![Samp is ‘said to have been invented by the savages of North
America, who have no corn-mills.’ It is Indian corn deprived of its
external coat by soaking it ten or twelve hours in a lixivium of water
and wood ashes.[17] This coat or husk, being separated from the
kernel, rises to the surface of the water, while the grain remains at
the bottom. The separated kernel is stewed for about two days in a
kettle of water placed near the fire. ‘When sufficiently cooked, the
kernels will be found to be swelled to a great size and burst open,
and this food, which is uncommonly sweet and nourishing, may be
used in a great variety of ways; but the best way of using it is to mix
it with milk, and with soups and broths as a substitute for bread.’ He
prefers it to bread because ‘it requires more mastication, and
consequently tends more to prolong the pleasure of eating.’
The cost of this soup he estimates as follows:
s. d.
5 lbs. barley meal, at 1½d. per. lb., or 5s. 6d. per bushel 0 7½
5 lbs. Indian corn, at 1¼d. per lb. 0 6¼
4 red herrings 0 3
Vinegar 0 1
Salt 0 1
Pepper and sweet herbs 0 2
————
1 8¾
This makes 64 portions, which thus cost rather less than one-third of
a penny each. As prices were higher then than now, it comes down
to little more than one farthing, or one-third of a penny, as stated,
when cost of preparation in making on a large scale is included. I
have not been successful in making this soup; failed in the ‘samp,’ as
explained in the foot-note. By substituting ‘raspings’ (the coarse
powder rasped off the surface of rolls or over-baked loaves) or
bread-crumbs browned in an oven, I obtain a fair result for those
who have no objection to a diffused flavour of red herring.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/26109-250504074409-27ac7222/85/Power-Electronics-Handbook-3rd-Edition-Muhammad-H-Rashid-29-320.jpg)
![It is unquestionably true that such may be done; that the tea-
drinker is languid and weary at tea-time, whatever be the hour, and
that the refreshment produced by ‘the cup that cheers’ and is said
not to inebriate, is almost instantaneous.
What is the true significance of these facts?
The refreshment is certainly not due to nutrition, not to the
rebuilding of any worn-out or exhausted organic tissue. The total
quantity of material conveyed from the tea-leaves into the water is
ridiculously too small for the performance of any such nutritive
function; and besides this, the action is far too rapid, there is not
sufficient time for the conversion of even that minute quantity into
organised working tissue. The action cannot be that of a food, but is
purely and simply that of a stimulating or irritant drug, acting
directly and abnormally on the nervous system.
The five-o’clock lassitude and craving is neither more nor less
than the reaction induced by the habitual abnormal stimulation; or
otherwise, and quite fairly, stated, it is the outward symptom of a
diseased condition of brain produced by the action of a drug; it may
be but a mild form of disease, but it is truly a disease nevertheless.
The active principle which produces this result is the crystalline
alkaloid, the theine,[18] a compound belonging to the same class as
strychnine and a number of similar vegetable poisons. These, when
diluted, act medicinally—that is, produce disturbance of normal
functions as the tea does, and, like theine, most of them act
specially on the nervous system; when concentrated they are
dreadful poisons, very small doses causing death. The volatile oil, of
which tea contains about 1 per cent., probably contributes to this
effect. Johnston attributes the headaches and giddiness to which
tea-tasters are subject to this oil, and also ‘the attacks of paralysis to
which, after a few years, those who are employed in packing and
unpacking chests of tea are found to be liable.’ As both the alkaloid
and the oil are volatile, I suspect that they jointly contribute to these](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/26109-250504074409-27ac7222/85/Power-Electronics-Handbook-3rd-Edition-Muhammad-H-Rashid-36-320.jpg)
Power Electronics Handbook 3rd Edition Muhammad H. Rashid
- 1. Power Electronics Handbook 3rd Edition Muhammad H. Rashid download https://ebookultra.com/download/power-electronics-handbook-3rd- edition-muhammad-h-rashid/ Explore and download more ebooks or textbooks at ebookultra.com
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- 5. Power Electronics Handbook 3rd Edition Muhammad H. Rashid Digital Instant Download Author(s): Muhammad H. Rashid ISBN(s): 9780123820372, 0123820375 Edition: 3 File Details: PDF, 25.38 MB Year: 2011 Language: english
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- 9. POWER ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK DEVICES, CIRCUITS, AND APPLICATIONS Third Edition Edited by Muhammad H. Rashid, Ph.D., Fellow IET (UK), Fellow IEEE (USA) Professor Electrical and Computer Engineering University of West Florida 11000 University Parkway Pensacola, FL 32514-5754, U.S.A. Phone: 850-474-2976 e-mail: mrashid@uwf.edu AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
- 10. Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK Second edition 2007 Third edition 2011 Copyright c 2011, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333, E-mail: permissions@elsevier.com. You may also complete your request online via the Elsevier homepage (http://elsevier.com), by selecting “Support Contact” then “Copyright and Permission” and then “Obtaining Permissions.” Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Power electronics handbook : devices, circuits, and applications handbook / edited by Muhammad H. Rashid. – 3rd ed. p. cm. ISBN 978-0-12-382036-5 1. Power electronics – Encyclopedias. I. Rashid, M. H. TK7881.15.P6733 2010 621.31'7–dc22 2010038332 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 978-0-12-382036-5 For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our Web site at www.elsevierdirect.com Printed in the USA 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
- 11. Dedication To those who promote power electronics and inspire students for finding applications for the benefits of the people and the environment in the global community v
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- 13. Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction Philip T. Krein Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Illinois Urbana, Illinois, USA 1 Section I: Power Electronics Devices Chapter 2 The Power Diode Ali I. Maswood School of EEE Nanyang Technological University Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 17 Chapter 3 Power Bipolar Transistors Marcelo Godoy Simoes Engineering Division Colorado School of Mines Golden, Colorado, USA 29 Chapter 4 The Power MOSFET Issa Batarseh School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science University of Central Florida 4000 Central Florida Blvd. Orlando, Florida, USA 43 Chapter 5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor S. Abedinpour and K. Shenai Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science University of Illinois at Chicago 851, South Morgan Street (M/C 154) Chicago, Illinois, USA 73 vii
- 14. viii Table of Contents Chapter 6 Thyristors Angus Bryant Department of Engineering University of Warwick Coventry CV4 7AL, UK Enrico Santi Department of Electrical Engineering University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina, USA Jerry Hudgins Department of Electrical Engineering University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska, USA Patrick Palmer Department of Engineering University of Cambridge Trumpington Street Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK 91 Chapter 7 Gate Turn-off Thyristors Muhammad H. Rashid Electrical and Computer Engineering University of West Florida 11000 University Parkway Pensacola, Florida 32514-5754, USA 117 Chapter 8 MOS Controlled Thyristors (MCTs) S. Yuvarajan Department of Electrical Engineering North Dakota State University P.O. Box 5285 Fargo, North Dakota, USA 125 Chapter 9 Static Induction Devices Bogdan M. Wilamowski Alabama Microelectronics Science and Technology Center Auburn University Alabama, USA 135 Section II: Power Conversion Chapter 10 Diode Rectifiers Yim-Shu Lee and Martin H. L. Chow Department of Electronic and Information Engineering The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hung Hom Hong Kong 149
