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Practical application of dependability engineering an
effective approach to managing dependability in
technological and evolving systems 1st Edition David
Kiang Digital Instant Download
Author(s): David Kiang, Thomas Van Hardeveld
ISBN(s): 9780791860014, 0791860019
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 7.46 MB
Year: 2012
Language: english

PRACTICAL APPLICATION
OF DEPENDABILITY
ENGINEERING
An Effective Approach to Managing Dependability in Technological and
Evolving Systems
By
Thomas Van Hardeveld
David Kiang

© 2012, ASME, 3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA (www.asme.org)
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under
the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced
or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.
INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THIS WORK HAS BEEN OBTAINED BY THE
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS FROM SOURCES
BELIEVED TO BE RELIABLE. HOWEVER, NEITHER ASME NOR ITS AUTHORS
OR EDITORS GUARANTEE THE ACCURACY OR COMPLETENESS OF ANY
INFORMATION PUBLISHED IN THIS WORK. NEITHER ASME NOR ITS
AUTHORS AND EDITORS SHALL BE RESPONSIBLE FOR ANY ERRORS,
OMISSIONS, OR DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OF THIS INFORMATION.
THE WORK IS PUBLISHED WITH THE UNDERSTANDING THAT ASME AND
ITS AUTHORS AND EDITORS ARE SUPPLYING INFORMATION BUT ARE
NOT ATTEMPTING TO RENDER ENGINEERING OR OTHER PROFESSIONAL
SERVICES. IF SUCH ENGINEERING OR PROFESSIONAL SERVICES ARE
REQUIRED, THE ASSISTANCE OF AN APPROPRIATE PROFESSIONAL SHOULD
BE SOUGHT.
ASME shall not be responsible for statements or opinions advanced in papers or . . .
printed in its publications (B7.1.3). Statement from the Bylaws.
For authorization to photocopy material for internal or personal use under those
circumstances not falling within the fair use provisions of the Copyright Act, contact the
Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
tel: 978-750-8400, www.copyright.com.
Requests for special permission or bulk reproduction should be addressed to the ASME
Publishing Department, or submitted online at: http://www.asme.org/Publications/
Books/Administration/Permissions.cfm
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Van Hardeveld, Thomas.
Practical application of dependability engineering: an effective approach to managing
dependability in technological and evoving systems / by Thomas Van Hardeveld and
David Kiang.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7918-6001-4 (alk. paper)
1. Reliability (Engineering) I. Kiang, David, 1935- II. Title.
TA169.V36 2012
620’.00452—dc23
2012027460

DEDICATION
This book is dedicated to the memory of the past Chairman of IEC/TC56 Dependability
Mr. Geoffrey C. Alstead
who inspired experts from many countries in the development of International Standards on
Dependability, including the authors of this book.

v
PREFACE
Our modern technological society expects everything to work as expected, that is, without
interruption or failure. Our memories are short, whereas the history of innovation started
with the earliest human quests for survival. It is only very recently that we have reached the
currently high levels of dependability that we now demand in our daily lives without much
thought. But the path toward even higher levels of dependability continues. It is becoming
increasingly difficult to address dependability issues as system sophistication and techno-
logical advances move forward.
Many people call this general area of endeavor “reliability,” although, in fact, it actu-
ally consists of a number of interrelated characteristics, primarily availability, reliability,
maintainability and supportability. In this book, we use the umbrella term “dependability,”
which is the one that is known in international standardization.
Dependability has negative connotations since it naturally deals with failures.Although
we know that failures are what we must analyze, we want to also portray dependability in a
positive light as building trust and successful achievement of objectives.
Dependability is a multi-faceted and varied field of engineering, but one that is critical
to industry and society as a whole. The fundamentals of dependability are well understood
and documented, so there is no pressing need to reinvent the foundations of dependability
engineering (e.g., statistics) and duplicate the rich vein of literature in this area. It is more
important to discuss how to manage for successful dependability performance in rapidly
changing times. It is necessary to tailor the application of dependability since it varies
substantially across different industries, types of assets and application of technologies.
This book is intended for engineers and practitioners who need to solve problems and
find answers to achieve dependability performance of technological and evolving systems.
It provides current industry best practices and practical knowledge and guidance to address
dependability management issues and engineering processes from a system life cycle
perspective. The topics presented herein highlight the essence of life cycle management
practices and systematic cost-effective solutions, focusing on dependability performance
characteristics for project risk avoidance and failure prevention.
The rationale for the need to achieve dependability performance is presented from
the viewpoint of the causative effects and probable risk exposures of system malfunction.
Recommendations are provided to assist and devise practical means for cost-effective solu-
tions to support the decision process for mitigation of negative consequences. The starting
point for resolution of dependability issues is to exercise prudent engineering judgement by
fully understanding the problem at hand. The intention is to avoid using cookbook answers
for expediency, which often lead to misinterpretation of the theoretical assumptions to fit
the case in point.
The development of technological systems involves hardware, software and human
aspects of dependability in order to realize system performance requirements. The interac-
tion of hardware and software to achieve interoperability, survivability and serviceabil-
ity in system performance is addressed. Dependability issues of evolving systems, where
merging of the “old” and the “new” coexists in system integration to meet performance
needs, are discussed. Applicable dependability methods for assessment and assurance are
provided to facilitate confidence in reaching project acceptance and delivery targets.
This book is organized in a logical sequence where individual chapters present specific
dependability topics to highlight key dependability management and engineering activities

