![1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO
DEPENDABILITY
1.1 WHAT IS DEPENDABILITY
1.1.1 Defining Dependability
Dependability is the ability of a system to perform as and when required [1]. Dependability
is an inherent system property applying to any system, product, process or service involv-
ing hardware, software and human aspects. It is crucial to consider dependability in the
development and application of technological and evolving systems. In today’s global busi-
ness environment, dependability is a key decision factor for evaluation and acceptance
of successful system performance. Dependability represents customer objectives and val-
ues and determines critical system performance to earn user trust and achieve customer
satisfaction.
Systems vary in form, fit and function, with performance complexity determined by
user needs and often identified by types for application. Technological systems such as
automated monitoring and control systems engage the design incorporation of interact-
ing hardware and software elements to deliver specific system functions. In some cases,
human interactions are involved and form part of the performance process in system
operation. Functions are the building blocks of a system. They are arranged and config-
ured to form the system architecture that facilitates interaction of relevant functions in
order to deliver the required system output. A simple function is an elementary operation
performed by the system to accomplish a task. A complex function can consist of several
simple functions working together to accomplish a more complicated task or a sequence
of tasks.
Evolving systems such as communications networks, power generation and pipelines
have to adapt to changes with time as necessitated by technology advancements, new fea-
tures and customer service demands associated with market competition. By their nature,
evolving systems will contain legacy systems, which may involve mature technologies
from previous generations. A non-evolving system may also at some point turn into a leg-
acy system due to obsolescence. Dependability issues should be considered in all types of
systems where maintenance and upgrades are necessary to sustain an acceptable level of
performance for ongoing service.
The prime objective of a system is to deliver the required capability or performance.
Dependability is a collective set of time-related performance characteristics achieved by
design and implementation into a system. It coexists with other desirable characteristics
such as quality, safety and immunity and is incorporated into a system to create added value
by enhancing system performance for specific applications.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/48845-250723022747-22a74392/85/Practical-application-of-dependability-engineering-an-effective-approach-to-managing-dependability-in-technological-and-evolving-systems-1st-Edition-David-Kiang-25-320.jpg)
![THO THOMAS (John xx. 24), one of the twelve a])ostles,
was also called Didymus, " tlietwiu." We know little of his history : he
seems to have been of a singular temperament, occasionally
overcome by a dark and morbid melancholy. He was also wayward
and slow of belief ( John xi. 16; xiv. 5; xx. 20-29), especially in the
ideritity of the risen Saviour. It is supposed he was actively engaged
in propagating the Gospel in the East Indies, and suffered
martyrdom. There are numbers of Christians in the East who believe
that they are the churches which this apostle originally planted, and
they call themselves on that account Christians of St. Thomas.
THORN IN THE FLESH (2 Cor. xii. 7-9). In order to understand the
meaning of this dark i>hrase, it is necessary to glance at the
context. The apostle Paul, like every public character whose labours
have been crowned with success, excited the envy of many of his
contemporaries ; and they, jealous of his fame and influence,
exerted themselves to detract from his greatness by various mean
and malignant insinuations and calumnies. Such opponents were
easily refuted, as is evident from the former chapter, in which the
apostle, with his usual vehemence and fervour, enumerates the
various hardships and dangers which he had encountered in his
speedy career. Inferior in no respect to any of his opponents, in
those qualities from which they might derive their fancied
superiority, Paul enjoyed also many privileges to which they had no
pretension. " It is not expedient for me, doubtless, to glory. I will
come to visions and revelations of the Lord." And yet with what
modesty, with what reluctance, is this strange narration introduced—
almost as if the apostle were not himself the person intended : " I
knew a man in Christ. . . such an one caught up to the third
heaven." The time when this revelation was vouchsafed is another
proof of the apostle's delicacy. Fourteen years had elapsed since this
transcendent favour had been conferred, and yet, during that period,
so noble a cause of boasting had not been declared. In i^aradise
Paul heard unspeakable words, litei'alJy, "unutterable utterances,"
"which it is not lawful for a man to utter." The things which he heard
were so far beyond the reach of our present conceptions that no](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/48845-250723022747-22a74392/85/Practical-application-of-dependability-engineering-an-effective-approach-to-managing-dependability-in-technological-and-evolving-systems-1st-Edition-David-Kiang-45-320.jpg)
![THE Btrument, havinj^ teeth," is mentioned, which haa
been thus described : — It is a ])t)ard about 3 feet wide, 0 or 8 feet
long, and 3 inches thick. Ou the lower side many holes are made,
from an inch and a half to 2 inches, in which are fastened pieces of
stone, flint, or iron. These project, it may be, from a half to three-
quarters of an inch from the face of the board, and serve as teeth to
tear the beards of the grain in pieces. Oxen are fastened to the
forward end of the boards, and driven round the floor, drawing it
after them. The driver of the oxen usually stands or sits on the
instrument. The oxen are usually without muzzles, and are often, as
they piiss around, taking up from time to time a few straws and
feeding on them. After the grain is thus threshed out, it is stored, or
"gathered into the gamer." The following cut represents Egyptians
storing up the produce of the field : — THREsniNG-FLOOR OF
Ornan. The apparent discrepancy between 2 Sam. xxiv. 24 and 1
Chr. xxi. 25 is reconciled by the jjrobable supposition, that in the
former case nothing is included but the floor, oxen, and threshing
machine; and in the latter, the whole hill whereon the temple was
afterwards erected. (See Arauxah.) THRONE. (See Footstool.)
THUMMIM. (See Vuui.) THUNDER (Ps. civ. 7). The sublime sound of
thunder is described as the voice of God. In Ps. xxix. is a magnificent
descrii^tion of a thunderstorm : — "The voice of Jehovah is upon
the floods; The God of gloi-y thundereth ; Johovali is ui^on many
waters. The voice of Jehovah is powerful ; Tlie voice of Jeliovah is in
majesty. The voice of Jehovah shivereth tlie cPfTars; Yea, Jehovah
shivereth the cedars of Lebauon " Thtmder was a fre^qnent
accompaniment and attestation of the divine presence (Ps. xviii. 13 ;
Ixxxi. 7 ; 1 Sam. xii. 17). In Jer. x. 13 occurs a description of an
Eastern tornado. Moffat illustrates this inspired picture in the
following paragi-aph :— " The peals of thunder are such as to make
the very earth tremble. The lightning is of three descriptions: one
kind passing from cloud to cloud; this is seldom accoinjianied with
any rain. Another kind is the fc^rked, which may be seen x^Jissing
through a cloud and striking the eai*th ; this is considered the most
dangerous. The most conamon is what we are in the habit of calling](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/48845-250723022747-22a74392/85/Practical-application-of-dependability-engineering-an-effective-approach-to-managing-dependability-in-technological-and-evolving-systems-1st-Edition-David-Kiang-51-320.jpg)
Practical application of dependability engineering an effective approach to managing dependability in technological and evolving systems 1st Edition David Kiang
- 1. Practical application of dependability engineering an effective approach to managing dependability in technological and evolving systems 1st Edition David Kiang - Downloadable PDF 2025 https://ebookfinal.com/download/practical-application-of-dependability- engineering-an-effective-approach-to-managing-dependability-in- technological-and-evolving-systems-1st-edition-david-kiang/ Visit ebookfinal.com today to download the complete set of ebooks or textbooks
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- 5. Practical application of dependability engineering an effective approach to managing dependability in technological and evolving systems 1st Edition David Kiang Digital Instant Download Author(s): David Kiang, Thomas Van Hardeveld ISBN(s): 9780791860014, 0791860019 Edition: 1 File Details: PDF, 7.46 MB Year: 2012 Language: english
- 7. PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF DEPENDABILITY ENGINEERING An Effective Approach to Managing Dependability in Technological and Evolving Systems By Thomas Van Hardeveld David Kiang
- 8. © 2012, ASME, 3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA (www.asme.org) All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THIS WORK HAS BEEN OBTAINED BY THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS FROM SOURCES BELIEVED TO BE RELIABLE. HOWEVER, NEITHER ASME NOR ITS AUTHORS OR EDITORS GUARANTEE THE ACCURACY OR COMPLETENESS OF ANY INFORMATION PUBLISHED IN THIS WORK. NEITHER ASME NOR ITS AUTHORS AND EDITORS SHALL BE RESPONSIBLE FOR ANY ERRORS, OMISSIONS, OR DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OF THIS INFORMATION. THE WORK IS PUBLISHED WITH THE UNDERSTANDING THAT ASME AND ITS AUTHORS AND EDITORS ARE SUPPLYING INFORMATION BUT ARE NOT ATTEMPTING TO RENDER ENGINEERING OR OTHER PROFESSIONAL SERVICES. IF SUCH ENGINEERING OR PROFESSIONAL SERVICES ARE REQUIRED, THE ASSISTANCE OF AN APPROPRIATE PROFESSIONAL SHOULD BE SOUGHT. ASME shall not be responsible for statements or opinions advanced in papers or . . . printed in its publications (B7.1.3). Statement from the Bylaws. For authorization to photocopy material for internal or personal use under those circumstances not falling within the fair use provisions of the Copyright Act, contact the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, tel: 978-750-8400, www.copyright.com. Requests for special permission or bulk reproduction should be addressed to the ASME Publishing Department, or submitted online at: http://www.asme.org/Publications/ Books/Administration/Permissions.cfm Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Van Hardeveld, Thomas. Practical application of dependability engineering: an effective approach to managing dependability in technological and evoving systems / by Thomas Van Hardeveld and David Kiang. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7918-6001-4 (alk. paper) 1. Reliability (Engineering) I. Kiang, David, 1935- II. Title. TA169.V36 2012 620’.00452—dc23 2012027460
- 9. DEDICATION This book is dedicated to the memory of the past Chairman of IEC/TC56 Dependability Mr. Geoffrey C. Alstead who inspired experts from many countries in the development of International Standards on Dependability, including the authors of this book.