- 15. Table of Contents ix Chapter 11 Single-phase Controlled Rectifiers José Rodrı́guez, Pablo Lezana, Samir Kouro, and Alejandro Weinstein Department of Electronics Universidad Técnica Federico Santa Marı́a, Valparaı́so, Chile 183 Chapter 12 Three-phase Controlled Rectifiers Juan W. Dixon Department of Electrical Engineering Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Santiago, Chile 205 Chapter 13 DC–DC Converters Dariusz Czarkowski Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Polytechnic University Brooklyn, New York, USA 249 Chapter 14 DC/DC Conversion Technique and Twelve Series Luo-converters Fang Lin Luo School of EEE, Block S1 Nanyang Technological University Nanyang Avenue, Singapore Hong Ye School of Biological Sciences, Block SBS Nanyang Technological University Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 265 Chapter 15 Inverters José R. Espinoza Departamento de Ingenierı́a Eléctrica, of. 220 Universidad de Concepción Casilla 160-C, Correo 3 Concepción, Chile 357 Chapter 16 Resonant and Soft-switching Converters S. Y. (Ron) Hui and Henry S. H. Chung Department of Electronic Engineering City University of Hong Kong Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Hong Kong 409 Chapter 17 Multilevel Power Converters Surin Khomfoi King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang Thailand Leon M. Tolbert The University of Tennessee Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Knoxville, Tennessee, USA 455
- 16. x Table of Contents Chapter 18 AC–AC Converters A. K. Chattopadhyay Department of Electrical Engineering Bengal Engineering Science University Shibpur, Howrah, India 487 Chapter 19 Power Factor Correction Circuits Issa Batarseh and Huai Wei School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science University of Central Florida 4000 Central Florida Blvd. Orlando, Florida, USA 523 Chapter 20 Gate Drive Circuitry for Power Converters Irshad Khan University of Cape Town Department of Electrical Engineering Cape Town, South Africa 549 Section III: General Applications Chapter 21 Power Electronics in Capacitor Charging Applications William C. Dillard Archangel Systems, Incorporated 1635 Pumphrey Avenue Auburn Alabama, USA 567 Chapter 22 Electronic Ballasts J. Marcos Alonso Electrical Engineering Department University of Oviedo Campus de Viesques s/n Edificio de Electronica 33204 Gijon, Asturias, Spain 573 Chapter 23 Power Supplies Y. M. Lai Department of Electronic and Information Engineering The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hong Kong 601 Chapter 24 Uninterruptible Power Supplies Adel Nasiri Power Electronics and Motor Drives Laboratory University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee 3200 North Cramer Street Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA 627
- 17. Table of Contents xi Chapter 25 Automotive Applications of Power Electronics David J. Perreault Massachusetts Institute of Technology Laboratory for Electromagnetic and Electronic Systems 77 Massachusetts Avenue, 10-039 Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA Khurram Afridi Techlogix, 800 West Cummings Park 1925, Woburn, Massachusetts, USA Iftikhar A. Khan Delphi Automotive Systems 2705 South Goyer Road MS D35 Kokomo Indiana, USA 643 Chapter 26 Solid State Pulsed Power Electronics Luis Redondo Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa DEEA, and Nuclear Physics Center fom Lisbon University Av. Prof. Gama Pinto 2, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal J. Fernando Silva TU Lisbon, Instituto Superior Técnico, DEEC, A.C. Energia, Center for Innovation on Electrical and Energy Engineering AV. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal 669 Section IV: Power Generation and Distribution Chapter 27 Photovoltaic System Conversion Dr. Lana El Chaar, Ph. D. Electrical Engineering Department The Petroleum Institute P.O. Box 2533, Abu Dhabi, UAE 711 Chapter 28 Power Electronics for Renewable Energy Sources C. V. Nayar, S. M. Islam H. Dehbonei, and K. Tan Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Curtin University of Technology GPO Box U1987, Perth Western Australia 6845, Australia H. Sharma Research Institute for Sustainable Energy Murdoch University Perth, Western Australia, Australia 723
- 18. xii Table of Contents Chapter 29 High-Frequency Inverters: From Photovoltaic, Wind, and Fuel-Cell-Based Renewable- and Alternative-Energy DER/DG Systems to Energy-Storage Applications S. K. Mazumder Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Director, Laboratory for Energy and Switching-Electronics Systems (LESES) University of Illinois Chicago, USA 767 Chapter 30 Wind Turbine Applications Juan M. Carrasco, Eduardo Galván, and Ramón Portillo Department of Electronic Engineering Engineering School, Seville University, Spain 791 Chapter 31 HVDC Transmission Vijay K. Sood Hydro-Quebec (IREQ), 1800 Lionel Boulet Varennes, Quebec, Canada 823 Chapter 32 Flexible AC Transmission Systems E. H. Watanabe Electrical Engineering Department COPPE/Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Brazil, South America M. Aredes Electrical Engineering Department Polytechnic School and COPPE/ Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Brazil, South America P. G. Barbosa Electrical Engineering Department Federal University of Juiz de Fora Brazil, South America F. K. de Araújo Lima Electrical Engineering Department Federal University of Ceara Brazil, South America R. F. da Silva Dias Pos-doctoral Fellow at Toronto University supported by Capes Foundation Ministry of Education Brazil, South America G. Santos Eneltec- Energia Elétrica e Tecnologia Brazil, South America 851
- 19. Table of Contents xiii Section V: Motor Drives Chapter 33 Drives Types and Specifications Yahya Shakweh Technical Director FKI Industrial Drives Controls, England, UK 881 Chapter 34 Motor Drives M. F. Rahman School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications The University of New South Wales, Sydney New South Wales 2052, Australia D. Patterson Northern Territory Centre for Energy Research Faculty of Technology Northern Territory University Darwin, Northern Territory 0909, Australia A. Cheok Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering National University of Singapore 10 Kent Ridge Crescent Singapore R. Betz Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Newcastle, Callaghan New South Wales, Australia 915 Chapter 35 Novel AI-Based Soft Computing Applications in Motor Drives Adel M. Sharaf and Adel A. A. El-Gammal Centre for Engineering Studies, Energy Research, University of Trinidad and Tobago UTT Point Lisas Campus, Esperanza Road Brechin Castle, Couva. P.O. Box 957 993 Section VI: Control Chapter 36 Advanced Control of Switching Power Converters J. Fernando Silva and Sónia Ferreira Pinto TU Lisbon, Instituto Superior Técnico, DEEC A.C. Energia, Center for Innovation on Electrical and Energy Engineering AV. Rorisco Pais 1 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal 1037
- 20. xiv Table of Contents Chapter 37 Fuzzy Logic Applications in Electrical Drives and Power Electronics Ahmed Rubaai Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Howard University, Washington DC 20059, USA Paul Young RadiantBlue Technologies, 4501 Singer Ct, Ste 220, Chantilly, VA 2015 Abdu Ofoli Electrical Engineering Department The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Chattanooga, TN 37403, USA Marcel J. Castro-Sitiriche Electrical and Computer Engineering Department University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez Mayagüez, Puerto Rico, 00681 1115 Chapter 38 Artificial Neural Network Applications in Power Electronics and Electrical Drives B. Karanayil and M. F. Rahman School of Electrical Engineering and Telecommunications The University of New South Wales Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia 1139 Chapter 39 DSP-based Control of Variable Speed Drives Hamid A. Toliyat Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Texas AM University, 3128 Tamus 216g Zachry Engineering Center College Station, Texas, USA Mehdi Abolhassani Black Decker (US) Inc. 701 E Joppa Rd., TW100 Towson, Maryland, USA Peyman Niazi Maxtor Co. 333 South St., Shrewsbury Massachusetts, USA Lei Hao Wavecrest Laboratories 1613 Star Batt Drive Rochester Hills, Michigan, USA 1155 Section VII: Power Quality and EMI Issues Chapter 40 Power Quality S. Mark Halpin and Angela Card Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Auburn University Alabama, USA 1179