vi ■ PREFACE
that can be readily referenced. The main framework of the book is the life cycle and its vari-
ous stages of concept definition, design and development, realization, operation and main-
tenance, and disposal or retirement. It is crucial to recognize the wide spread in life cycles,
from very short where little time is allowed for achieving high dependability, such as many
consumer products, to very long life cycles over many decades, such as much of our infra-
structures, which stress the continual achievement and improvement that are expected.
We have tried to recognize that there is a very wide diversity of applications of depend-
ability. In most of our examples, however, there is an acknowledgement of the rich legacy
of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), and thus the focus is mainly on
industries related to power generation, monitoring and control, oil and gas, and the energy
industry in general. This of course leaves out many other industries where dependability
is equally important, but it is the view of the authors that the principles and methods are
easily applicable elsewhere.
Thomas Van Hardeveld, P. Eng.
David Kiang, P. Eng.

vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We earnestly wish to share our collective years of experience as engineers serving global
clients in a broad range of industry sectors and business enterprises. We are privileged to
have been actively involved for many years in contributing to the development of standards
for the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Technical Committee (TC56) on
Dependability. To this committee, we are thankful for the opportunity to share our technical
expertise. The knowledge and experience captured in this book reflects the dependability
requirements and technology advancement cultivated in the international market place.
Dependability applies to all industry sectors in product development and service provision,
technological and evolving systems, and legacy assets and equipment.
We sincerely wish to thank all our colleagues who have shared tremendous insights
and knowledge over the many years of our involvement in IEC/TC56 Dependability. We
wish to dedicate this book to our future generation of dependability engineers and prac-
titioners, who are and will be continuing our endeavor to challenge technology evolution
from a dependability perspective with confidence and trust for dependability value crea-
tion. The authors wish to express sincere thanks and acknowledge the contributions of the
following colleagues in the preparation of this manuscript:
Cathy Hunsley, London Overground Infrastructure, IEC/TC56
Peter Kesselyak, IEC/TC56
Valter Loll, Chairman, IEC/TC56
Eric Mahy, IEC/TC56
Gerald Taranto, Taranto Consultancy, IEC/TC56
The authors thank the IEC for permission to reproduce information from its
International Publication IEC 62628 ed 1.0 (2012).
We are immensely grateful to the ASME for agreeing to publish this book and their
dedication to the field of dependability in their conferences and publications. We are espe-
cially grateful to the staff of ASME Press, Mary Grace Stefanchik and Tara Smith Collins,
for their support, patience and encouragement in making this book a reality.
Finally, we would be remiss if we did not mention the support and indulgence of our
spouses, Marilyn Ewald and Alice Kiang, who had to suffer our intense dedication to real-
izing one of our dreams.

ix
FOREWORD
In our modern society, we are highly dependent on technological systems and innovative
products, and often not by choice but by the need to use public facilities for essential ser-
vices. We enjoy the conveniences of the Internet, e-commerce and wireless services. We
rely on our electricity supply. We have cultivated renewable energy, but we still need the
oil and gas to support our transportation systems. We are fortunate to live in a world at a
time of immense progress, but we are often confronted with century-old infrastructure that
requires maintenance and extensive support costs for their upkeep. This is where depend-
ability engineering principles and practices are put into action.
The technical committee TC56 under the auspices of the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) has defined the term ”dependability” as including reliability, availabil-
ity, maintenance, maintainability and technological risk. Dependability thus encompasses
the major aspects of our primary concerns of being dependent on such technological sys-
tems and utilization of available products and services for safety and security reasons.
Dependability has become an indispensible notion for the survival of human species.
As the Chairman of IEC TC56, I welcome the book by Tom Van Hardeveld and David
Kiang. Both Tom and David have long been associated with IEC dependability standards
development work and have both received the prestigious IEC 1906 Award for their distin-
guished services and significant contributions to IEC/TC56. The book describes depend-
ability aspects of large technological and evolving systems. It emphasizes the need for
integration of hardware, software and human aspects for system development and imple-
mentation. The life cycle process goes beyond development, operation and maintenance
until the system is retired from service. It also addresses our safety concerns, avoidance of
risk and furtherance of a sustainable environment. To achieve an optimum balance between
cost, schedule and performance, input from dependability specialists is needed. Industry at
large will appreciate and realize the value of dependability in return on investment.
New systems are complicated and challenging. A first step is to describe the problem
and put it into a proper perspective. The book contains many practical examples and good
checklists. I hope that you will feel challenged and inspired while reading it.
Valter Loll, M.Sc., B.Com.
Chairman of IEC TC56 Dependability

