenance and can last a very long time.
• Construction with brick masonry can reduce reliance on paint
finishes, a source of volatile organic compounds.
• Brick masonry is resistant to moisture damage and mould
growth.
• When a brick building is demolished, sound bricks may be
cleaned of mortar and reused (once their physical properties
have been verified as adequate for the new use). Brick waste
can be crushed and used for landscaping. Brick and mortar
waste can also be used as on-site fill. Much such waste,
however, is disposed of off-site in landfills
Allen, E., & Iano, J. (2009). Fundamentals of building construction:
Materials and methods. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
-Brick masonry wall requires no plastering for
weather proofing allowing lower cost.
USED BRICK WALL MASONRY
Why brick masonry construction (2nd
wall type 1st option)
-While brick may be in good condition after
long periods of rain exposure the mortar
bonds may be eroded.

The Economy of Concrete masonry Construction
Concrete masonry is a versatile building material, and walls
built from it are usually more economical than comparable ones
made of brick or stone masonry: The concrete blocks themselves
are cheaper on a volumetric basis and are made into a wall much
more quickly because of their larger size (a single standard
concrete block occupies the same volume as 12 modular bricks).
Concrete blocks can be produced to required degrees of
strength, and because their hollow cores allow for the easy
insertion of reinforcing steel and grout, they are widely used in
bearing wall construction. Concrete blocks are often used for the
backup wythe behind a brick or stone facing. Block walls also
accept plaster, stucco, or tile work directly, without the need for
metal laths. Allen, E., & Iano, J. (2009). Fundamentals of building
construction: Materials and methods. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Conclusion
In accordance to the VIC design two desing solutions were
required for the respective two types of wall identified. With
each given two choices, chosen on criteria such as fire safety and
economic feasibility.
WALL X
- required there to be fenestrations and to include wood as
its main material composition while being fire resistant,
WALL X is featured as an external wall, meaning it
doesn't required a long period of fire resistance for these
reasons CLT Was chosen as it provides design freedom,
allowing there to be fenestrations and also withanding a
period of time from fire.
WALL Y
- Is featured as internal walls thus sectioning parts of the
building, material required for the walls should withstand
fire, as this wall functions as a barrier to stop fire from
spreading throughout the VIC, for that purpose concrete
masonry wall was chosen as it was more economical
compared to brick masonry wall and has better fire
resistance as it bonds better with the mortar while brick
masonry walls has a tendency of cracking its mortar
under fire.
Variety of concrete blocks used in construction
USED BRICK WALL MASONRY

REQUIREMENT & CRITERIA FOR WALL ( X & Y )
WALL LOCATION FIRE RESISTANCE WEATHER PROOFING FINISHING
. X External Sufficient Maximum Wood / Fenestration
. Y Internal Maximum Minimal / None Plastered
WALL X ( EXTERNAL WALL )
OPTION A & B FIRE RESISTANCE WEATHER
RESISTANCE
DURABILITY APPLICATION
LIGHT WOOD FRAME
CONSTRUCTION
Provides little fire -
resistance unless with
added retardants
Requires added
coating for moisture
protection
Threats from moisture,
termites & fire
Requires assembly on
site, supervised by a
carpenter
CROSS LAMINATED
TIMBER
CONSTRUCTION
Provides added fire
resistance due to its
multiple layers.
Manufactured ready
with coating,for
moisture protection
Threats from lack of
maintenance
Assembled in a factory,
Only requires
installation on site
CONCLUSION Cross Laminated Timber was chosen based on the criteria of Wall X and the material’s characteristics of
having treatment and coating ready from the factory to withstand moisture and termites. Not to mention the
ease of installation. Reducing cost for labour and added purchases of coats and treatments
WALL Y ( INTERNAL WALL )
OPTION A & B FIRE RESISTANCE WEATHER
RESISTANCE
DURABILITY APPLICATION
BRICK MASONRY
CONSTRUCTION
Bond weakens under
fire as the mortar
cracks.
Does not requires paint
or plastering for
waterproofing
Mortar bond, will errode
under rain
Requires skilled
masons, and come in
smaller units.
CONCRETE MASONRY
CONSTRUCTION
Has better bond with
the mortar, hus having
better fire resistance
Requires plastering and
paint
Water and moisture
may seep through, if
without plaster layer
Comes in bigger units
and does not require
skilled labour.
CONCLUSION Concrete masonry was chosen due to its performance under fire and its overall economic cost, though it
may perform badly under moisture and weather Wall Y is primarily featured as internal walls negating
needs for high moisture repellence.
Component 4 : CRITERIA FOR WALLS