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- 22. cooked gelatin, fibrin, cellulose, casein, starch, legumin, c. That water is with them when they are cooked is evident enough, but whether that water is brought into actual chemical combination with them in such wise as to form new compounds of additional nutritive value proportionate to the chemical addition of water, demands so much investigation that I have been driven to merely theorise where I ought to have demonstrated. The fact that the living body which our food is building up and renewing contains about 80 per cent. of water, some of it combined, and some of it uncombined, has a notable bearing on the question. We may yet learn that hydration and dehydration have more to do with the vital functions than has hitherto been supposed. The following are the ingredients used by Rumford in ‘Soup No. 1’: Weight Avoirdupois. Cost. lbs. oz. £ s. d. 4 viertels of pearl barley, equal to about 20⅓ gallons 141 2 0 11 7½ 4 viertels of peas 131 4 0 7 3¼ Cuttings of fine wheaten bread 69 10 0 10 2¼ Salt 19 13 0 1 2½ 24 maass, very weak beer, vinegar, or rather small beer turned sour, about 24 quarts 46 13 0 1 5½ Water, about 560 quarts 1,077 0 — —————— ———— 1,485 10 1 11 9 —————— Fuel, 88 lbs. dry pine wood 0 0 2¼ Wages of three cook maids, at 20 florins a year each 0 0 3⅔
- 23. Daily expense of feeding the three cook maids, at 10 creutzers (3⅔ pence sterling) each, according to agreement 0 011 Daily wages of two men servants 0 1 7¼ Repairs of kitchen furniture (90 florins per ann.) daily 0 0 5½ ———— Total daily expenses when dinner is provided for 1,200 persons 1 15 2⅔ This amounts to 422/1200, or a trifle more than ⅓ of a penny for each dinner of this No. 1 soup. The cost was still further reduced by the use of the potato, then a novelty, concerning which Rumford makes the following remarks, now very curious. ‘So strong was the aversion of the public, particularly the poor, against them at the time when we began to make use of them in the public kitchen of the House of Industry in Munich, that we were absolutely obliged, at first, to introduce them by stealth. A private room in a retired corner was fitted up as a kitchen for cooking them; and it was necessary to disguise them, by boiling them down entirely, and destroying their form and texture, to prevent their being detected.’ The following are the ingredients of ‘Soup No. 2,’ with potatoes: Weight Avoirdupois. Cost. lbs. oz. £ s. d. 2 viertels of pearl barley 70 9 0 5913/22 2 viertels of peas 65 10 0 37⅝ 8 viertels of potatoes 230 4 0 1 99/11 Cuttings of bread 69 10 010 24/11 Salt 19 13 0 1 2½ Vinegar 46 13 0 1 5½ Water 982 15 — Fuel, servants, repairs, c., as before 0 3 55/12 —————
- 24. Total daily cost of 1,200 dinners 1 7 6⅔ This reduces the cost to a little above one farthing per dinner. In the essay from which the above is quoted, there is another account, reducing all the items to what they would cost in London in November 1795, which raises the amount to 2¾ farthings per portion for No. 1, and 2½ farthings for No. 2. In this estimate the expenses for fuel, servants, kitchen furniture, c. are stated at three times as much as the cost at Munich, and the other items at the prices stated in the printed report of the Board of Agriculture of November 10, 1795. But since 1795 we have made great progress in the right direction. Bread then cost one shilling per loaf, barley and peas about 50 per cent. more than at present, salt is set down by Rumford at 1¼d. per lb. (now about one farthing). Fuel was also dearer. But wages have risen greatly. As stated in money, they are about doubled (in purchasing power—i.e. real wages—they are threefold). Making all these allowances, charging wages at six times those paid by him, I find that the present cost of Rumford’s No. 1 soup would be a little over one halfpenny per portion, and No. 2 just about one halfpenny. I here assume that Rumford’s directions for the construction of kitchen fireplaces and economy of fuel are carried out. We are in these matters still a century behind his arrangements of 1790, and nothing short of a coal-famine will punish and cure our criminal extravagance. The cookery of the above-named ingredients is conducted as follows: ‘The water and pearl barley first put together in the boiler and made to boil, the peas are then added, and the boiling is continued over a gentle fire about two hours; the potatoes are then added (peeled), and the boiling is continued for about one hour more, during which time the contents of the boiler are frequently stirred about with a large wooden spoon or ladle, in order to destroy the texture of the potatoes, and to reduce the soup to one uniform mass. When this is done, the vinegar and salt are added; and, last of
- 25. all, at the moment that it is to be served up, the cuttings of bread.’ No. 1 is to be cooked for three hours without the potatoes. As already stated, I have found, in carrying out these instructions, that I obtain a purée or porridge rather than a soup. I found the No. 1 to be excellent, No. 2 inferior. It was better when very small potatoes were used; they became more jellied, and the purée altogether had less of the granular texture of mashed potatoes. I found it necessary to conduct the whole of the cooking myself; the inveterate kitchen superstition concerning simmering and boiling, the belief that anything rapidly boiling is hotter than when it simmers, and is therefore cooking more quickly, compels the non-scientific cook to shorten the tedious three-hour process by boiling. This boiling drives the water from below, bakes the lower stratum of the porridge, and spoils the whole. The ordinary cook, were she ‘at the strappado, or all the racks in the world,’ would not keep anything barely boiling for three hours with no visible result. According to her positive and superlative experience, the mess is cooked sufficiently in one-third of the time, as soon as the peas are softened. She don’t, and she won’t, and she can’t, and she shan’t understand anything about hydration. ‘When it’s done, it’s done, and there’s an end to it, and what more do you want?’ Hence the failures of the attempts to introduce Rumford’s porridge in our English workhouses, prisons, and soup kitchens. I find, when I make it myself, that it is incomparably superior and far cheaper than the ‘skilly’ at present provided, though the sample of skilly that I tasted was superior to the ordinary slop. The weight of each portion, as served to the beggars, c., was 19·9 oz. (1 Bavarian pound); the solid matter contained was 6 oz. of No. 2, or 4¾ oz. of No. 1, and Rumford states that this ‘is quite sufficient to make a good meal for a strong, healthy person,’ as ‘abundantly proved by long experience.’ He insists, again and again, upon the necessity of the three-hours’ cooking, and I am equally convinced of its necessity, though, as above explained, not on the same theoretical grounds. No repetition of his experience is fair
- 26. unless this be attended to. I have no hesitation in affirming that the 4¾ oz. of No. 1, when thus boiled for 3 hours, will supply more nutriment than 6 oz. boiled only 1½ hour. The bread should not be cooked, but added just before serving the soup. In reference to this he has published a very curious essay, entitled ‘Of the Pleasure of Eating, and of the Means that may be Employed for Increasing it.’ Rumford used wood as fuel, and his kitchen-ranges were constructed of brickwork with a separate fire for each pot, the pot being set in in the brickwork immediately above the fireplace in such manner that the flame and heated products of combustion surrounded the pot on their way to the exit flue. The quantity of fuel was adjusted to each operation, and with wood embers a long sustained moderate heat was easily obtained. With coal-fires such separate firing would be troublesome, as coal cannot be so easily kindled on requirement as wood. With our roaring, wasteful kitchen furnaces and still more wasteful cooks, the long-sustained moderate heat is not practicable without some further device. I found that, by using a ‘milk scalder,’ which is a water-bath similar to a glue-pot, but on a large scale, I could obtain Rumford’s results over a common kitchen-range with very little trouble, and no risk of baking the bottom part of the porridge. I further found that even a longer period of stewing than he prescribes is desirable. I made a hearty meal on No. 1 soup, and found it as satisfactory as any dinner of meat, potatoes, c., of any number of courses; and, as a chemist, I assert without any hesitation, that such a meal is demonstrably of equal or superior nutritive value to an ordinary Englishman’s slice of beef diluted with potatoes. The No. 2 soup is not so satisfactory. Rumford was wrong in his estimate of the value of potatoes.