- 11. v PREFACE Our modern technological society expects everything to work as expected, that is, without interruption or failure. Our memories are short, whereas the history of innovation started with the earliest human quests for survival. It is only very recently that we have reached the currently high levels of dependability that we now demand in our daily lives without much thought. But the path toward even higher levels of dependability continues. It is becoming increasingly difficult to address dependability issues as system sophistication and techno- logical advances move forward. Many people call this general area of endeavor “reliability,” although, in fact, it actu- ally consists of a number of interrelated characteristics, primarily availability, reliability, maintainability and supportability. In this book, we use the umbrella term “dependability,” which is the one that is known in international standardization. Dependability has negative connotations since it naturally deals with failures.Although we know that failures are what we must analyze, we want to also portray dependability in a positive light as building trust and successful achievement of objectives. Dependability is a multi-faceted and varied field of engineering, but one that is critical to industry and society as a whole. The fundamentals of dependability are well understood and documented, so there is no pressing need to reinvent the foundations of dependability engineering (e.g., statistics) and duplicate the rich vein of literature in this area. It is more important to discuss how to manage for successful dependability performance in rapidly changing times. It is necessary to tailor the application of dependability since it varies substantially across different industries, types of assets and application of technologies. This book is intended for engineers and practitioners who need to solve problems and find answers to achieve dependability performance of technological and evolving systems. It provides current industry best practices and practical knowledge and guidance to address dependability management issues and engineering processes from a system life cycle perspective. The topics presented herein highlight the essence of life cycle management practices and systematic cost-effective solutions, focusing on dependability performance characteristics for project risk avoidance and failure prevention. The rationale for the need to achieve dependability performance is presented from the viewpoint of the causative effects and probable risk exposures of system malfunction. Recommendations are provided to assist and devise practical means for cost-effective solu- tions to support the decision process for mitigation of negative consequences. The starting point for resolution of dependability issues is to exercise prudent engineering judgement by fully understanding the problem at hand. The intention is to avoid using cookbook answers for expediency, which often lead to misinterpretation of the theoretical assumptions to fit the case in point. The development of technological systems involves hardware, software and human aspects of dependability in order to realize system performance requirements. The interac- tion of hardware and software to achieve interoperability, survivability and serviceabil- ity in system performance is addressed. Dependability issues of evolving systems, where merging of the “old” and the “new” coexists in system integration to meet performance needs, are discussed. Applicable dependability methods for assessment and assurance are provided to facilitate confidence in reaching project acceptance and delivery targets. This book is organized in a logical sequence where individual chapters present specific dependability topics to highlight key dependability management and engineering activities
- 12. vi ■ PREFACE that can be readily referenced. The main framework of the book is the life cycle and its vari- ous stages of concept definition, design and development, realization, operation and main- tenance, and disposal or retirement. It is crucial to recognize the wide spread in life cycles, from very short where little time is allowed for achieving high dependability, such as many consumer products, to very long life cycles over many decades, such as much of our infra- structures, which stress the continual achievement and improvement that are expected. We have tried to recognize that there is a very wide diversity of applications of depend- ability. In most of our examples, however, there is an acknowledgement of the rich legacy of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), and thus the focus is mainly on industries related to power generation, monitoring and control, oil and gas, and the energy industry in general. This of course leaves out many other industries where dependability is equally important, but it is the view of the authors that the principles and methods are easily applicable elsewhere. Thomas Van Hardeveld, P. Eng. David Kiang, P. Eng.
- 13. vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We earnestly wish to share our collective years of experience as engineers serving global clients in a broad range of industry sectors and business enterprises. We are privileged to have been actively involved for many years in contributing to the development of standards for the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Technical Committee (TC56) on Dependability. To this committee, we are thankful for the opportunity to share our technical expertise. The knowledge and experience captured in this book reflects the dependability requirements and technology advancement cultivated in the international market place. Dependability applies to all industry sectors in product development and service provision, technological and evolving systems, and legacy assets and equipment. We sincerely wish to thank all our colleagues who have shared tremendous insights and knowledge over the many years of our involvement in IEC/TC56 Dependability. We wish to dedicate this book to our future generation of dependability engineers and prac- titioners, who are and will be continuing our endeavor to challenge technology evolution from a dependability perspective with confidence and trust for dependability value crea- tion. The authors wish to express sincere thanks and acknowledge the contributions of the following colleagues in the preparation of this manuscript: Cathy Hunsley, London Overground Infrastructure, IEC/TC56 Peter Kesselyak, IEC/TC56 Valter Loll, Chairman, IEC/TC56 Eric Mahy, IEC/TC56 Gerald Taranto, Taranto Consultancy, IEC/TC56 The authors thank the IEC for permission to reproduce information from its International Publication IEC 62628 ed 1.0 (2012). We are immensely grateful to the ASME for agreeing to publish this book and their dedication to the field of dependability in their conferences and publications. We are espe- cially grateful to the staff of ASME Press, Mary Grace Stefanchik and Tara Smith Collins, for their support, patience and encouragement in making this book a reality. Finally, we would be remiss if we did not mention the support and indulgence of our spouses, Marilyn Ewald and Alice Kiang, who had to suffer our intense dedication to real- izing one of our dreams.