REFERENCES
Website and Book References
● Aluminium and Fire, . 2018. Aluminium and Fire, . [ONLINE] Available at:
https://www.sapphirealuminium.com.au/aluminium_and_fire.html. [Accessed 02 October 2018].
● Aluminium doors and Windows. 2018. Aluminium doors and Windows. [ONLINE] Available at:
https://www.slideshare.net/JoeDerek/aluminium-doors-and-windows-62009156. [Accessed 02 October 2018].
● Can Mold Grow on Concrete? - Polygon. 2018. Can Mold Grow on Concrete? - Polygon. [ONLINE] Available at:
https://www.polygongroup.com/en-US/blog/can-mold-grow-on-concrete/. [Accessed 02 October 2018].
● D.K. Ching, F., 2009. Building Structures Illustrated: Patterns, Systems and Design. 1st ed. US: John Wiley and Sons.
● Fire Damaged Buildings Fire damage assessment, repair & prevention for homes & other buildings. 2018. Fire Damaged
Buildings Fire damage assessment, repair & prevention for homes & other buildings. [ONLINE] Available at:
https://inspectapedia.com/Building_Damage/Fire_Damage_Assessment.php. [Accessed 02 October 2018]
● Hunker.com. 2018. Can Mold Develop on a Brick Wall? | Hunker. [ONLINE] Available at:
https://www.hunker.com/13416134/can-mold-develop-on-a-brick-wall. [Accessed 02 October 2018].
● Ipekogˇlu, B., Böke, H., & Çizer, Ö. (2007). Assessment of material use in relation to climate in historical buildings. Building
and Environment, 42(2), 970-978. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.10.029
● Insulation & Fire Protection | Fire Safety with Insulation. 2018. Insulation & Fire Protection | Fire Safety with Insulation.
[ONLINE] Available at: https://www.kauffmanco.net/blog/insulation-fire-protection. [Accessed 02 October 2018].
● Insulation Institute. 2018. Home Insulation | Fire Safety, Health, Mold, Corrosion. [ONLINE] Available at:
https://insulationinstitute.org/im-a-homeowner/about-insulation/health-safety/. [Accessed 02 October 2018].
● NZ Herald. 2018. Everyone can help stop the rot - NZ Herald. [ONLINE] Available at:
https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=2042655. [Accessed 02 October 2018].
● RestorationMaster. 2018. How Mold Affects Different Building Materials in your Home. [ONLINE] Available at:
https://restorationmasterfinder.com/restoration/how-mold-affects-different-building-materials-in-your-home/. [Accessed 02
October 2018].
● srcnet. 2018. GreenSpec: Cross-Laminated Timber/CLT: Fire Resistance and Rating. [ONLINE] Available at:
http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/crosslam-timber-fire-resistance-and-rating/. [Accessed 02 October 2018].
● Washington Post. 2018. - The Washington Post. [ONLINE] Available at:
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/where-we-live/wp/2016/07/26/to-prevent-rot-and-mold-behind-your-homes-brick-wal
ls-make-sure-the-weep-holes-are-not-blocked/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.f6a485c0fe12. [Accessed 02 October 2018].
● Allen, E., & Iano, J. (2009). Fundamentals of building construction: Materials and methods. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
● H. H., M. I., & U. A. (2008). Cross-laminated timber made from Malaysian pioneer species timber. CROSS-LAMINATED
TIMBER: PRODUCTION OF PANEL USING SESENDUK TIMBER SPECIES. Retrieved October 2, 2018, from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299467854_Cross-laminated_timber_made_from_Malaysian_pioneer_species_timb
er_Paper_presented_at_ISNaC_21-23_September_2015_PWTC_Kuala_Lumpur.
● Mono Pitch Roof Construction Drawings How to Build A Mono Pitch Shed Roof – sancarlosminas.info. Retrieved from
https://sancarlosminas.info/50-mono-pitch-roof-construction-drawings-zc8b/mono-pitch-roof-construction-drawings-how-to-
build-a-mono-pitch-shed-roof/
● 10 key questions about exterior shading. (2014). Retrieved from
https://www.constructionspecifier.com/10-key-questions-about-exterior-shading/
● Louver. Adjustable Sun Window Louver China (Mainland) Shutters. Retrieved from
http://www.weiku.com/products/14994503/Adjustable_Sun_Window_Louver.html
Diagrams:
● Ramona-Elena Irimia, Marc Gottschling. 2018. Taxonomic revision of Rochefortia Sw. (Ehretiaceae, Boraginales).
[ONLINE] Available at: https://doi.org/10.3897/BDJ.4.e7720. [Accessed 02 October 2018].
● D.K. Ching, F., 2009. Building Structures Illustrated: Patterns, Systems and Design. 1st ed. US: John Wiley and Sons.

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