- 27. In the formula for Rumford’s soup it is stated that the bread should not be cooked, but added just before serving the soup. Like everything else in his practical programmes, this was prescribed with a philosophical reason. His reasons may have been fanciful sometimes, but he never acted stupidly, as the vulgar majority of mankind usually do when they blindly follow an established custom without knowing any reason for so doing, or even attempting to discover a reason. In his essay on ‘The Pleasure of Eating, and of the Means that may be Employed for Increasing it,’ he says: ‘The pleasure enjoyed in eating depends, first, on the agreeableness of the taste of the food; and, secondly, upon its power to affect the palate. Now, there are many substances extremely cheap, by which very agreeable tastes may be given to food, particularly when the basis or nutritive substance of the food is tasteless; and the effect of any kind of palatable solid food (of meat, for instance) upon the organs of taste may be increased, almost indefinitely, by reducing the size of the particles of such food, and causing it to act upon the palate by a larger surface. And if means be used to prevent its being swallowed too soon, which may easily be done by mixing it with some hard and tasteless substance, such as crumbs of bread rendered hard by toasting, or anything else of that kind, by which a long mastication is rendered necessary, the enjoyment of eating may be greatly increased and prolonged.’ He adds that ‘the idea of occupying a person a great while, and affording him much pleasure at the same time in eating a small quantity of food, may perhaps appear ridiculous to some; but those who consider the matter attentively will perceive that it is very important. It is perhaps as much so as anything that can employ the attention of the philosopher.’ Further on he adds: ‘If a glutton can be made to gormandise two hours upon two ounces of meat, it is certainly much better for him than to give himself an indigestion by eating two pounds in the same time.’
- 28. This is amusing as well as instructive; so also are his researches into what I may venture to describe as the specific sapidity of different kinds of food, which he determined by diluting or intermixing them with insipid materials, and thereby ascertaining the amount of surface over which they might be spread before their particular flavour disappeared. He concluded that a red herring has the highest specific sapidity—i.e. the greatest amount of flavour in a given weight of any kind of food he had tested, and that, comparing it on the basis of cost for cost, its superiority is still greater. He tells us that ‘the pleasure of eating depends very much indeed upon the manner in which the food is applied to the organs of taste,’ and that he considers ‘it necessary to mention, and even to illustrate in the clearest manner, every circumstance which appears to have influence in producing these important effects.’ As an example of this, I may quote his instructions for eating hasty pudding: ‘The pudding is then eaten with a spoon, each spoonful of it being dipped into the sauce before it is carried to the mouth, care being had in taking it up to begin on the outside, or near the brim of the plate, and to approach the centre by regular advances, in order not to demolish too soon the excavation which forms the reservoir for the sauce.’ His solid Indian-corn pudding is, in like manner, ‘to be eaten with a knife and fork, beginning at the circumference of the slice, and approaching regularly towards the centre, each piece of pudding being taken up with the fork and dipped into the butter, or dipped into it in part only, before it is carried to the mouth.’ As a supplement to the cheap soup recipes I will quote one which Rumford gives as the cheapest food which in his opinion can be provided in England: Take of water 8 gallons, mix it with 5 lbs. of barley-meal, boil it to the consistency of a thick jelly. Season with salt, vinegar, pepper, sweet herbs, and four red herrings pounded in a mortar. Instead of bread, add 5 lbs. of Indian corn made into a samp, and stir it together with a ladle. Serve immediately in portions of 20 oz.
- 29. Samp is ‘said to have been invented by the savages of North America, who have no corn-mills.’ It is Indian corn deprived of its external coat by soaking it ten or twelve hours in a lixivium of water and wood ashes.[17] This coat or husk, being separated from the kernel, rises to the surface of the water, while the grain remains at the bottom. The separated kernel is stewed for about two days in a kettle of water placed near the fire. ‘When sufficiently cooked, the kernels will be found to be swelled to a great size and burst open, and this food, which is uncommonly sweet and nourishing, may be used in a great variety of ways; but the best way of using it is to mix it with milk, and with soups and broths as a substitute for bread.’ He prefers it to bread because ‘it requires more mastication, and consequently tends more to prolong the pleasure of eating.’ The cost of this soup he estimates as follows: s. d. 5 lbs. barley meal, at 1½d. per. lb., or 5s. 6d. per bushel 0 7½ 5 lbs. Indian corn, at 1¼d. per lb. 0 6¼ 4 red herrings 0 3 Vinegar 0 1 Salt 0 1 Pepper and sweet herbs 0 2 ———— 1 8¾ This makes 64 portions, which thus cost rather less than one-third of a penny each. As prices were higher then than now, it comes down to little more than one farthing, or one-third of a penny, as stated, when cost of preparation in making on a large scale is included. I have not been successful in making this soup; failed in the ‘samp,’ as explained in the foot-note. By substituting ‘raspings’ (the coarse powder rasped off the surface of rolls or over-baked loaves) or bread-crumbs browned in an oven, I obtain a fair result for those who have no objection to a diffused flavour of red herring.
- 30. By using grated cheese instead of the herring, as well as substituting bread-crumbs or raspings for the Indian corn, I have completely succeeded; but for economy and quality combined, the No. 1 soup, as supplied at Munich, is preferable. The feeding of the Bavarian soldiers is stated in detail in vol. i. of Rumford’s ‘Essays.’ I take one characteristic example. It is from an official report on experiments made ‘in obedience to the orders of Lieut.-General Count Rumford, by Sergeant Wickelhof’s mess, in the first company of the first (or Elector’s Own) regiment of Grenadiers at Munich.’ June 10, 1795.—Bill of Fare. Boiled beef, with soup and bread dumplings. Details of the Expense. First, for the boiled beef and the soup. lb. loths. Creutzers. 2 0 beef 16 0 1 sweet herbs 1 0 0¼ pepper 0½ 0 6 salt 0½ 1 14½ ammunition bread cut fine 2⅞ 9 20 water 0 —————— ——— Total 13 9¾ Cost 20⅞ The Bavarian pound is a little less than 1¼ lb. avoirdupois, and is divided into 32 loths. All these were put into an earthenware pot and boiled for two hours and a quarter; then divided into twelve portions of 267/12 loths each, costing 1¾ creutzer. Second, for the bread dumpling. lb. loths. Creutzers.
- 31. 10 13 f fine semel bread 10 1 0 of fine flour 4½ 0 6 salt 0½ 3 0 water 0 ——— ——— Total 5 19 Cost 15 This mass was made into dumplings, which were boiled half an hour in clear water. Upon taking them out of the water they were found to weigh 5 lbs. 24 loths, giving 15⅓ loths to each portion, costing 1¼ creutzer. The meat, soup, and dumplings were served all at once, in the same dish, and were all eaten together at dinner. Each member of the mess was also supplied with 10 loths of rye bread, which cost 5/16 of a creutzer. Also with 10 loths of the same for breakfast, another piece of same weight in the afternoon, and another for his supper. A detailed analysis of this is given, the sum total of which shows that each man received in avoirdupois weight daily: lb. oz. 2 234/100 of solids 1 284/100 of ‘prepared water’ ———— 3 518/100 total solids and fluids. which cost 517/48 creutzers, or twopence sterling, very nearly. Other bills of fare of other messes, officially reported, give about the same. This is exclusive of the cost of fuel, c., for cooking. All who are concerned in soup-kitchens or other economic dietaries should carefully study the details supplied in these ‘Essays’ of Count Rumford; they are thoroughly practical, and, although nearly a century old, are highly instructive at the present day. With
- 32. their aid large basins of good, nutritious soup might be supplied at one penny per basin, leaving a profit for establishment expenses; and if such were obtainable at Billingsgate, Smithfield, Leadenhall, Covent Garden, and other markets in London and the provinces, where poor men are working at early hours on cold mornings, the dram-drinking which prevails so fatally in such places would be more effectually superseded than by any temperance missions, which are limited to mere talking. Such soup is incomparably better than tea or coffee. It should be included in the bill of fare of all the coffee- palaces and such-like establishments. Since the above appeared in ‘Knowledge,’ I have had much correspondence with ladies and gentlemen who are benevolently exerting themselves in the good work of providing cheap dinners for poor school-children and poor people generally. I may mention particularly the Rev. W. Moore Ede, Rector of Gateshead-on-Tyne, a pioneer in the ‘Penny Dinner’ movement, and who has published a valuable penny tract on the subject, ‘Cheap Food and Cheap Cookery,’ which I recommend to all his fellow-workers. (He supplies distribution copies at 6d. per 100.) His ‘Penny Dinner Cooker,’ now commercially supplied by Messrs. Walker and Emley, Newcastle, overcomes the difficulties I have described in the slow cookery of Rumford’s soup. It is a double vessel on the glue-pot principle, heated by gas.