- 15. ix FOREWORD In our modern society, we are highly dependent on technological systems and innovative products, and often not by choice but by the need to use public facilities for essential ser- vices. We enjoy the conveniences of the Internet, e-commerce and wireless services. We rely on our electricity supply. We have cultivated renewable energy, but we still need the oil and gas to support our transportation systems. We are fortunate to live in a world at a time of immense progress, but we are often confronted with century-old infrastructure that requires maintenance and extensive support costs for their upkeep. This is where depend- ability engineering principles and practices are put into action. The technical committee TC56 under the auspices of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has defined the term ”dependability” as including reliability, availabil- ity, maintenance, maintainability and technological risk. Dependability thus encompasses the major aspects of our primary concerns of being dependent on such technological sys- tems and utilization of available products and services for safety and security reasons. Dependability has become an indispensible notion for the survival of human species. As the Chairman of IEC TC56, I welcome the book by Tom Van Hardeveld and David Kiang. Both Tom and David have long been associated with IEC dependability standards development work and have both received the prestigious IEC 1906 Award for their distin- guished services and significant contributions to IEC/TC56. The book describes depend- ability aspects of large technological and evolving systems. It emphasizes the need for integration of hardware, software and human aspects for system development and imple- mentation. The life cycle process goes beyond development, operation and maintenance until the system is retired from service. It also addresses our safety concerns, avoidance of risk and furtherance of a sustainable environment. To achieve an optimum balance between cost, schedule and performance, input from dependability specialists is needed. Industry at large will appreciate and realize the value of dependability in return on investment. New systems are complicated and challenging. A first step is to describe the problem and put it into a proper perspective. The book contains many practical examples and good checklists. I hope that you will feel challenged and inspired while reading it. Valter Loll, M.Sc., B.Com. Chairman of IEC TC56 Dependability
- 17. xi ABOUT THE AUTHORS ThomasVan Hardeveld has 38 years (as of 2012) experience in all aspects of the operation and maintenance of gas turbines, compressors and other gas transmission and process equipment. He is a specialist in maintenance management and condition monitoring of all types of equipment as well as reliability techniques and risk and integrity manage- ment. For more than 20 years, he has been involved in international consulting and train- ing activities in Pakistan, New Zealand, Kuwait, Thailand, Argentina, Trinidad, Mexico, Malaysia, Kazakhstan and the Middle East. For the past 16 years he has presented training courses on maintenance management, maintenance planning and scheduling, Reliability Centered Maintenance, condition monitoring, compressors, gas turbines, reliability of rotat- ing equipment and pipeline operation and maintenance. He has conducted maintenance assessments, performed Reliability Centered Maintenance analyses, implemented condi- tion monitoring systems and consulted on various aspects of rotating equipment operation and maintenance. He is actively involved in standardization activities with the IEC/TC56 Committee on Dependability as a convenor and project leader and was recognized in 2010 by the International Electrotechnical Commission with the IEC 1906 Award. He has been an instructor for SAIT Polytechnic both in Calgary and internationally. He has co-authored a book on Pipeline Operation and Maintenance: A Practical Approach (now the second edition) and more recently one on Pipeline Pumping and Compression Systems, both pub- lished by ASME Press. He has a M.Sc. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Calgary and is a registered Professional Engineer in the province of Alberta. David Kiang has worked in the information and communications technology (ICT) industry for many years. He has dedicated his knowledge and experience to International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standardization work over the past two decades. David has contributed extensively in the development of IEC/TC56 standards on Dependability. He has coordinated the IEC/TC56 dependability seminars since 2006 and facilitated workshops in several countries on dependability of technological systems and related methodologies by international experts. These outreached programs had helped engineers and practition- ers better understand the concept of dependability and enabling them to apply appropri- ate methods and tools to effectively manage dependability projects and resolve technical problems. David has provided quality and dependability engineering consulting services to multinational corporations and system design organizations on life cycle management, dependability development and implementation processes, and conformity assessment of products and services involving hardware, software and human aspects of dependability. David was appointed in 2002 by IEC/TC56 as Convener of System aspects of dependability responsible for development of relevant dependability standards to meet current market needs for industry applications. In 2004 David received the prestigious IEC 1906 Award for contribution to IEC dependability management standards. David Kiang is a Professional Engineer registered in Ontario, Canada. He is the Principal Consultant of T.D. Kiang & Associates that he founded in 1989. He retired as Senior Technical Adviser from Nortel Networks after 28 years of service. David graduated from the University of Toronto with a B.A.Sc. degree in Electrical Engineering. He received a Diploma in Management Sciences and a master degree (MBA) in Operations Research from the University of Ottawa. David is a Life Senior Member of IEEE.
- 19. xiii CONTENTS Preface v Acknowledgements vii Foreword ix About the Authors xi CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Dependability 1 1.1 What is Dependability 1 1.1.1 Defining Dependability 1 1.1.2 The Application of Dependability 3 1.1.3 Industry Views on Dependability 4 1.1.4 The Importance of Dependability 7 1.1.5 The History of Dependability 8 1.1.6 The Evolution of Dependability 10 1.2 Dependability Concepts 11 1.2.1 Dependability Principles and Practices 11 1.2.2 Dependability Concept Realization 13 1.2.3 Dependability Knowledge Base 14 1.3 The System Approach to Dependability 14 1.3.1 Definition of a System 14 1.3.2 Life Cycle Approach to Dependability 16 1.3.3 Methodology and Process Application 17 1.3.4 Hardware Aspects 18 1.3.5 Software Aspects 19 1.3.6 Human Aspects 20 1.4 Dependability Management from a Business Perspective 20 1.4.1 Business Life Cycle and Market Relevance 20 1.4.2 Dependability Management Goals and Objectives 21 1.4.3 Changing Market Needs 22 1.4.4 Dependability Standardization for Evolving Systems 23 1.4.5 Environmental Sustainability 24 1.4.6 Dependability and Asset Management 24 References 25 CHAPTER 2 Life Cycle Approach for Dependability 27 2.1 Introduction to the Life Cycle Approach 27 2.1.1 Why a Life Cycle Approach 27 2.1.2 System Life Cycle Models 28 2.2 Dependability Application in a Business Environment 32 2.2.1 Influences on a Business Environment 32 2.2.2 Dependability Focus on Management Support 32 2.2.3 Dependability Application Focus on Technological Solutions 33 2.3 Life Cycle Approach to Project Management 38 2.3.1 Framework for Managing Dependability Projects 38 2.3.2 Establishing Dependability Project Objectives and Task Requirements 39 2.4 Tailoring Process 40 2.4.1 Tailoring of Dependability Projects 40 2.4.2 Tailoring for Project-Specific Applications 41 2.5 Project Risk Management 42 2.5.1 Risk Management for Dependability Application 42 2.5.2 Risk Management Process 42 2.5.3 Scope of Dependability Risk Problems 43 2.5.4 Dependability Risk Problem and Resolution – An Example 44 2.6 Review Process 48 References 49 CHAPTER 3 Specification of Dependability Requirements 51 3.1 Starting a Dependability Project 51 3.1.1 Where to Begin with Technological Systems 51 3.1.2 Understanding the System 52 3.1.3 Defining System Objectives 54 3.1.4 Identifying System Performance Functions 56 3.2 Incorporation of Dependability into Systems 59 3.2.1 Requirements Definition 59 3.2.2 Requirements Analysis 60 3.2.3 Establishing the Operational Scenario 63