xi
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
ThomasVan Hardeveld has 38 years (as of 2012) experience in all aspects of the operation
and maintenance of gas turbines, compressors and other gas transmission and process
equipment. He is a specialist in maintenance management and condition monitoring of
all types of equipment as well as reliability techniques and risk and integrity manage-
ment. For more than 20 years, he has been involved in international consulting and train-
ing activities in Pakistan, New Zealand, Kuwait, Thailand, Argentina, Trinidad, Mexico,
Malaysia, Kazakhstan and the Middle East. For the past 16 years he has presented training
courses on maintenance management, maintenance planning and scheduling, Reliability
Centered Maintenance, condition monitoring, compressors, gas turbines, reliability of rotat-
ing equipment and pipeline operation and maintenance. He has conducted maintenance
assessments, performed Reliability Centered Maintenance analyses, implemented condi-
tion monitoring systems and consulted on various aspects of rotating equipment operation
and maintenance. He is actively involved in standardization activities with the IEC/TC56
Committee on Dependability as a convenor and project leader and was recognized in 2010
by the International Electrotechnical Commission with the IEC 1906 Award. He has been
an instructor for SAIT Polytechnic both in Calgary and internationally. He has co-authored
a book on Pipeline Operation and Maintenance: A Practical Approach (now the second
edition) and more recently one on Pipeline Pumping and Compression Systems, both pub-
lished by ASME Press. He has a M.Sc. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of
Calgary and is a registered Professional Engineer in the province of Alberta.
David Kiang has worked in the information and communications technology (ICT)
industry for many years. He has dedicated his knowledge and experience to International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standardization work over the past two decades. David
has contributed extensively in the development of IEC/TC56 standards on Dependability. He
has coordinated the IEC/TC56 dependability seminars since 2006 and facilitated workshops
in several countries on dependability of technological systems and related methodologies
by international experts. These outreached programs had helped engineers and practition-
ers better understand the concept of dependability and enabling them to apply appropri-
ate methods and tools to effectively manage dependability projects and resolve technical
problems. David has provided quality and dependability engineering consulting services
to multinational corporations and system design organizations on life cycle management,
dependability development and implementation processes, and conformity assessment of
products and services involving hardware, software and human aspects of dependability.
David was appointed in 2002 by IEC/TC56 as Convener of System aspects of dependability
responsible for development of relevant dependability standards to meet current market
needs for industry applications. In 2004 David received the prestigious IEC 1906 Award for
contribution to IEC dependability management standards. David Kiang is a Professional
Engineer registered in Ontario, Canada. He is the Principal Consultant of T.D. Kiang &
Associates that he founded in 1989. He retired as Senior Technical Adviser from Nortel
Networks after 28 years of service. David graduated from the University of Toronto with a
B.A.Sc. degree in Electrical Engineering. He received a Diploma in Management Sciences
and a master degree (MBA) in Operations Research from the University of Ottawa. David
is a Life Senior Member of IEEE.

xiii
CONTENTS
Preface v
Acknowledgements vii
Foreword ix
About the Authors xi
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Dependability 1
1.1 What is Dependability 1
1.1.1 Defining Dependability 1
1.1.2 The Application of Dependability 3
1.1.3 Industry Views on Dependability 4
1.1.4 The Importance of Dependability 7
1.1.5 The History of Dependability 8
1.1.6 The Evolution of Dependability 10
1.2 Dependability Concepts 11
1.2.1 Dependability Principles and Practices 11
1.2.2 Dependability Concept Realization 13
1.2.3 Dependability Knowledge Base 14
1.3 The System Approach to Dependability 14
1.3.1 Definition of a System 14
1.3.2 Life Cycle Approach to Dependability 16
1.3.3 Methodology and Process
Application 17
1.3.4 Hardware Aspects 18
1.3.5 Software Aspects 19
1.3.6 Human Aspects 20
1.4 Dependability Management from a
Business Perspective 20
1.4.1 Business Life Cycle and Market
Relevance 20
1.4.2 Dependability Management
Goals and Objectives 21
1.4.3 Changing Market Needs 22
1.4.4 Dependability Standardization
for Evolving Systems 23
1.4.5 Environmental Sustainability 24
1.4.6 Dependability and Asset
Management 24
References 25
CHAPTER 2
Life Cycle Approach for Dependability 27
2.1 Introduction to the Life Cycle Approach 27
2.1.1 Why a Life Cycle Approach 27
2.1.2 System Life Cycle Models 28
2.2 Dependability Application in a
Business Environment 32
2.2.1 Influences on a Business
Environment 32
2.2.2 Dependability Focus on
Management Support 32
2.2.3 Dependability Application Focus
on Technological Solutions 33
2.3 Life Cycle Approach to
Project Management 38
2.3.1 Framework for Managing
Dependability Projects 38
2.3.2 Establishing Dependability
Project Objectives and
Task Requirements 39
2.4 Tailoring Process 40
2.4.1 Tailoring of Dependability Projects 40
2.4.2 Tailoring for Project-Specific
Applications 41
2.5 Project Risk Management 42
2.5.1 Risk Management for
Dependability Application 42
2.5.2 Risk Management Process 42
2.5.3 Scope of Dependability Risk
Problems 43
2.5.4 Dependability Risk Problem and
Resolution – An Example 44
2.6 Review Process 48
References 49
CHAPTER 3
Specification of Dependability Requirements 51
3.1 Starting a Dependability Project 51
3.1.1 Where to Begin with
Technological Systems 51
3.1.2 Understanding the System 52
3.1.3 Defining System Objectives 54
3.1.4 Identifying System Performance
Functions 56
3.2 Incorporation of
Dependability into Systems 59
3.2.1 Requirements Definition 59
3.2.2 Requirements Analysis 60
3.2.3 Establishing the Operational
Scenario 63