- 34. CHAPTER XV. COUNT RUMFORD’S SUBSTITUTE FOR TEA AND COFFEE. Take eight parts by weight of meal (Rumford says ‘wheat or rye meal,’ and I add, or oatmeal), and one part of butter. Melt the butter in a clean iron frying-pan, and, when thus melted, sprinkle the meal into it; stir the whole briskly with a broad wooden spoon or spatula till the butter has disappeared and the meal is of a uniform brown colour, like roasted coffee, great care being taken to prevent burning on the bottom of the pan. About half an ounce of this roasted meal boiled in a pint of water, and seasoned with salt, pepper, and vinegar, forms ‘burnt soup,’ much used by the wood-cutters of Bavaria, who work in the mountains far away from any habitations. Their provisions for a week (the time they commonly remain in the mountains) consist of a large loaf of rye bread (which, as it does not so soon grow dry and stale as wheaten bread, is always preferred to it); a linen bag, containing a small quantity of roasted meal, prepared as above; another small bag of salt, and a small wooden box containing some pounded black pepper; and sometimes, but not often, a small bottle of vinegar; but black pepper is an ingredient never omitted. The rye bread, which eaten alone or with cold water would be very hard fare, is rendered palatable and satisfactory, Rumford thinks also more wholesome and nutritious, by the help of a bowl of hot soup, so easily prepared from the roasted meal. He tells us that this is not only used by the wood-cutters, but that it is also the common breakfast of the Bavarian peasant, and adds that ‘it is infinitely preferable, in all respects, to that most pernicious wash, tea, with which the lower classes of the inhabitants of this island drench their stomachs and ruin their constitutions.’ He adds that ‘when tea is taken with a sufficient quantity of sugar and good
- 35. cream, and with a large quantity of bread-and-butter, or with toast and boiled eggs, and, above all, when it is not drunk too hot, it is certainly less unwholesome; but a simple infusion of this drug, drunk boiling hot, as the poor usually take it, is certainly a poison, which, though it is sometimes slow in its operation, never fails to produce fatal effects, even in the strongest constitutions, where the free use of it is continued for a considerable length of time.’ This may appear to many a very strong condemnation of their favourite beverage; nevertheless, I am satisfied that it is sound; and my opinion is not hastily adopted, nor borrowed from Rumford, but a conclusion based upon many observations, extending over a long period of years, and confirmed by experiments made upon myself. I therefore strongly recommend this substitute, especially as so many of us have to submit to the beneficent domestic despotism of the gentler and more persevering sex, one of the common forms of this despotism being that of not permitting its male victim to drink cold water at breakfast. This burnt soup has the further advantage of rendering imperative the boiling of the water, a most important precaution against the perils of sewage contamination, not removable by mere filtration. The experience of every confirmed tea-drinker, when soundly interpreted, supplies condemnation of his beverage; the plea commonly urged on its behalf being, when understood, an eloquent expression of such condemnation. ‘It is so refreshing;’ ‘I am fit for nothing when tea-time comes round until I have had my tea, and then I am fit for anything.’ The ‘fit for nothing’ state comes on at 5 P.M., when the drug is taken at the orthodox time, or even in the early morning, in the case of those who are accustomed to have a cup of tea brought to their bedside before rising. Some will even plead for tea by telling that by its aid one can sit up all night long at brain-work without feeling sleepy, provided ample supplies of the infusion are taken from time to time.
- 36. It is unquestionably true that such may be done; that the tea- drinker is languid and weary at tea-time, whatever be the hour, and that the refreshment produced by ‘the cup that cheers’ and is said not to inebriate, is almost instantaneous. What is the true significance of these facts? The refreshment is certainly not due to nutrition, not to the rebuilding of any worn-out or exhausted organic tissue. The total quantity of material conveyed from the tea-leaves into the water is ridiculously too small for the performance of any such nutritive function; and besides this, the action is far too rapid, there is not sufficient time for the conversion of even that minute quantity into organised working tissue. The action cannot be that of a food, but is purely and simply that of a stimulating or irritant drug, acting directly and abnormally on the nervous system. The five-o’clock lassitude and craving is neither more nor less than the reaction induced by the habitual abnormal stimulation; or otherwise, and quite fairly, stated, it is the outward symptom of a diseased condition of brain produced by the action of a drug; it may be but a mild form of disease, but it is truly a disease nevertheless. The active principle which produces this result is the crystalline alkaloid, the theine,[18] a compound belonging to the same class as strychnine and a number of similar vegetable poisons. These, when diluted, act medicinally—that is, produce disturbance of normal functions as the tea does, and, like theine, most of them act specially on the nervous system; when concentrated they are dreadful poisons, very small doses causing death. The volatile oil, of which tea contains about 1 per cent., probably contributes to this effect. Johnston attributes the headaches and giddiness to which tea-tasters are subject to this oil, and also ‘the attacks of paralysis to which, after a few years, those who are employed in packing and unpacking chests of tea are found to be liable.’ As both the alkaloid and the oil are volatile, I suspect that they jointly contribute to these
- 37. disturbances, the narcotic business being done by the volatile oil, the paralysis supplied by the alkaloid. The non-tea-drinker does not suffer any of the five-o’clock symptoms, and, if otherwise in sound health, remains in steady working condition until his day’s work is ended and the time for rest and sleep arrives. But the habitual victim of any kind of drug or disturber of normal functions acquires a diseased condition, displayed by the loss of vitality or other deviation from normal function, which is temporarily relieved by the usual dose of the drug, but only in such wise as to generate a renewed craving. I include in this general statement all the vice-drugs (to coin a general name), such as alcohol, opium, tobacco (whether smoked, chewed, or snuffed), arsenic, haschisch, betel-nut, coca-leaf, thorn-apple, Siberian fungus, maté, c., all of which are excessively ‘refreshing’ to their victims, and of which the use may be, and has been, defended by the same arguments as those used by the advocates of habitual tea-drinking. Speaking generally, the reaction or residual effect of these on the system is nearly the opposite of that of their immediate effect, and thus larger and larger doses are demanded to bring the system to its normal condition. The non-tea-drinker or moderate drinker is kept awake by a cup of tea or coffee taken late at night, while the hard drinker of these beverages scarcely feels any effect, especially if accustomed to take it at that time. The practice of taking tea or coffee by students, in order to work at night, is downright madness, especially when preparing for an examination. More than half of the cases of breakdown, loss of memory, fainting, c., which occur during severe examinations, and far more frequently than is commonly known, are due to this. I continually hear of promising students who have thus failed; and, on inquiry, have learned—in almost every instance—that the victim has previously drugged himself with tea or coffee. Sleep is the