- 20. xiv ■ Contents 3.2.4 Determining Dependability Requirements 63 3.3 Framework for Development of Dependability Specifications 67 3.3.1 Rationale for Dependability Specifications 67 3.3.2 Evaluation of Dependability Characteristics 68 3.3.3 Procedures for Specifying System Dependability 71 References 73 CHAPTER 4 Dependability Engineering in System Design and Realization 75 4.1 Dependability Engineering in System Design and Development 75 4.1.1 Introduction 75 4.1.2 Architectural Design 76 4.1.3 Functional Design and Evaluation 77 4.1.3.1 Establishing Functional Design Criteria 77 4.1.3.2 Dependability Design Approaches 77 4.1.3.3 Dependability Design Strategies 78 4.1.3.4 Designing for System Application Environments 78 4.1.3.5 Designing for Human Interaction 80 4.1.3.6 Evaluation of Design Functions 81 4.1.3.7 Assessment Value and Implications 82 4.1.4 System Design Documentation 83 4.1.5 System Design and Sub-system Development 83 4.2 Dependability Engineering Design Issues 84 4.2.1 Safety Design 84 4.2.2 Dependability-Centered Design 88 4.2.3 Structural Design 91 4.2.4 Life Cycle Cost 93 4.3 Dependability Engineering in System Realization and Implementation 94 4.3.1 System Realization 94 4.3.2 Product Verification 96 4.3.3 System Integration 96 4.3.4 System Installation/Transition 97 4.3.5 System Validation/Acceptance 97 4.4 Dependability Engineering Checklists 98 References 99 CHAPTER 5 Software Dependability 101 5.1 The Software Dependability Challenge 101 5.1.1 Software Dependability Implications 101 5.1.2 Understanding Software and Software Systems 102 5.2 Software Dependability Engineering 103 5.2.1 System Life Cycle Framework 103 5.2.2 Software Dependability Project Management 103 5.2.3 Software Life Cycle Activities 104 5.2.4 Software Dependability Characteristics 106 5.2.5 Software Design Environment 106 5.2.6 Software Requirements and Influencing Factors 107 5.2.7 Classification of Software Faults 107 5.3 Software Dependability Strategy 108 5.3.1 Software Fault Avoidance 108 5.3.2 Software Fault Control 108 5.4 Software Dependability Application 109 5.4.1 Software Development Practices for Dependability Achievement 109 5.4.2 Software Dependability Metrics and Data Collection 110 5.4.3 Software Dependability Assessment 111 5.4.4 Software Testing and Measurement 114 5.5 Software Dependability Improvement 116 5.5.1 Software Dependability Improvement Methodology 116 5.5.2 Software Complexity Simplification 117 5.5.3 Software Fault Tolerance 117 5.5.4 Software Interoperability 118 5.5.5 Software Reuse 118 5.5.6 Software Reliability Growth 119 5.5.7 Software Maintenance and Enhancement 120 5.5.8 Technical Support and User Training 121 References 121 CHAPTER 6 Dependability Information Management 123 6.1 Understanding Dependability Information 123 6.2 Framework for Dependability Information Management 124
- 21. Contents ■ xv 6.3 Establishing a Dependability Information System 125 6.3.1 Dependability Information System Requirements 125 6.3.2 FRACAS 126 6.3.3 Maintenance and Logistic Support System 128 6.3.4 Fault Management System 129 6.3.5 Dependability Assessment Information 131 6.3.6 Information Retention, Retrieval and Dissemination 131 6.3.7 Knowledge Development 132 6.4 Lessons Learned 134 6.4.1 Learning from Experience 134 6.4.2 Case Study on Network Dependability 134 6.4.3 Looking Beyond the Numbers 135 6.4.4 Adapting to Change and Changing Environments 137 6.4.5 Exploiting Green Technology 138 References 140 CHAPTER 7 Sustaining Dependability Performance during Operation 143 7.1 Introduction 143 7.2 Operational Considerations 143 7.3 Operation Framework 144 7.3.1 Operational Objectives for Dependability 144 7.3.2 Overview of System Operation Process 144 7.3.3 Operation Process Implementation 146 7.3.4 Process Approach to Sustain Dependability Performance 146 7.4 Dependability Measures during Operation149 7.4.1 Overview of Dependability Measures 149 7.4.2 Organizational or End-user Measures 150 7.4.3 Average Failure Rate Measures 151 7.4.4 Statistical Failure Rate Measures 152 7.4.5 Availability and Reliability 153 7.4.6 Reliability Analysis Techniques 153 7.5 Dependability Data Sources 154 7.5.1 Data Acquisition 154 7.5.2 International Standards Information 154 7.5.3 OREDA - Offshore REliability DAta 156 7.5.4 Gas Turbines 157 7.5.4.1 Background 157 7.5.4.2 Metrics 158 7.5.4.3 NERC GADS Data 159 7.5.4.4 ORAP - Operational Reliability Analysis Program 159 7.5.5 Infrastructure 162 7.5.6 Telecommunications and the Internet 163 7.6 Examples of Analyzing Dependability during Operation 164 References 164 CHAPTER 8 Maintainability, Supportability and Maintenance Engineering 167 8.1 Introduction 167 8.2 Maintainability 168 8.2.1 What Is Maintainability 168 8.2.2 Maintainability during Design 169 8.2.3 How to Measure Maintainability 170 8.3 Supportability 172 8.3.1 What Is Supportability 172 8.3.2 Supportability During Design 172 8.3.3 Maintenance Support During Operation 173 8.4 Maintenance Engineering 174 8.4.1 Reliability Centered Maintenance 174 8.4.2 Maintenance Optimization 176 8.4.3 Facility and Equipment Enhancement and Renewal 177 8.4.4 Spare Parts Provisioning 179 8.4.5 Condition-Based Maintenance 180 8.4.6 Risk Assessment for Pipelines 186 8.5 Maintainability Integrated with Reliability and Availability 190 References 193 CHAPTER 9 Dependability Assurance 195 9.1 Establishing Dependability Assurance Framework 195 9.1.1 Understanding Assurance in Business and Technical Performance 195
- 22. xvi ■ Contents 9.1.2 Dependability Assurance Framework in System Performance 195 9.1.3 Collaboration of Assurance in System Performance 197 9.2 Evolution of Assurance Strategies 200 9.2.1 Learning from Past Experience 200 9.2.2 Dependability Assurance Initiatives 202 9.3 Life Cycle Approach to Dependability Assurance in System Performance 203 9.4 Dependability Assurance from a Business Perspective 204 9.4.1 Assurance to Ascertain System Dependability Performance 204 9.4.2 Assurance to Sustain System Dependability Performance 204 9.5 Assurance Case 207 9.5.1 What Is an Assurance Case 207 9.5.2 Assurance Case Studies 208 9.6 Software Assurance 209 9.6.1 Software Assurance Overview 209 9.6.2 Technology Influence on Software Assurance 209 9.6.3 Software Assurance Challenges 210 9.6.4 Network Security Implications 211 9.6.5 Software Assurance Best Practices 214 References 215 CHAPTER 10 Dependability Value 217 10.1 The Value of Dependability 217 10.2 Concept of Value Creation 217 10.3 The Value Chain Process 219 10.4 Dependability Value Framework 221 10.4.1 Framework Overview 221 10.4.2 Value Scenario 222 10.4.3 Value Creation Process 223 10.5 Dependability Value Realization 223 10.6 Assurance in Value Achievement 229 10.7 Value Infrastructures 230 10.7.1 Dependability Value Expressions 230 10.7.2 Common Value Infrastructures 231 10.7.3 Asset Management 231 10.7.4 A Pipeline Example 233 References 235 APPENDIX A Glossary of Terms 237 A.1 Introduction 237 A.1.1 Terms and Definitions 237 A.1.2 Concept Diagrams 237 A.2 Concept Diagram for System and Dependability-Related Terms 238 A.3 Concept Diagram for Reliability- Related Terms 238 A.4 Concept Diagram for Maintenance- Related Terms 238 A.5 Terms and Definitions 239 APPENDIX B System Life Cycle Process for Dependability Application 249 B.1 Introduction 249 B.2 Process for the System Concept/ Definition Stage 250 B.2.1 Data Requirements for Concept/ Definition 250 B.2.2 Description of Key Process Activities for Concept/Definition 250 B.3 Process for the System Design/ Development Stage 251 B.3.1 Data Requirements for Design/ Development 251 B.3.2 Description of Key Process Activities for Design/ Development 252 B.4 Process for the System Realization/ Implementation Stage 253 B.4.1 Data Requirements for Realization/Implementation 253 B.4.2 Description of Key Process Activities for Realization/ Implementation 254 B.5 Process for the System Operation/ Maintenance Stage 255 B.5.1 Data Requirements for Operation/Maintenance 255 B.5.2 Description of Key Process Activities for Operation/ Maintenance 255 B.6 Process for the System Enhancement Stage 256 B.6.1 Data Requirements for Enhancement 256 B.6.2 Description of Key Process Activities for Enhancement 256 B.7 Process for the System Retirement Stage 256 B.7.1 Data Requirements for Retirement 256 B.7.2 Description of Key Process Activities for Retirement 257
- 23. Contents ■ xvii APPENDIX C Example of a System Dependability Specification 259 C.1 Introduction 259 C.2 Identify the System 259 C.3 Describe the System Objectives 260 C.4 Identify the Functions to Meet the System Objectives 260 C.5 Describe the Functions 260 C.6 Identify the Influencing Conditions Affecting the Functions 262 C.7 Evaluate the Technical Approach to Achieve the Needed Functions 263 C.8 Describe the Hardware, Software Elements and Human Interactions Involved in System Operation 263 C.9 Determine the Operational Scenario 264 C.10 Describe the System Configurations to Meet System Objectives 265 C.11 Determine the Dependability Requirements 266 C.12 Documentation of System Dependability Specification 268 APPENDIX D Dependability Engineering Checklists 271 D.1 Checklists for System Life Cycle Project Applications 271 D.2 Checklists for Technology Design Applications 274 D.3 Checklists for Outsourced Products Used in System Applications 277 APPENDIX E Reliability Improvement of Reliquefaction System for LNG Carriers 279 E.1 Objectives of the Study 279 E.2 System Description 280 E.3 Reliability and Availability Estimation 280 E.4 Reliability and Maintenance Data 281 E.5 Analysis Using Reliability Block Diagrams 281 E.5.1 Results Without Redundancy 281 E.5.2 Results With Redundancy 283 References 285 APPENDIX F Compressor Station Availability 287 F.1 Introduction 287 F.2 Binomial Distribution Analysis 288 F.3 Monte Carlo Simulation 290 F.4 Scheduled Maintenance 291 F.5 Economic Analysis 293 References 294 APPENDIX G Maintainability of a Gas Turbine 295 G.1 Introduction 295 G.2 Design for Maintainability 295 G.3 Serviceability and Accessibility 298 G.4 Monitoring 299 References 300 APPENDIX H Example of a Steam Turbine 301 H.1 Introduction 301 H.2 Pareto Analysis 301 H.3 Weibull Analysis 302 H.4 Spare Parts Analysis 304 H.5 Maintainability, Reliability and Availability 305 References 305 Index 307