xiv ■ Contents
3.2.4 Determining Dependability
Requirements 63
3.3 Framework for Development of
Dependability Specifications 67
3.3.1 Rationale for Dependability
Specifications 67
3.3.2 Evaluation of Dependability
Characteristics 68
3.3.3 Procedures for Specifying
System Dependability 71
References 73
CHAPTER 4
Dependability Engineering in System
Design and Realization 75
4.1 Dependability Engineering in System
Design and Development 75
4.1.1 Introduction 75
4.1.2 Architectural Design 76
4.1.3 Functional Design and Evaluation 77
4.1.3.1 Establishing Functional
Design Criteria 77
4.1.3.2 Dependability Design
Approaches 77
4.1.3.3 Dependability Design
Strategies 78
4.1.3.4 Designing for System
Application Environments 78
4.1.3.5 Designing for Human
Interaction 80
4.1.3.6 Evaluation of Design
Functions 81
4.1.3.7 Assessment Value and
Implications 82
4.1.4 System Design Documentation 83
4.1.5 System Design and Sub-system
Development 83
4.2 Dependability Engineering Design Issues 84
4.2.1 Safety Design 84
4.2.2 Dependability-Centered Design 88
4.2.3 Structural Design 91
4.2.4 Life Cycle Cost 93
4.3 Dependability Engineering in System
Realization and Implementation 94
4.3.1 System Realization 94
4.3.2 Product Verification 96
4.3.3 System Integration 96
4.3.4 System Installation/Transition 97
4.3.5 System Validation/Acceptance 97
4.4 Dependability Engineering Checklists 98
References 99
CHAPTER 5
Software Dependability 101
5.1 The Software Dependability Challenge 101
5.1.1 Software Dependability
Implications 101
5.1.2 Understanding Software and
Software Systems 102
5.2 Software Dependability Engineering 103
5.2.1 System Life Cycle Framework 103
5.2.2 Software Dependability Project
Management 103
5.2.3 Software Life Cycle Activities 104
Characteristics 106
5.2.5 Software Design Environment 106
5.2.6 Software Requirements and
Influencing Factors 107
5.2.7 Classification of Software Faults 107
5.3 Software Dependability Strategy 108
5.3.1 Software Fault Avoidance 108
5.3.2 Software Fault Control 108
5.4 Software Dependability Application 109
5.4.1 Software Development Practices
for Dependability Achievement 109
5.4.2 Software Dependability Metrics
and Data Collection 110
Assessment 111
5.4.4 Software Testing and
Measurement 114
5.5 Software Dependability Improvement 116
Improvement Methodology 116
5.5.2 Software Complexity
Simplification 117
5.5.3 Software Fault Tolerance 117
5.5.4 Software Interoperability 118
5.5.5 Software Reuse 118
5.5.6 Software Reliability Growth 119
5.5.7 Software Maintenance and
Enhancement 120
5.5.8 Technical Support and User
Training 121
References 121
CHAPTER 6
Dependability Information Management 123
6.1 Understanding
Dependability Information 123
6.2 Framework for Dependability
Information Management 124

Contents ■ xv
6.3 Establishing a Dependability
Information System 125
6.3.1 Dependability Information
System Requirements 125
6.3.2 FRACAS 126
6.3.3 Maintenance and Logistic
Support System 128
6.3.4 Fault Management System 129
6.3.5 Dependability Assessment
Information 131
6.3.6 Information Retention, Retrieval
and Dissemination 131
6.3.7 Knowledge Development 132
6.4 Lessons Learned 134
6.4.1 Learning from Experience 134
6.4.2 Case Study on Network
Dependability 134
6.4.3 Looking Beyond the Numbers 135
6.4.4 Adapting to Change and
Changing Environments 137
6.4.5 Exploiting Green Technology 138
References 140
CHAPTER 7
Sustaining Dependability Performance
during Operation 143
7.1 Introduction 143
7.2 Operational Considerations 143
7.3 Operation Framework 144
7.3.1 Operational Objectives for
Dependability 144
7.3.2 Overview of System Operation
Process 144
7.3.3 Operation Process Implementation 146
7.3.4 Process Approach to Sustain
Dependability Performance 146
7.4 Dependability Measures during Operation149
7.4.1 Overview of Dependability
Measures 149
7.4.2 Organizational or End-user
Measures 150
7.4.3 Average Failure Rate Measures 151
7.4.4 Statistical Failure Rate Measures 152
7.4.5 Availability and Reliability 153
7.4.6 Reliability Analysis Techniques 153
7.5 Dependability Data Sources 154
7.5.1 Data Acquisition 154
7.5.2 International Standards
Information 154
7.5.3 OREDA - Offshore REliability
DAta 156
7.5.4 Gas Turbines 157
7.5.4.1 Background 157
7.5.4.2 Metrics 158
7.5.4.3 NERC GADS Data 159
7.5.4.4 ORAP - Operational
Reliability Analysis
Program 159
7.5.5 Infrastructure 162
7.5.6 Telecommunications and the
Internet 163
7.6 Examples of Analyzing Dependability
during Operation 164
References 164
CHAPTER 8
Maintainability, Supportability and
Maintenance Engineering 167
8.1 Introduction 167
8.2 Maintainability 168
8.2.1 What Is Maintainability 168
8.2.2 Maintainability during Design 169
8.2.3 How to Measure Maintainability 170
8.3 Supportability 172
8.3.1 What Is Supportability 172
8.3.2 Supportability During Design 172
8.3.3 Maintenance Support During
Operation 173
8.4 Maintenance Engineering 174
8.4.1 Reliability Centered Maintenance 174
8.4.2 Maintenance Optimization 176
8.4.3 Facility and Equipment
Enhancement and Renewal 177
8.4.4 Spare Parts Provisioning 179
8.4.5 Condition-Based Maintenance 180
8.4.6 Risk Assessment for Pipelines 186
8.5 Maintainability Integrated with
Reliability and Availability 190
References 193
CHAPTER 9
Dependability Assurance 195
9.1 Establishing Dependability
Assurance Framework 195
9.1.1 Understanding Assurance
in Business and Technical
Performance 195