- 38. rest of the brain; to rob the hard-worked brain of its necessary rest is cerebral suicide. My old friend, the late Thomas Wright (the archæologist), was a victim of this terrible folly. He undertook the translation of the ‘Life of Julius Cæsar,’ by Napoleon III., and to do it in a cruelly short time. He fulfilled his contract by sitting up several nights successively by the aid of strong tea or coffee (I forget which). I saw him shortly afterwards. In a few weeks he had aged alarmingly, had become quite bald; his brain gave way and never recovered. There was but little difference between his age and mine, and but for this dreadful cerebral strain, rendered possible only by the stimulant (for otherwise he would have fallen to sleep over his work, and thereby saved his life), he might still be amusing and instructing thousands of readers by fresh volumes of popularised archæological research. I need scarcely add that all I have said above applies to coffee as to tea, though not so seriously in this country. The active alkaloid is the same in both, but tea contains weight for weight above twice as much as coffee. In this country we commonly use about 50 per cent. more coffee than tea to each given measure of water. On the Continent they use about double our quantity (this is the true secret of ‘Coffee as in France’), and thus produce as potent an infusion as our tea. I need scarcely add that the above remarks are exclusively applied to the habitual use of these stimulants. As medicines, used occasionally and judiciously, they are invaluable, provided always that they are not used as ordinary beverages. In Italy, Greece, and some parts of the East, it is customary, when anybody feels ill with indefinite symptoms, to send to the druggist for a dose of tea. From what I have seen of its action on non-tea-drinkers, it appears to be specially potent in arresting the premonitory symptoms of fever, the fever headache, c. Since the publication of the above in ‘Knowledge,’ I have been reminded of the high authorities who have defended the use of the
- 39. alkaloids, and more particularly of Liebig’s theory, or the theory commonly attributed to Liebig, but which is Lehmann’s, published in Liebig’s ‘Annalen,’ vol. lxxxvii., and adopted and advocated by Liebig with his usual ability. Lehmann watched for some weeks the effects of coffee upon two persons in good health. He found that it retarded the waste of the tissues of the body, that the proportion of phosphoric acid and of urea excreted by the kidneys was diminished by the action of the coffee, the diet being in all other respects the same. Pure caffeine (which is the same as theine) produced a similar effect; the aromatic oil of the coffee, given separately, was found to exert a stimulating effect on the nervous system. Johnston (‘Chemistry of Common Life’) closely following Liebig, and referring to the researches of Lehmann, says: ‘The waste of the body is lessened by the introduction of theine into the stomach—that is, by the use of tea. And if the waste be lessened, the necessity for food to repair it will be lessened in an equal proportion. In other words, by the consumption of a certain quantity of tea, the health and strength of the body will be maintained in an equal degree upon a smaller quantity of ordinary food. Tea, therefore, saves food— stands to a certain extent in the place of food—while, at the same time, it soothes the body and enlivens the mind.’ He proceeds to say that ‘in the old and infirm it serves also another purpose. In the life of most persons a period arrives when the stomach no longer digests enough of the ordinary elements of food to make up for the natural daily waste of the bodily substance. The size and weight of the body, therefore, begin to diminish more or less perceptibly. At this period tea comes in as a medicine to arrest the waste, to keep the body from falling away so fast, and thus to enable the less energetic powers of digestion still to supply as much as is needed to repair the wear and tear of the solid tissues.’ No wonder, therefore, says he, ‘that the aged female, who has barely enough income to buy what are called the common necessaries of life, should yet spend a portion of her small gains in
- 40. purchasing her ounce of tea. She can live quite as well on less common food when she takes her tea along with it; while she feels lighter at the same time, more cheerful, and fitter for her work, because of the indulgence.’ (The italics are my own for comparison with those that follow.) All this is based upon the researches of Lehmann and others, who measured the work of the vital furnace by the quantity of ashes produced—the urea and phosphoric acid excreted. But there is also another method of measuring the same, that of collecting the expired breath and determining the quantity of carbonic acid given off by combustion. This method is imperfect, inasmuch as it only measures a portion of the carbonic acid which is given off. The skin is also a respiratory organ, co-operating with the lungs in evolving carbonic acid. Dr. Edward Smith adopted the method of measuring the respired carbonic acid only. His results were first published in ‘The Philosophical Transactions’ of 1859, and again in Chapter XXXV. of his volume on ‘Food,’ International Scientific Series. After stating, in the latter, the details of the experiments, which include depth of respiration as well as amount of carbonic acid respired, he says: ‘Hence it was proved beyond all doubt that tea is a most powerful respiratory excitant. As it causes an evolution of carbon greatly beyond that which it supplies, it follows that it must powerfully promote those vital changes in food which ultimately produce the carbonic acid to be evolved. Instead, therefore, of supplying nutritive matter, it causes the assimilation and transformation of other foods.’ Now, note the following practical conclusions, which I quote in Dr. Smith’s own words, but take the liberty of rendering in italics those passages that I wish the reader to specially compare with the preceding quotations from Johnston: ‘In reference to nutrition, we may say that tea increases waste, since it promotes the transformation of food without supplying nutriment, and increases
- 41. the loss of heat without supplying fuel, and it is therefore especially adapted to the wants of those who usually eat too much, and after a full meal, when the process of assimilation should be quickened, but is less adapted to the poor and ill-fed, and during fasting.’ He tells us very positively that ‘to take tea before a meal is as absurd as not to take it after a meal, unless the system be at all times replete with nutritive material.’ And, again: ‘Our experiments have sufficed to show how tea may be injurious if taken with deficient food, and thereby exaggerate the evils of the poor;’ and, again: ‘The conclusions at which we arrived after our researches in 1858 were, that tea should not be taken without food, unless after a full meal; or with insufficient food; or by the young or very feeble; and that its essential action is to waste the system or consume food, by promoting vital action which it does not support, and they have not been disproved by any subsequent scientific researches.’ This final assertion may be true, and to those who ‘go in for the last thing out,’ the latest novelty or fashion in science, literature, or millinery, the absence of any refutation of later date is quite enough. But how about the previous ‘scientific researches’ of Lehmann, who, on all such subjects, is about the highest authority that can be quoted. His three volumes on ‘Physiological Chemistry,’ translated and republished by the Cavendish Society, stand pre-eminent as the best-written, most condensed, and complete work on the subject, and his original researches constitute a lifetime’s work, not of mere random change-ringing among the elements of obscure and insignificant organic compounds, but of judiciously selected chemical work, having definite philosophical aims and objects. It is evident from the passages I have emphatically quoted that Dr. Smith flatly contradicts Lehmann, and arrives at directly contradictory physiological results and practical inferences. Are we, therefore, to conclude that he has blundered in his analysis, or that Lehmann has done so?