- 25. 1 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO DEPENDABILITY 1.1 WHAT IS DEPENDABILITY 1.1.1 Defining Dependability Dependability is the ability of a system to perform as and when required [1]. Dependability is an inherent system property applying to any system, product, process or service involv- ing hardware, software and human aspects. It is crucial to consider dependability in the development and application of technological and evolving systems. In today’s global busi- ness environment, dependability is a key decision factor for evaluation and acceptance of successful system performance. Dependability represents customer objectives and val- ues and determines critical system performance to earn user trust and achieve customer satisfaction. Systems vary in form, fit and function, with performance complexity determined by user needs and often identified by types for application. Technological systems such as automated monitoring and control systems engage the design incorporation of interact- ing hardware and software elements to deliver specific system functions. In some cases, human interactions are involved and form part of the performance process in system operation. Functions are the building blocks of a system. They are arranged and config- ured to form the system architecture that facilitates interaction of relevant functions in order to deliver the required system output. A simple function is an elementary operation performed by the system to accomplish a task. A complex function can consist of several simple functions working together to accomplish a more complicated task or a sequence of tasks. Evolving systems such as communications networks, power generation and pipelines have to adapt to changes with time as necessitated by technology advancements, new fea- tures and customer service demands associated with market competition. By their nature, evolving systems will contain legacy systems, which may involve mature technologies from previous generations. A non-evolving system may also at some point turn into a leg- acy system due to obsolescence. Dependability issues should be considered in all types of systems where maintenance and upgrades are necessary to sustain an acceptable level of performance for ongoing service. The prime objective of a system is to deliver the required capability or performance. Dependability is a collective set of time-related performance characteristics achieved by design and implementation into a system. It coexists with other desirable characteristics such as quality, safety and immunity and is incorporated into a system to create added value by enhancing system performance for specific applications.
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- 27. TEM undertook to rcbuiM it ; so that it was not a new edifice, strictly speaking, but rather a complete repair of the second temple. He began the work only seventeen years before the birth of Christ, and completed the main building in less than ten years, so that it was fit for the service. The whole work occupied forty-six years (John ii. 20). The Jews spoke truly when they said, "Forty and six years has this temple been in building. " We shall now describe it as it stood in the days of our Saviour. The outer wall, which enclosed the buildings, was about one-eighth of a mile square, and nearly 40 feet above the summit of the mount. 'J'his wall was built ux^ from the valley beneath, and was some hundred feet high. The excavations going on at present have shown that the south wall of the Haram, which rises to a height of 80 feet above the present surface, descends, through a mass of debris, 53 feet below it, and so originally stood upwards of 130 feet in height above its foundation on the rock. It has also been made apparent that on this side the wall must have presented an unbroken front of 1,000 feet in length. The language of Josephus no longer sounds extravagant when he says "that if any one looked down from the top of the battlements into the valley he would be giddy, while his sight could, not reach to such an immense depth." (Antiq. xv, 2, h). It is supposed to have been from this height (or pinnacle) that our Saviour was urged to cast himself (Matt. iv. 5-7). In these walls wei'e seven massive and costly gates, each 15 feet wide and 30 feet high. These were in addition to the "beautiful gate" (Acts iii. 2), wliich was on the east side, and was called beautiful because it was of the finest brass (copper), 75 feet in height, highly l^olished, and richly adorned. Between the gates, along the inside of the wall, were piazzas, supported partly by the wail itself and partly by a double row of columns, except on the south side, where were three rows of columns. The porch on the east side was called Solomon's (John x. 23), because he built it, or at least the stupendous wall on which it rested. All within the area which these walls enclosed was called the temple. The larger part of the area was vacant ground, completely paved with marble, and was distinguished as the court of the
- 28. Gentiles, because all classes of persons might enter it. But beyond the wall which separated this from the next court, and which the apostle terms the "middle wall of partition," no uncircumcised person was permitted to pass. A prohibition to that effect was inscribed upon the gate-post. Around this outer court the stock for the supply of the temple service was kept, and the money-changers had their places of business. The second court was enclosed by a wall. It was called the "new court" (2 Chr. XX. 5), the "outer court" (Ezek. xlvi. 21), or ."court of the women," because women were not allowed to go beyond it toward the sanctuary, unless when they brought a sacrifice. In this court men and women performed their TEM ordinary worship unaccompanied with sacrifices (Luke xviii. 10-14 ; Acts iii. 1 ; xxi. 20-30). Hero also was the treasury (Mark xii. 41), where the gifts for the service of the temple were deposited in small chests or coffers, fixed in the surrounding wall; and this was the I)lace where some of our Saviour's most imjiressive discourses were delivered (John viii. 20). The next court towards the sanctuary was the court of Israel. The outer half of this court was entered by common Israelites to attend on particular services of religion ; but the inner naif, next to the sanctuary, was called the court of the priests, and they were separated from each other by a low railing. Our Saviour, being of the tribe of Judah, had no privileges in the temple above any other Israelite. Hence whatever he is said to have done in the temple must be intended of the courts of the temple. Within the court of the priests stood the altar of burnt offering and the brazen laver ; and not even an Israelite could on any condition pass the railing that enclosed them, unless when he came to offer his sacrifice before the altar. Next came the sanctuary, the materials of which were beautiful and costly beyond description (Mark xiii, 1). The porch extended 150 feet across the front of the main building. It was 30 feet wide, and rose at the highest elevation to nearly 180 feet. The entrance to this porch was 135 feet by 37. It had no door. The sanctuary itself was 90 feet high, 90 feet long, and 30 feet wide. Around it, except in front, was a structure of three stories high, like that attached to the first temple, as before described. The sanctuaxy had two apartments, separated from each other by a curtaia or veil
- 29. (Matt, xxvii. 51) — viz., the holy place, which occupied GO feet of the whole length, and in which wei'e the altar of incense, the golden candlestick, and the table of show-bread; and the most holy place, which measured 30 feet every way. It is worthy of remark, that in our translation of the Bible, when these apartments are mentioned by these terms, the word place, is generally, if not always, supplied by the translators. The services of the temple must have been very solemn and imposing. This temple wfts razed to its foundation by the Romans, A. D. 70, 71, and the site of it was made like a ploughed field (Jer. xxvi. 18; Matt. xxiv. 2). It is now occupied by a Turkish mosque, which neither Jew nor Christian was until lately permitted to enter. Jerusalem is now full of oppression and mourning, "trodden under foot of the Gentile," and the site of hex temple shares in the desecration. '^' Where is thy temple and thy God? Where ai-e tliy triumphs tiown? All vanished like a flery cloud That flashes and is gone '. Alas! thou sitfst a wasted thing. All wretched and forlorn ; To thee no joy the sunbeams brinfj, But deeper shadows oer thee fliu«, And make thy woes their scorn." CU5