xvi ■ Contents
9.1.2 Dependability Assurance
Framework in System Performance 195
9.1.3 Collaboration of Assurance in
System Performance 197
9.2 Evolution of Assurance Strategies 200
9.2.1 Learning from Past Experience 200
9.2.2 Dependability Assurance Initiatives 202
9.3 Life Cycle Approach to Dependability
Assurance in System Performance 203
9.4 Dependability Assurance from a
Business Perspective 204
9.4.1 Assurance to Ascertain System
9.4.2 Assurance to Sustain System
9.5 Assurance Case 207
9.5.1 What Is an Assurance Case 207
9.5.2 Assurance Case Studies 208
9.6 Software Assurance 209
9.6.1 Software Assurance Overview 209
9.6.2 Technology Influence on
Software Assurance 209
9.6.3 Software Assurance Challenges 210
9.6.4 Network Security Implications 211
9.6.5 Software Assurance Best Practices 214
References 215
CHAPTER 10
Dependability Value 217
10.1 The Value of Dependability 217
10.2 Concept of Value Creation 217
10.3 The Value Chain Process 219
10.4 Dependability Value Framework 221
10.4.1 Framework Overview 221
10.4.2 Value Scenario 222
10.4.3 Value Creation Process 223
10.5 Dependability Value Realization 223
10.6 Assurance in Value Achievement 229
10.7 Value Infrastructures 230
10.7.1 Dependability Value Expressions 230
10.7.2 Common Value Infrastructures 231
10.7.3 Asset Management 231
10.7.4 A Pipeline Example 233
References 235
APPENDIX A
Glossary of Terms 237
A.1 Introduction 237
A.1.1 Terms and Definitions 237
A.1.2 Concept Diagrams 237
A.2 Concept Diagram for System and
Dependability-Related Terms 238
A.3 Concept Diagram for Reliability-
Related Terms 238
A.4 Concept Diagram for Maintenance-
Related Terms 238
A.5 Terms and Definitions 239
APPENDIX B
System Life Cycle Process for
Dependability Application 249
B.1 Introduction 249
B.2 Process for the System Concept/
Definition Stage 250
B.2.1 Data Requirements for Concept/
Definition 250
B.2.2 Description of Key Process
Activities for Concept/Definition 250
B.3 Process for the System Design/
Development Stage 251
B.3.1 Data Requirements for Design/
Development 251
Activities for Design/
Development 252
B.4 Process for the System Realization/
Implementation Stage 253
B.4.1 Data Requirements for
Realization/Implementation 253
Activities for Realization/
Implementation 254
B.5 Process for the System Operation/
Maintenance Stage 255
Operation/Maintenance 255
Activities for Operation/
Maintenance 255
B.6 Process for the System
Enhancement Stage 256
Enhancement 256
Activities for Enhancement 256
B.7 Process for the System Retirement Stage 256
Retirement 256
Activities for Retirement 257