- 42. On carefully comparing the two sets of investigations, I conclude that there is no necessary contradiction in the facts: that both may be, and in all probability are, quite correct as regards their chemical results; but that Dr. Smith has only attacked half the problem, while Lehmann has grasped the whole. All the popular stimulants, refreshing drugs, and ‘pick-me-ups’ have two distinct and opposite actions—an immediate exaltation which lasts for a certain period, varying with the drug and the constitution of its victim, and a subsequent depression proportionate to the primary exaltation, but, as I believe, always exceeding it either in duration or intensity, or both, thus giving as a nett or mean result a loss of vitality. Dr. Smith’s experiments only measured the carbonic acid exhaled from the lungs during the first stage, the period of exaltation. His experiments were extended to 50 minutes, 71 minutes, 65 minutes, and in one case to 1 hour and 50 minutes. It is worthy of note that, in Experiment 1, 100 grains of black tea were given to two persons, and the duration of the experiment was 50 and 71 minutes; the average increase was 71 and 68 cubic inches per minute, while in No. 6, with the same dose and the carbonic acid collected during 1 hour and 50 minutes, the average increase per minute was only 47·5 cubic inches. These indicate a decline of the exaltation, and the curves on his diagrams show the same. His coffee results were similar. We all know that the ‘refreshing’ action of tea often extends over a considerable period. My own experiments on myself show that it continues about three or four hours, and that of beer or wine less than one hour (moderate doses in each case). I have tested this by walking measured distances after taking the stimulant and comparing with my walking powers when taking no other beverage than cold water. The duration of the tea stimulation has been also measured (painfully so) by the duration of
- 43. sleeplessness when female seduction has led me to drink tea late in the evening. The duration of coffee is about one-third less than tea. Lehmann’s experiments extending over weeks (days instead of minutes), measured the whole effect of the alkaloid and oil of the coffee during both the periods of exaltation and depression, and, therefore, supplied a mean or total result which accords with ordinary everyday experience. It is well known that the pot of tea of the poor needlewoman subdues the natural craving for food; the habitual smoker claims the same merit for his pipe, and the chewer for his quid. Wonderful stories are told of the long abstinence of the drinkers of maté, chewers of betel-nut, Siberian fungus, coca-leaf, and pepper-wort, and the smokers and eaters of haschisch, c. Not only is the sense of hunger allayed, but less food is demanded for sustaining life. It is a curious fact that similar effects should be produced, and similar advantages claimed, for the use of a drug which is totally different in its other chemical properties and relations. ‘White arsenic,’ or arsenious acid, is the oxide of a metal, and far as the poles asunder from the alkaloids, alcohols, and aromatic resins in chemical classification. But it does check the waste of the tissues, and is eaten by the Styrians and others with physiological effects curiously resembling those of its chemical antipodeans above named. Foremost among these physiological effects is that of ‘making the food appear to go farther.’ It is strange that Liebig or any physiologist who accepts his views of vital chemistry, should claim this diminution of the normal waste and renewal of tissue as a merit, seeing that, according to Liebig, life itself is the product of such change, and death the result of its cessation. But in the eagerness that has been displayed to justify existing indulgences, this claim has been extensively made by men who ought to know better than to admit such a plea. I speak, as before, of the habitual use of such drugs, not of their occasional medicinal use. The waste of the body may be going on
- 44. with killing rapidity, as in fever, and then such medicines may save life, provided always that the body has not become ‘tolerant,’ or partially insensible, to them by daily usage. I once watched a dangerous case of typhoid fever. Acting under the instructions of skilful medical attendants, and aided by a clinical thermometer and a seconds watch, I so applied small doses of brandy at short intervals as to keep down both pulse and temperature within the limits of fatal combustion. The patient had scarcely tasted alcohol before this, and therefore it exerted its maximum efficacy. I was surprised at the certain response of both pulse and temperature to this most valuable medicine and most pernicious beverage. The argument that has been the most industriously urged in favour of all the vice-drugs, and each in its turn, is that miserable apology that has been made for every folly, every vice, every political abuse, every social crime (such as slavery, polygamy, c.), when the time has arrived for reformation. I cannot condescend to seriously argue against it, but merely state the fact that the widely- diffused practice of using some kind of stimulating drug has been claimed as a sufficient proof of the necessity or advantage of such practice. I leave my readers to bestow on such a plea the treatment they may think it deserves. Those who believe that a rational being should have rational grounds for his conduct will treat this customary refuge of blind conservatism as I do. I recommend tea drinkers who desire to practically investigate the subject for themselves to repeat the experiment that I have made. After establishing the habit of taking tea at a particular hour, suddenly relinquish it altogether. The result will be more or less unpleasant, in some cases seriously so. My symptoms were a dull headache and intellectual sluggishness during the remainder of the day—and if compelled to do any brain-work, such as lecturing or writing, I did it badly. This, as I have already said, is the diseased condition induced by the habit. These symptoms vary with the amount of the customary indulgence and the temperament of the individual. A rough, lumbering, insensible navvy may drink a quart or
- 45. two of tea, or a few gallons of beer, or several quarterns of gin, with but small results of any kind. I know an omnibus-driver who makes seven double journeys daily, and his ‘reglars’ are half a quartern of gin at each terminus—i.e. 1¾ pints daily, exclusive of extras. This would render most men helplessly drunk, but he is never drunk, and drives well and safely. Assuming, then, that the experimenter has taken sufficient daily tea to have a sensible effect, he will suffer on leaving it off. Let him persevere in the discontinuance, in spite of brain languor and dull headache. He will find that day by day the languor will diminish, and in the course of time (about a fortnight or three weeks in my case) he will be weaned. He will retain from morning to night the full, free, and steady use of all his faculties; will get through his day’s work without any fluctuation of working ability (provided, of course, no other stimulant is used). Instead of his best faculties being dependent on a drug for their awakening, he will be in the condition of true manhood—i.e. able to do his best in any direction of effort, simply in reply to moral demand; able to do whatever is right and advantageous, because his reason shows that it is so. The sense of duty is to such a free man the only stimulus demanded for calling forth his uttermost energies. If he again returns to his habitual tea, he will again be reduced to more or less of dependence upon it. This condition of dependence is a state of disease precisely analogous to that which is induced by opium and other drugs that operate by temporary abnormal cerebral exaltation. The pleasurable sensations enjoyed by the opium-eater or smoker or morphia injector are more intense than those of the tea-drinker, and the reaction proportionally greater. I must not leave this subject without a word or two in reference to a widely prevailing and very mischievous fallacy. Many argue and actually believe that because a given drug has great efficiency in curing disease, it must do good if taken under ordinary conditions of health.
- 46. No high authorities are demanded for the refutation of this. A little common sense properly used is quite sufficient. It is evident that a medicine, properly so-called, is something which is capable of producing a disturbing or alterative effect on the body generally or some particular organ. The skill of the physician consists in so applying this disturbing agency as to produce an alteration of the state of disease, a direct conversion of the state of disease to a state of health, if possible (which is rarely the case), or more usually the conversion of one state of disease into another of milder character. But, when we are in a state of sound health, any disturbance or alteration must be a change for the worse, must throw us out of health to an extent proportionate to the potency of the drug. I might illustrate this by a multitude of familiar examples, but they would carry me too far away from my proper subject. There is, however, one class of such remedies which are directly connected with the chemistry of cookery. I refer to the condiments that act as ‘tonics,’ excluding common salt, which is an article of food, though often miscalled a condiment. Salt is food simply because it supplies the blood with one of its normal and necessary constituents, chloride of sodium, without which we cannot live. A certain quantity of it exists in most of our ordinary food, but not always sufficient. Cayenne pepper may be selected as a typical example of a condiment properly so-called. Mustard is a food and condiment combined; this is the case with some others. Curry powders are mixtures of very potent condiments with more or less of farinaceous materials, and sulphur compounds, which, like the oil of mustard, of onions, garlic, c., may have a certain amount of special nutritive value. The mere condiment is a stimulating drug that does its work directly upon the inner lining of the stomach, by exciting it to increased and abnormal activity. A dyspeptic may obtain immediate relief by using cayenne pepper. Among the advertised patent medicines is a pill bearing the very ominous name of its compounder, the active constituent of which is cayenne. Great relief