- 30. The text on this page is estimated to be only 14.88% accurate TEIVI TEM The subjoined engraving represents the temple and its various courts, as described by Jewish historians and antiquaries. A _A. O © O ^~^ O GO I Q o a • & n o e 0 9 ■irftaMiB*Hii*MUaHii c i ® ® TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM. A The outer wall. B The gates in the outer wall. G3G C The pate Shushan, which is called the gale of tho king (1 Chr. ix. 18). I
- 33. TEM B D Gate of ITuldah. E Another gate of the same uauie. j; F The gate Tedi. ( r Solomou's porch (John x. 23). H Court of the Gentiles. I The enclosure, or outer verge of the court, within which none but Jews might come, called the outer court, or court of the women. K The temple itself. L The foundation of the temple. M The flight of steps to the temple. N The columns called Jachin and Boiiz. P The vestibule, or porch of the temple. Q The holy place. II The most holy place. S A court on each side of the temple, which separated the people from the court of the priests. V The brazen laver. V Ten brazen vessels, five on each side (I Ki. vii. 38, 39), where the sacrifices were washed before they were brought to the altar. X The great altar of burnt offerings. Y Twenty-four rings, to which the animals were fastened that were designed for sacrifice. Z Eight marble tables, on which the slain animals were laid to be prepared for the altar. a Eight small marhle columns, on which the slain animals were suspended. h Guzith, the room or court where the great sanhedrim or Jewish court held its sessions. fi Another part of the same court, where the priests' courses were distributed by lot. _d The place where ^as distributed all the woQcJ required for the use of the temple. e The court or chamber of the wheels, where the v.-ater for the officers of the temple to di-ink was drawn up by means of a wheel. / The gate of burnt offe;;ing, through which the woocj was brought. £7 The gate of firstlings, through which the firstlings were brought to be offered up. h The water gate. i Barriers to prevent the overlooking of the temple. k The kitchen, in which that portion of the sacriUcep which were designed for the priests was prepared for their use I The court of the lambs, where eight lambs were kept for the daily sacrifice. in The court of fire, where fire was constantly preserved, n The court of showbread, where the showbread was prepared in the evening before the Sabbath. o The court in which was distributed oil or wine for the sacrifices 2> The fire gate, leading to the place where the guards of the priests were, and where was a fire for the priests use. q The gate of sacrifices, through which the sacrifices were carried into the inner court. r The gate of the singers, near to the singing Levites. s The washing gate,
- 34. where the sacrifices were washed preparatory to being taken to the altar. t Parbar, or court gate, where the skins of animals were taken off and salted. u The chamber of salt. w The court of the priests, 25 feet wide and 200 long. X Two tables, one of silver and the other of marble, near the altar of burnt offering, containing ninety-three golden vessels. y Ash vessels, designed to receive the ashes of the consumed sacrifices. t A cistern of water. J. The court of the Israelites. ? The throne of Solomon ('2 Chr. vi. 13). S The place where the half-shekel tax was received (Exod. XXX 13). 4 The outer court of the women. 5 The gate of Nicanor, called the higher gate (2 Ki. XV. 35), and the new gate (Jer. xxxvi. lo). C A court fgr the feast of tabernacles. 7 Pulpit of the high pi-iest, from which a part of the law was read at the feast of propitiation. | TEM 8. The great golden candlesticks. 9. Places between the columns for receiving gifts. 10. The court of the Nazurite.s. 11. The court of wood, where wood was selected for the burnt offerings. 12. The court where the lepers showed themselves to the priests before offering their sacrifices. 13. Tlie court where oil and wine were deposited for the daily sacrifices and for the lamps (Exod. xxvii. 20). 14. Synagogue where the law was explained on tho Sabbath and feast days. 15. The beautiful gate of the temple. IG. The flight of steps on which the Levites stood and sung the fifteen psalms, from cxx. to cxxxiv. inclusive, at the feast of tabernacles. 17. Openings for the passage of smoke. The veneration with which the temple was regarded by the Jews appears from the manner in which they treated any supposed disrespectful allusion to it. In this spirit they brought an accusation against Jesus because he had said, "Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up" (Matt. xxvi. 61; John ii. 19, 20; Acts xxi. 28, 29; xxiv. 6; XXV. 8). (See Jerusalem.) But now there is no central spot of worship — the world is summoned to believe. The old and restricted dispensation has ceased to exist. If all men of all nations, under the new economy, are invited to worship the Father of spirits, then there canijot be only one altar on which they shall lay their spiritual oblations, and only one shrine to which the four quarters of the earth shall resort, by a long and dreary pilgrimage, through flood and desert. Through Christ, God may be worshipped on any spot,
- 35. and at any time. The believer's heart is his holy temple— there the blood of the atonement has been sprinkled, and there He, by his Spirit dwells. Christians are a "royal priesthood." "Prayer arises as incense," praise is a sweet savour of gratitude. Angels are around us to defend the spirit which has been washed in the laver of regeneration. John says concerning heaven, Eev. xxi. 22, "I saw no temple there." In that blessed world there is no spot selected, for all is holy — no time set apart, for the Sabbath is eternal — and there is no need of symbolic worship, for the Lamb himself in. his own humanity is the continuous object of enraptured homage to myriads of myriads of delighted spectators. TEMPT (Matt. xxii. 18), TEMPTATION (Luke iv. 13). These words are used in various senses by the sacred writers. The ordinary imjjort 01 them is allurement or enticement to sin. Hence our great adversary the devil is called the tempter (Matt. iv. 3). Sometimes they denote the trial of a person's faith cr obedience (Gen. xxii. 1 ; Jas. i. 2, 3), or the trial of God's patience and forbearance (Exod. xvii. 2 ; 1 Cor. x. 9) ; but generally they signify that which x>ersuades to sin. The prayer, "J^ad xis not into temptation" (Matt. vi. 13), does not imply that God leads us into temptation (Jas. i. 13, 14), but it is a prayer that we may not be suffered to fall into temptation. When it is said that the lawyer and others tempted ow SAViour (Matt. xvi. 1; xix. 3; Mark x. 2; 637
- 36. TEN" Ltike X, 25), it is meant that they tried to 1 ensnare him, or lead him into the commission of some offence. Jesus Christ, at the commencement of his ministry, was tempted of the devil. This was a conflict with the prince of darkness. _ Satan first appealed to his corporeal appetite, for Jesus had fasted forty days — then to the l)rinciple of piety, bidding him trust in Divine Providence to guard him from gratuitous hazard and unwarranted exposure— then to the principle of ambition, offering him universal empire, on the condition of homage and fealty to the foul and malignant tempter. The first temptation was an attack upon him as a nian, the second was directed against him as a pious man, and the third was constructed to bear upon him as a Jew — for his countrymen held earthly notions of Messiah's person, kingdom, and glory. But Jesus triumphed, and Satan fled abashed. Such thoughts could not spring up of themselves in the pure and holy mind of Jesus. They were suggested by a power from without — they were brought into contact with his soul, but found not a moment's reception. The second Adam was the victor over the might and craft of helL Paradise was regained. (See Christ, Devil, Jesus.) TEN COMMANDMENTS— decalogue, or "ten words," as they are called in Exod. xxxiv. 28; Deut. iv. 13, were spoken by Jehovah from mount Sinai. But as to the division of the "ten words," there have been various opinions — some making the preface the first command. 1. " According to the Talmud, Targum, Jonathan, Maimonides, and others, V. 2 of Exod. XX. contains the first commandment ; vv. 3-6, the second ; v. 7, the third ; vv. 8-11, the fourth ; v. 12, the fifth ; v. 13, the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth; and v. 14, the tenth. But polytheism and image-worship are two distinct subjects, and cannot be combined in one precept. 2. Others do not admit that v. 2 is a commandment, as it simply asserts that God, who now reveals Himself, has released the Israelites from Egyi)t ; they consider, therefore, this verse merely as an introduction, and believe v. 3 to be the first commandment; vv. 4-6, the second; and then, farther, as specified above. Thus Origen, Jerome, and the Reformed churches, except the Lutheran. But v. 2 evidently belongs to the decalogue ;