Contents ■ xvii
APPENDIX C
Example of a System Dependability
Specification 259
C.1 Introduction 259
C.2 Identify the System 259
C.3 Describe the System Objectives 260
C.4 Identify the Functions to Meet the
System Objectives 260
C.5 Describe the Functions 260
C.6 Identify the Influencing Conditions
Affecting the Functions 262
C.7 Evaluate the Technical Approach to
Achieve the Needed Functions 263
C.8 Describe the Hardware, Software
Elements and Human Interactions
Involved in System Operation 263
C.9 Determine the Operational Scenario 264
C.10 Describe the System Configurations to
Meet System Objectives 265
C.11 Determine the Dependability
Requirements 266
C.12 Documentation of System
Dependability Specification 268
APPENDIX D
Dependability Engineering Checklists 271
D.1 Checklists for System Life Cycle
Project Applications 271
D.2 Checklists for Technology
Design Applications 274
D.3 Checklists for Outsourced Products
Used in System Applications 277
APPENDIX E
Reliability Improvement of Reliquefaction
System for LNG Carriers 279
E.1 Objectives of the Study 279
E.2 System Description 280
E.3 Reliability and Availability Estimation 280
E.4 Reliability and Maintenance Data 281
E.5 Analysis Using Reliability
Block Diagrams 281
E.5.1 Results Without Redundancy 281
E.5.2 Results With Redundancy 283
References 285
APPENDIX F
Compressor Station Availability 287
F.1 Introduction 287
F.2 Binomial Distribution Analysis 288
F.3 Monte Carlo Simulation 290
F.4 Scheduled Maintenance 291
F.5 Economic Analysis 293
References 294
APPENDIX G
Maintainability of a Gas Turbine 295
G.1 Introduction 295
G.2 Design for Maintainability 295
G.3 Serviceability and Accessibility 298
G.4 Monitoring 299
References 300
APPENDIX H
Example of a Steam Turbine 301
H.1 Introduction 301
H.2 Pareto Analysis 301
H.3 Weibull Analysis 302
H.4 Spare Parts Analysis 304
H.5 Maintainability, Reliability
and Availability 305
References 305
Index 307

1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO
DEPENDABILITY
1.1 WHAT IS DEPENDABILITY
1.1.1 Defining Dependability
Dependability is the ability of a system to perform as and when required [1]. Dependability
is an inherent system property applying to any system, product, process or service involv-
ing hardware, software and human aspects. It is crucial to consider dependability in the
development and application of technological and evolving systems. In today’s global busi-
ness environment, dependability is a key decision factor for evaluation and acceptance
of successful system performance. Dependability represents customer objectives and val-
ues and determines critical system performance to earn user trust and achieve customer
satisfaction.
Systems vary in form, fit and function, with performance complexity determined by
user needs and often identified by types for application. Technological systems such as
automated monitoring and control systems engage the design incorporation of interact-
ing hardware and software elements to deliver specific system functions. In some cases,
human interactions are involved and form part of the performance process in system
operation. Functions are the building blocks of a system. They are arranged and config-
ured to form the system architecture that facilitates interaction of relevant functions in
order to deliver the required system output. A simple function is an elementary operation
performed by the system to accomplish a task. A complex function can consist of several
simple functions working together to accomplish a more complicated task or a sequence
of tasks.
Evolving systems such as communications networks, power generation and pipelines
have to adapt to changes with time as necessitated by technology advancements, new fea-
tures and customer service demands associated with market competition. By their nature,
evolving systems will contain legacy systems, which may involve mature technologies
from previous generations. A non-evolving system may also at some point turn into a leg-
acy system due to obsolescence. Dependability issues should be considered in all types of
systems where maintenance and upgrades are necessary to sustain an acceptable level of
performance for ongoing service.
The prime objective of a system is to deliver the required capability or performance.
Dependability is a collective set of time-related performance characteristics achieved by
design and implementation into a system. It coexists with other desirable characteristics
such as quality, safety and immunity and is incorporated into a system to create added value
by enhancing system performance for specific applications.

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serious as is Sam the Book-keeper's. But Fitz-Adams is a young man,
barely thirty, I should say. Almost his earliest memory is that of
being a mule-driver in one of the mines near Wilkesbarre. From this
he went to picking slate in a breaker. Now he is a jobber, employing
a large crew, and undertaking contracts which involve considerable
sums of money. There has been offered to him, and it is still open,
the position of overseer in a far larger enterprise than his own,
where, personally, he would run none of the business risk; but he
has confided to me that he does not dare to accept the place owing
to his lack of even elementary education. In this connection he once
asked me whether I thought that he might yet go to school. I did
think so with emphasis, and I gave him so many reasons for this
opinion, and cited so many examples of men as old as he and older
who were at school, that he really warmed to it as a practicable
plan.
* * * * * * * *
The rain stopped hours ago, and it is turning very cold, and snow
has begun to fall. Fitz-Adams got back from English Centre long
before dinner, and there is evidence that he has not been drinking. I
have consulted him on the matter of leaving, and he has urged me
to stay, and has offered me permanent employment; but he says
that, if I must be off, and am bent on going westward, I would
better get as far as Hoytville as soon as possible, else I may run the
risk of encountering roads blocked with snow. Then, for the first
time, he introduced the subject of wages, and asked me what I
thought was "right." I said that before coming to the camp, I had
worked for a farmer, and had been given seventy-five cents a day
and my keep; and I added that, if this rate of wage seemed fair to
him, it would suit me perfectly. He agreed at once, and now I am a
capitalist. Soon I shall set out for Hoytville, which is, I judge, a
matter of two or three hours' walk from here. Fitz-Adams has given
me careful directions about the road, and has shown the deepest
interest in my plan of getting West, and has urged me to write to
him.