- 47. and temporary comfort is commonly obtained by using it as a ‘dinner pill.’ If thus used only as a temporary remedy for an acute and temporary, or exceptional, attack of indigestion all is well, but the cayenne, whether taken in pills or dusted over the food or stewed with it in curries or any otherwise, is one of the most cruel of slow poisons when taken habitually. Thousands of poor wretches are crawling miserably towards their graves, the victims of the multitude of maladies of both mind and body that are connected with chronic, incurable dyspepsia, all brought about by the habitual use of cayenne and its condimental cousins. The usual history of these victims is, that they began by over- feeding, took the condiment to force the stomach to do more than its healthful amount of work, using but a little at first. Then the stomach became tolerant of this little, and demanded more; then more, and more, and more, until at last inflammation, ulceration, torpidity, and finally the death of the digestive powers, accompanied with all that long train of miseries to which I have referred. India is their special fatherland. Englishmen, accustomed to an active life at home, and a climate demanding much fuel-food for the maintenance of animal heat, go to India, crammed, maybe, with Latin, but ignorant of the laws of health; cheap servants promote indolence, tropical heat diminishes respiratory oxidation, and the appetite naturally fails. Instead of understanding this failure as an admonition to take smaller quantities of food, or food of less nutritive and combustive value, such as carbohydrates instead of hydrocarbons and albumenoids, they regard it as a symptom of ill-health, and take curries, bitter ale, and other tonics or appetising condiments, which, however mischievous in England, are far more so there. I know several men who have lived rationally in India, and they all agree that the climate is especially favourable to longevity, provided bitter beer, and all other alcoholic drinks, all peppery condiments, and flesh foods are avoided. The most remarkable example of vigorous old age I have ever met was a retired colonel
- 48. eighty-two years of age, who had risen from the ranks, and had been fifty-five years in India without furlough; drunk no alcohol during that period; was a vegetarian in India, though not so in his native land. I guessed his age to be somewhere about sixty. He was a Scotchman, and an ardent student of the works of both George and Dr. Andrew Combe. A correspondent inquires whether I class cocoa amongst the stimulants. So far as I am able to learn, it should not be so classed, but I cannot speak absolutely. Mere chemistry supplies no answer to this question. It is purely a physiological subject, to be studied by observation of effects. Such observations may be made by anybody whose system has not become ‘tolerant’ of the substance in question. My own experience of cocoa in all its forms is that it is not stimulating in any sensible degree. I have acquired no habit of using it, and yet I can enjoy a rich cup or bowl of cocoa or chocolate just before bed-time without losing any sleep. When I am occasionally betrayed into taking a late cup of coffee or tea, I repent it for some hours after going to bed. My inquiries among other people, who are not under the influence of that most powerful of all arguments, the logic of inclination, have confirmed my own experience. I should, however, add that some authorities have attributed exhilarating properties to the theobromine or nitrogenous alkaloid of cocoa. Its composition nearly resembles that of theine, as the following (from Johnston) shows: Theine Theobromine Carbon 49·80 46·43 Hydrogen 5·08 4·20 Nitrogen 28·83 35·85 Oxygen 16·29 13·52 100·00 100·00 It exists in the cocoa bean in about the same proportion as the theine in tea, but in making a cup of cocoa we use a much greater weight of cocoa than of tea in a cup of tea. If, therefore, the
- 49. properties of theobromine were similar to those of theine, we should feel the stimulating effects much more decidedly. The alkaloid of tea and coffee in its pure state has been administered to animals, and found to produce paralysis, but I am not aware that theobromine has acted similarly. Another essential difference between cocoa and tea or coffee is that cocoa is, strictly speaking, a food. We do not merely make an infusion of the cacao bean, but eat it bodily in the form of a soup. It is highly nutritious, one of the most nutritious foods in common use. When travelling on foot in mountainous and other regions, where there was a risk of spending the night al fresco and supperless, I have usually carried a cake of chocolate in my knapsack, as the most portable and unchangeable form of concentrated nutriment, and have found it most valuable. On one occasion I went astray on the Kjolenfjeld, in Norway, and struggled for about twenty-four hours without food or shelter. I had no chocolate then, and sorely repented my improvidence. Many other pedestrians have tried chocolate in like manner, and all I know have commended its great ‘staying’ properties, simply regarded as food. I therefore conclude that Linnæus was not without strong justification in giving it the name of theobroma (food for the gods), but to confirm this practically the pure nut, the whole nut, and nothing but the nut (excepting the milk and sugar added by the consumer) should be used. Some miserable counterfeits are offered—farinaceous paste, flavoured with cocoa and sugar. The best sample I have been able to procure is the ship cocoa prepared for the Navy. This is nothing but the whole nut unsweetened, ground, and crushed to an impalpable paste. It requires a little boiling, and when milk alone is used, with due proportion of sugar, it is a theobroma. Condensed milk diluted, and without further sweetening, may be used. The following are the results of the analyses of two samples of cocoa by Payen: Cacao butter 48 50
- 50. Albumen, fibrin, and other nitrogenous matter 21 20 Theobromine 4 2 Starch, with traces of sugar 11 10 Cellulose 3 2 Colouring matter, aromatic essence traces Mineral matter 3 4 Water 10 12 100 100 The very large proportion of fat shows that the Italians are right in their mode of using their breakfast cup of chocolate. They cut their roll into ‘fingers,’ and dip it in the ‘aurora’ instead of spreading butter on it. Vegetable food generally contains an excess of cellulose and a deficiency of fat; therefore cocoa, with its excess of fat and deficiency of cellulose, is theoretically indicated as a very desirable adjunct to an ordinary vegetarian dietary. The few experiments I have made by perpetrating the culinary heresy of adding cocoa to oatmeal-porridge and other purées, to mashed potatoes, turnips, carrots, boiled rice, sago, tapioca, c., prove that vegetarians have much to learn in the cookery of cocoa. During two months’ sojourn in Milan my daily breakfast consisted of bread, grapes, and powdered chocolate. Each grape was bitten across, one-half eaten pure and simple, then the cut and pulpy face of the other half was dipped in the chocolate powder, and eaten with as much as adhered to it. I have never been better fed.
- 52. CHAPTER XVI. THE COOKERY OF WINE. In an unguarded moment I promised to include the above in this work, and will do the best I can to fulfil the rash promise; but the utmost result of this effort can only be a contribution to a subject which is too profoundly mysterious to be fully grasped by any intellect that is not sufficiently clairvoyant to penetrate paving- stones, and see through them to the interiors of the closely-tiled cellars wherein the mysteries are manipulated. I will first define what I mean by the cookery of wine. Grape juice in its unfermented state may be described as ‘raw wine,’ or this name may be applied to the juice after fermentation. I apply it in the latter sense, and shall use it as describing grape juice which has been spontaneously and recently fermented without the addition of any foreign materials, or altered by keeping, or heating, or any other process beyond fermentation. All such processes and admixture which affect any chemical changes on the raw material I shall describe as cookery, and the result as cooked wine. When I refer to wine made from other juice than that of the grape it will be named specifically. At the outset a fallacy, very prevalent in this country, should be controverted. The high prices charged for the cooked material sold to Englishmen has led to absurdly exaggerated notions of the original value of wine. I am quite safe in stating that the average market value of rich wine in its raw state, in countries where the grape grows luxuriantly, and where, in consequence, the average quality of the wine is the best, does not exceed sixpence per gallon, or one penny per bottle. I speak now of the newly-made wine. Allowing another sixpence per gallon for barrelling and storage, the
- 53. value of the commodity in portable form becomes twopence per bottle. I am not speaking of thin, poor wines, produced by a second or third pressing of the grapes, but of the best and richest quality, and, of course, I do not include the fancy wines—those produced in certain vineyards of celebrated châteaux—that are superstitiously venerated by those easily-deluded people who suppose themselves to be connoisseurs of choice wines. I refer to ninety-nine per cent. of the rich wines that actually come into the market. Wines made from grapes grown in unfavourable climates naturally cost more in proportion to the poorness of the yield. As some of my readers may be inclined to question this estimate of average cost, a few illustrative facts may be named. In Sicily and Calabria I usually paid at the roadside or village ‘osterias’ an equivalent to one halfpenny for a glass or tumbler holding nearly half a pint of common wine, thin, but genuine. This was at the rate of less than one shilling per gallon, or twopence per bottle, and included the cost of barrelling, storage, and innkeeper’s profit on retailing. In the luxuriant wine-growing regions of Spain, a traveller halting at a railway refreshment station and buying one of the sausage sandwiches that there prevail, is allowed to help himself to wine to drink on the spot without charge, but if he fills his flask to carry away he is subjected to an extra charge of one halfpenny. It is well known to all concerned that at vintage-time of fairly good seasons, in all countries where the grape grows freely, a good empty cask is worth more than the new wine it contains when filled; that much wine is wasted from lack of vessels, and anybody sending two good empty casks to a vigneron can have one of them filled in exchange for the other. Those who desire further illustrations and verification should ask their friends—outside of the trade—who have travelled in Southern wine countries, and know the language and something more of the country than is to be learned by being simply transferred from one hotel to another under the guidance of couriers, ciceroni, valets de place, c.
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