- 37. and the simple form of an assertion, in which it is worded, cannot exclude it, for it is an approj)riate and authoritative preface. 3. Luther, Pfeitfer, and others, take vv. 2-6 together as one commandment ; but, in order to gain the number ten, they divide v. 14 into two commandments: a. Ihou shalt not covet the house of thy neighbour; b. the remaining words of the verse. This is also the Masoretic division in Exodus. But it is unquestionable that V. 14 forms one commandment, as the house of the neighbour belongs quite as much to the individual enumeration of the forbidden ol)jects as his wife, his servant, or his cattle. Therefore the ooinion of those deseres G3S TER scarcely to be mentioned who, with regard to Deut. V. 18, take the words : ' Thou shalt not covet the wife of thy neighbour' as the ninth commandment, and the other words of the verse as the tenth precept. So Augustine, Bede, and Peter Lombard. If we carefully examine the contents of these verses we arrive at the conclusion, that tlie division of Origen is the most suitable and most logical; but, with the necessary modification, that the second and third verses form the first commandment. This division is already adopted by Josephus [Antiq. iii. 5, 5), who writes : ' The first commandment teaches us, that there is but one God, and that we ought to worship Him only; the second commands us not to make the image of any living thing to worship it.' The objection, which Ebn Ezra and others after him have raised against the separation of the tliird and fourth verse, namely, that poljrtheism and worship of images are identical, does not appear tenable ; for it is not impossible for a people to believe in one God, and yet to make images of him." (See Kalisch On Exodus. ) They have also been divided into two tables — some begin the second table with the fifth commandment — otliers jjlace five commandments on each, their essence iDeing love to God and loye to our neighbour, and the transitional precept being veneration for i^arents, who stand in God's stead to the child. (See Law, Sabbath, Testimony.) TENT. (See Dwellings.) TENTH DEAL, (See Measures.) TENT-MAKER (Acts xviii. 3). This is said to have been Paul's trade ; and it is supposed to have been the manufacture of tent-cloth. Some conjecture that he made curtains for military tents, the material of which was the goats' hair
- 38. of Cilicia. (See Paul.) TERAH (Gen. xi. 31, 32)- the father of Abraham, who accompanied him to Haran, in Mesopotamia, where he died at the age (^f two hundred and five, Abraham being then seventy-five years of age. He was an idolater. (See Abraham, Haran.) TERAPHIM (Judg. xvii, 5). From comparing Gen, xxxi. 19, 30, it would seem tliat this word sometimes denotes household idolgods or images. From Michal's attempts to imitate the form of David's recumbent person by a teraphim (1 Sam. xix. 13), it is jilain that they bore some resemblance to the human figure. Perhaps they were also applied to the forms or instruments (jf astrology, and so might be found in possession of those who were not idolaters. As the word is used by tlir prophet in relation to the state of the Je s (Hos. iii. 4), it probably means that that unhappy nation should be without any god, true or false; not only without sacrifice and ephod, which belonged to their religious system, but also without images and teraphim, which were parts of their idolatry. TERTULLUS (Acts xxiv. 1). Probably a Roman lawyer, who acted as prosecutor in tlie case of Paul before Felix. The Jews, being ignorant of the Roman forms- of Uw, &c.,
- 39. TES would naturally employ a person acquainted with them to manage their causes. TESTAMENT (Heb. ix. 15). The word testament, when ajiplied to our 8crii)tures (as the Old and New Testament), is used in tlie same sense with covenant. The old covenant is spoken of in Exod. xxiv. 8, and the new in Matt. xxvi. 28. The former was ratified by the blood of sacrifices, and the latter (of which the other was a type) was ratified by the blood of Christ. According to some critics, the word testament is also used by the sacred writers, as it is in modem times, to signify the instrument by which a man directs what disposition shall be made of his jiroperty after his death (Heb. ix. 16). It is well known that such an instrument takes effect only at the death of the testator (or he who makes the testament). Hence the apostle, in allusion to this fact, says in substance, that the death of Christ has the same effect on the covenant of redemption, which is the new testament, as the death of the testator has on his last will and testament— viz. , gives it force and validity. Others, however, have supposed that the apostle refers to the ancient custom of confirming covenants by sacrifices (Gen. XV. 8, 9), in reference to which it is true that a covenant was of no force so long as the victim by whose death it was to be confirmed was living. (See Covenant.) TESTIMONY, TESTIMONIES (Ps. cxix. 88, 99). These terms sometimes denote the whole revelation of God's will. They frequently occur in this sense in the above psalm. They also refer to the tables of stone, which were part of the covenant between God and the people of Israel (Exod. xxv. 16) ; and hence the ark in which they were deposited is called the "ark of the testimony" (Exod. xxv. 22). (See Ark.) The Gospel is also called the testimony, in 1 Cor. i. 6 ; Rev. i. 2, and elsewhere. (See Scripture, Witness.) TETRARCH (Matt. xiv. 1). This title was given to a sovereign prince, and strictly denotes one who governs the fourth part of a province or kingdom. In our Scriptures, however, it is applied to any one who governed a province of the Roman empire, whatever portion of the territory might be within his jurisdiction. The tetrarch Herod Antipas had the title of king (Matt. xiv. 9). THADDAEUS. (SeeJuDE.) THAMMUZ. (See Tammuz.) THANK
- 40. OFFERING. (See Offering.) THARSHISH. (See Tarshish.) THEATRE (Acts xix. 29, 31)— a place of public amusement, where popular assemblies, courts, elections. Sec, were often held. THEBEZ (Judg. ix. 50)— a city north-east of Shechem, within the territory of Ei)hraim, celebrated as the place where Abimekch was slain. It is 13 Roman miles from Nablous^ and is necially forbad theft, and the principle of punishment was restitution, varying in amount, but rising as the means of detection became more difficult. Thus, if a stolen animal were found alive in a man's jjossession, he was to restore two-fold ; but if it had been killed by him, four-fold or fivefold restitution was exacted of him. A housebreaker found in a dwelling during night might be killed by the owner without his "incuiTing the guilt of murder. (See Slavery.) THEOPHILUS— /orer of God (Luke i. 3)— a distinguished individual, probaljly of Greece or Rome, to whom, as his particular friend or patron, Luke addressed both his gospel and his history of the Acts of the Apostles. The title, "most excellent," probably denotes official dignity (Acts xxiii. 26; xxiv. 3; xxvL 25). (See Luke.) THESSALONIANS, epistles to the. These constitute the thirteenth and fourteenth in order of the books in the New Testament. They were written by the apostle Paul to tho church of the Thessalonians. (See ThessaLONicA. ) The first epistle was probably written near the close of A. D. 52 or beginning of 53. It is said to be the first in time and order of Paul's epistles. Its design is to establish the followers of Christ there in all those graces for which they were so conspicuous, and to encourage them, by the most affectionate and pointed exhortations, in seeking for higher attainments and richer consolations in the divine life. The fourth chapter is remarkable for the distinctness witli which it reveals the order of the general resurrection. It assures believers that their deceased brethren are not lost, but gone before, and it enjoins them to refrain from such bursts of unrelieved sorrow as characterized the heathen under their bereavements. As surely as Jesus rose, so will all believers rise. But some will not die— they will be alive at Christ's second coming ; but they shall not prevent, that is, go before them, who are asleep. The dead in Christ shall rise first— shall rise before the living are changed. The Lord himself is to descend at the awful
- 41. period of the resurrection— the armies of heaven shout at his march — a mighty voice is heard— followed by the peal of that trumjiet whicli shall startle all who sleep in their graves, and awaken them to consciousness and life. They who have long lain in their graves shall suffer no disadvantage on that account — they shall enjoy priority of resurrection — "shall rise first." The second epistle was written soon after the first, and seems to have been designed to con-ect some misapprehensions which had occurred respecting the first. An epistle also had been forged in Paul's name. The Thessalonian church seems to have supposed from his language that the day of the Lord was at hand, that the period of his advent was very nigh. The apostle corrects the mistaken notion, by declaring that ere that day shall come there mist be a great apostasy— the rise and development of the Mystery of Iniquity, presided 63&