The crew are all gone to work, and I shall not see them. They were
off as soon as the storm slackened. All were keen to go, and so be
spared the misery of a day of enforced idleness, all except "Old
Pete," and he is past being keen. He is over sixty, and has a strongly
marked Celtic face, deeply furrowed with the lines of age and pain.
He works with the crew, but in camp he sits alone on the bench
opposite the stove, with the overalls and shirts hanging over him.
When not at work he sits there hour after hour, his large, muscular
frame bent forward, and his elbows resting on his knees, and there
he endures, in the dumb agony of animal pain, the torment of
rheumatism in his legs. He seldom speaks, and never of his
sufferings—only sometimes in comically sententious response to
something that has interested him. And the men let him alone,
knowing by a true intuition that he prefers it so.
After the rain let up I happened to pass through the lobby as the
men were starting for their work. Old Pete was the last to move. I
watched him rising slowly to his feet. In spite of him, his face drew
the picture of the hideous pain he bore, but through it shone the
clear courage of a man, and his eyes reflected the grim humor of a
thought that touched his native sense, and he smiled as he said:
"We don't have to work; we can starve."
* * * * * * * *
I have spent three Sundays in the woods. On the first I fled cravenly
into the forest, hugging a book from out my pack, and the hours
flew swiftly along the pages. The second Sunday was another
glorious autumn day. By that time I had won a modest place in
camp, and could hold up my head with due respect among the men.
I asked several of them whether there was any church service at
English Centre. They thought that there was, but they would take no
stock at all in my plan of discovery.
Alone I set out for the village. There was perfect quiet in the
mountains, no sound of axe or saw, nor crash of falling trees, nor

rumble of bark-wagons; only the tuneful flow and splash of the run,
which caught the living sunlight, and flashed it back in radiance
through the flushing air, that quivered in the ecstasy of buoyant life.
The fire of life flamed in the glowing hues of autumn, and burned
with white heat in the hoar-frost which clung to the shaded crevices
in the rocks, and along the blades of seared grass, and on the fringe
of fallen leaves. And I was free, as free and careless as the
mountain-stream, and before me was a blessed day of rest!
Every foot of the road was strangely familiar, but the familiarity lay in
an intimate association with some distant past, as of earliest
childhood. There was the camp by the dam, and there the
Irishman's cabin, where the cow was still munching straw, and the
sow wallowing in the mire. Then I came to the fork in the road,
where one way led to Wolf's Run. It was a lifetime since I had gone
up that way, feeling as cocky as a wedding-guest, and soon had
come down again "a sadder and a wiser man." I felt like another Rip
Van Winkle as I re-entered the village, but the marvel lay in there
being no change at all, except in the Sunday calm which now
possessed the place.
The post-office is in a private house, and I knocked in some
uncertainty of being able to get my letters; but the postmistress
gave them to me with obliging readiness, and with them a cordial
invitation to attend the Sunday-school, which, she said, was the only
service of that morning. Her invitation was more welcome than she
knew, for it was the first of its kind to reach me as a proletaire.
I read my letters, and then went to the church, which stands at the
end of the village street. The service was beginning. As
superintendent the postmistress was in charge. There were no men
present. About thirty women and girls, and half a dozen boys, made
up the school. The conduct of the service I thought intensely
interesting. The superintendent was entirely at home in her place,
and she valued the opportunity.

When the classes grouped themselves for the study of the lesson, a
teacher was lacking. I was asked to take the place, and was startled
at finding myself in charge of a class of village belles. What their
feeling toward the arrangement was, I could only guess; but it was
clear that they were not accustomed to being taught by an
unshaven, unshorn woodsman, in rough clothes, and boots covered
with patches. But the lesson was in my favor; it was the incident of
the washing of the disciples' feet at the last Passover. I soon forgot
my embarrassment in the interest of the text, and in an atmosphere
of serious study.
Last Sunday I went again to the Sunday-school, and I had my
former class to teach. Some preparation had been possible during
the week, and the hour passed successfully. Among the
announcements was one of a prayer-meeting to be held that night.
I reached the church at the hour of the evening service. I opened
the door, and there sat a crowded congregation in waiting. The back
seats on both sides of the aisle were solid ranks of men, lumbermen,
and teamsters, and tannery hands, many of them in their working-
clothes. There were women and children scattered through the pews
farther up, and some boys had overflowed upon the pulpit steps, but
most of the company were men.
There was no one in the minister's seat, but the postmistress was in
place at the organ, and as I entered, she nodded to me in evident
expectation of my joining her. I walked forward, and she stepped out
into the aisle to meet me.
"It's time to begin," she said, quietly.
"Is your minister not come yet?" I asked.
"Oh, you're going to speak to-night, you know."
I did not know. For an instant I knew only that there was a cold,
hard grip upon my heart which seemed to hold it still, and that in my
brain there had begun a mad dance of all that I ever thought I

knew. But from out the turmoil a sane thought emerged: "This is a
company of working-people who are come to hear a fellow-workman
speak to them about our deepest needs." In another moment I was
cooler, and a strange, unreasoning peace ensued.
I asked the postmistress to select some hymns. She handed me a
list, chosen with perfect knowledge of those which the congregation
most enjoyed. The people were soon singing, thinly at first; but the
familiar melody spread, and carried with it a sense of solidarity, in
which self was merged and lost, and the swelling sound rolled on,
deepening with the voices of the men. Soon it recalled college-
chapel, with the students in a mood to sing, and "Ein' Feste Burg"
mounting in the majesty of that deep-toned hymn, until the vaulted
ceilings rock, and the archangels above the chancel seem to join in
the splendid volume of high praise!
But more helpful to me than the singing was the sight of familiar
faces. Black Bob stood towering like another Saul above the mass of
men; and at his side was one of our teamsters who lives in the
village, and with whom I had often loaded bark. Near the door—I
was not quite sure at first, but there could be no mistake—near the
door was Fitz-Adams, and not far from him Long-nosed Harry and
Phil the Farmer stood together.
I was trembling when I began to speak, trembling with awful fear, a
fear that was yet a solemn joy; for I had vision then of human
hearts hungering to be fed, and, as a sharer in their need, I knew
that it was given to me to point them to the Bread of Life.
I could speak to them now, for with greater clearness I could see
these fellow-workers as they were—strong, brave men who win the
mastery which comes to those who clear the way for progress,
giving play, in their natural living, to the forces which make men
free, and growing strong in heart and in the will to do, as they grow
strong of arm and catch the rough cunning of their trade; men of
many races, yet meeting on the common ground of men all free and
under equal chance to make their way; knowing no differences but

those of personality, and winning their places in the crew, each man
according to his kind, and his rewards according to his skill.
Such were they in their outward lives, the physical life within them
growing in living ways, and making them the true, efficient workmen
that they were. But of the inner life that makes us men, that life
wherein we act from choice, and must "give account of the deeds
done in the body," that range of action which we call moral, where
conscience speaks to us in words of command, there they knew no
mastery at all, and, least of all, the mastery of the moralist.
To them God was a moral ruler, dwelling afar from the daily life of
men, and righteousness was a slavish obedience to His laws, and
religion a mystic somewhat which was good for women and children
and weak men.
And yet deep in their own hearts was their supremest need. Life as
they knew it brought to them no satisfaction for its craving want. It
was not so in other things; they knew their work; and in the
overcoming of its difficulties, they had felt the fierce joy of conquest.
But confronted with temptations, the difficulties of their inner life,
there they had no strength; and lust and passion mastered them,
and left their real desire unsatisfied. Here, in respect of mastery,
they were slaves, and as regards life, they were dead, having only
the need of life.
There, then, was their want; it was for Life, abundant, victorious
Life.
And now I could speak to them of God; of Him "who is not far from
every one of us, for in Him we live, and move, and have our being;"
the living God who reveals Himself in all life, and who became
incarnate in the Son of Man, and who speaks to us in human words
which go straight to our seeking hearts: "I am the way, the truth,
and the life." "I am come that ye might have life, and that ye might
have it more abundantly." "The words that I speak unto you, they
are life."

"Strong Son of God!" whose living words quicken us from the death
of sin and set us free. By whose grace we are "renewed in the whole
man after His image, and enabled, more and more, to die unto sin
and live unto righteousness." Who was "made sin for us, who knew
no sin; that we might be made the righteousness of God in Him."
"Who His own self bare our sins in His own body on the tree, that
we, being dead to sin, should live unto righteousness." Whose death
was not a reconcilement of God to us, but was "God in Christ
reconciling the world unto Himself." Whose Gospel is the glad tidings
of this reconciliation, and we are become "ambassadors for Christ,
as though God did beseech you by us; we pray you in Christ's stead,
be ye reconciled to God."
And then we prayed, confessing our sinful state, our bondage, our
death in sin, and pleading that we might be "transformed by the
renewing of our minds, that we might prove what is that good, and
acceptable, and perfect will of God."
* * * * * * * *
Now that I am on the eve of leaving Fitz-Adams's Camp, I cannot
hide from myself my eagerness to go. I have real regrets; for while
two weeks and as many days do not constitute a long period, yet
time is purely relative, and I shall have a livelier memory of the
camp and of certain of the men, and a keener interest in them, than
I have for places and men with whom my association has been
much longer.
But of the feelings of which I am conscious at leaving, I am
surprised at the intensity of the longing to know what has happened
during the three weeks, nearly, since I have seen a newspaper from
the great world. I thought little of it as the days passed, but now I
am all aglow with desire for news about the progress of the
campaigns in New York and Massachusetts and Ohio. And then the
last word from abroad had piqued one's curiosity to the utmost as to
possible results. Mr. Smith, the leader of the House of Commons, I
know is dead; and as I was leaving Williamsport for the woods, I

saw upon the bulletin-boards the announcement of Mr. Parnell's
sudden death; but of the political effect of these events no word has
reached me. Has Mr. Balfour or Mr. Goschen succeeded to the
leadership of the House? And if Mr. Balfour became the First Lord of
the Treasury, does he retain the Chief Secretaryship for Ireland? And
has the death of Mr. Parnell brought about a reunion between
Parnellites and. M'Carthyites, or is the breach as hopeless as ever?
It will be intensely interesting to find answers to these questions and
to many more; but after all I am sincerely sorry to leave the camp,
and as I go up now to say good-by to Fitz-Adams, who is in his
office, it is with the knowledge that I am parting from a man whom
it is an inspiration to have known.

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