- 42. THE over by tlie Wicked One, whom tlie Lord shall consume — and assisted by an infernal machinery, consisting of "power and signs and lying wonders, and all deceivableness of unrighteousness." At the same time it is the apostle's object to establish and encourage them in the works of faith and labours of love. The indolent and disorderly are reprimanded — persons perhaps given to idleness because, from a mistaken interpretation of the apostle's words, the last day was imagined to be at hand. THESSALONICA (Acts xxvii. 2) — the capital of one of the prsetorial districts of Macedonia. It is now called Saloniki, and is situated in Euro^Dean Turkey, at the northern extremity of the Gulf of Saloniki (formerly the Thermaic Gulf), 272 miles west of Constantinople; and, of the towns of European Turkej'", is, in point of commerce, second only to that city. Paul i>reached the Gospel in this city after being driven from Philippi, but the malice of the Jews soon compelled him to flee. Their enmity was especially fierce against the apostle of the Gentiles. Its population is estimated at 70,000. _ It was a station on the Via Egnatia ; and being a place of commerce, must have attracted many Jews. Paul and his associates, Timotheus and Silas (1 Thess. i. 1 ; ii. 1, 2), planted a church here about the year a. d. 52 ; and Aristarchus and Secundus were among the converts to the faith (Acts xx. 4; xxvii. 2). Two of his letters are addressed to the disciples of Christ in this citv. THEUDAS (Acts v, .36)— an insurgent referred to by Gamaliel, who headed 400 rebels and perished with them. Josephus mentions a Theudas as an insurgent, too, about ten years later. They must have been different persons, or Theudas may be another form of the name of Judas, who revolted ^t the close of Herod's reign. THIGH (Gen. xxiv. 2). The practice of putting the hand under the thigh might denote the obedience or subjection of the individual, or it might be connected with the rite of circumcision as a tokerj. of God's faithfulness. The inscription ui)on the thigh (Rev. xix. 16), alludes to the custom of inscribing the names and deeds of conquerors on their garments and weapons. The name might be inscribed on the sword, which was girded on the thigh, or on that part of the dress which covered the thigh. Jacob's fjnigh was smitten
- 43. by the angel (Gen. xxxii. 25), to show that he had supernatural power, and that he jdelded in mercy, and not ffom necessity. (See Jacob, Uncover.) THISTLES and THORNS (Gen. iii. 18). It is difficult to identify the species meant. These terms are generally connected in the Scriptures, and i)robably often denote any kind of useless, poxions, or thorny plants that grov/ spontaneously, to the annoyance of the husbandman and th,e great injury of his crops. The figurative use of these terms denotes desolation (Pro v. xxiv. 31 ; Isa. v. 6 ; llos. ii. 6; ix. 6; x. 8), the yisitatioiw of Ppo040 THI vidence (Num. xxxiii. 55 ; Judg. ii. 3 ; 2 Cor. xii. 7), difficulties and hindrances (Prov. xv. 19), and troubles (Prov. xxii. 5). Thorns and thistles formed a portion of the original curse. The earth was to bring them forth. The fecundity of some of those proofs and remnants of the curse is very extraordinary. Dr. Adam Clarke, in his Commentary, has made the following curious calculation : — "Another species, called the Acanthum vulgare, produces above 100 heads, each containing from 300 to 400 seeds. Sui)pose we say that these thistles produce at a medium only 80 heads, and that each contains only 300 seeds, the first crop from these would amount to 24,000. Let these be sown, and their crop will amount to 576 millions. Sow these, and their produce will be 13,824,000,000,000, or thirteen billions eight hundred and tAventy-four thousand millions ; and ^ single crop from these, which is only the third year's growth, would amount to 331,776,000,000,000,000, or three hundred and thirty-one thous9,nd seven hundred and seventysix billions ; and the fourth year's growth will amount to 7, 962, 624,000, 000, 000, 000, 000 or seven thousand nine hundred and sixty-two trillions, six hundred and twenty-four thousand billions. A progeny more than sufficient to stock not only the surface of the whole world, but of all the planets in the solar 'System ; so that no other plant or vegetable could possibly grow, allowing but the space of one square foot for each plant." The " crowning with thorns" (Matt, xxvii. 29) was probably the wanton invention of the Roman soldiery, and made no part of the established punishment. We are not certain as to the kind of thorns used : some suppose the white thorn, which grows in abundance near Jerusalem; some the acacia, and others the
- 44. acanthus, which blossoms in March. The object of the soldiers was to ridicule the idea of Christ being a king. It was not for torture that they chose to crown him ; so that it was impossible for them to have used a crown of thorns in the ordinary sense of the terms. It was a chaplet resembling the wreath of a king which they employed to mock him with, just as they put in his hand a reed for a sceptre, and threw ovep his shoulder a cast-off general's robe. The passage, "J will fence up thy way with thorns " (Hos, ii. 6), is forcibly illustrated by the remark of a modem traveller in Judea :— "As we rode through Riphah, we perceived it to be a settlement of about fifty dwellings, all very mean in their appearance, and every one fenced in fropt with thorn bushes, while a barrier of the same kind encircled the whole of the to wp, This was on e of the most effectual defences which they could have raised against the incursions of Arab horsemen — the only enemies whom they have to dread — as neither will the horse approach to entangle himself in these thickets of brier, nor could the I'ider, evep. if he dismounted, get over them, or remove them to clear a jjassage, without assistance from SOJiie ope withip,"
- 45. THO THOMAS (John xx. 24), one of the twelve a])ostles, was also called Didymus, " tlietwiu." We know little of his history : he seems to have been of a singular temperament, occasionally overcome by a dark and morbid melancholy. He was also wayward and slow of belief ( John xi. 16; xiv. 5; xx. 20-29), especially in the ideritity of the risen Saviour. It is supposed he was actively engaged in propagating the Gospel in the East Indies, and suffered martyrdom. There are numbers of Christians in the East who believe that they are the churches which this apostle originally planted, and they call themselves on that account Christians of St. Thomas. THORN IN THE FLESH (2 Cor. xii. 7-9). In order to understand the meaning of this dark i>hrase, it is necessary to glance at the context. The apostle Paul, like every public character whose labours have been crowned with success, excited the envy of many of his contemporaries ; and they, jealous of his fame and influence, exerted themselves to detract from his greatness by various mean and malignant insinuations and calumnies. Such opponents were easily refuted, as is evident from the former chapter, in which the apostle, with his usual vehemence and fervour, enumerates the various hardships and dangers which he had encountered in his speedy career. Inferior in no respect to any of his opponents, in those qualities from which they might derive their fancied superiority, Paul enjoyed also many privileges to which they had no pretension. " It is not expedient for me, doubtless, to glory. I will come to visions and revelations of the Lord." And yet with what modesty, with what reluctance, is this strange narration introduced— almost as if the apostle were not himself the person intended : " I knew a man in Christ. . . such an one caught up to the third heaven." The time when this revelation was vouchsafed is another proof of the apostle's delicacy. Fourteen years had elapsed since this transcendent favour had been conferred, and yet, during that period, so noble a cause of boasting had not been declared. In i^aradise Paul heard unspeakable words, litei'alJy, "unutterable utterances," "which it is not lawful for a man to utter." The things which he heard were so far beyond the reach of our present conceptions that no
- 46. language could be the vehicle of their communication. Even while labouring under common emotions, the mind often can grasp no word of sufficient power to depict its thoughts ; how much more when the awful realities of the etei*nal world, and the conversation and exercises of spirits unclogged ith an animal frame, are to be recorded and portrayed? Yet though words and images might have been found, still the utterance of such things would not have been lawful. The vail that cqvers futui-ity must not be drawn aside for the gaze of intrusive mortals; the glories which men are to seek must not be exposed to their vision; faith, "the evidence of things pot seen," must be 2t THO exercised. Sufficient information, with the reeen given on such topics; and now, "If they hear not Moses and the prophets, neither will they be persuaded thougdi one rose from the dead." Instead, however, of boasting of such honour, the apostle would "rather glory in his infiiTnities ;" and he proceeds to relate what happened to him after these visions : — " And lest I should be exalted above measure through the abundance of the revelations, there was given to me a thorn in the flesh, the messenger of Satan to buffet me, lest I should be exalted above measure." (2 Cor. xii. 7). In treating of this " thorn," commentators, from Chrysostom to Eichard Baxter, have attributed to the apostles those diseases or infirmities under which they laboured themselves. 1. Whatever the nature of this infliction, it was not any sinful propensity, as the medi^ seval divines supposed, "m the flesh" and no besetting sin could receive such an appellation, when its origin and promptings must have been in the soul ; nor can we conceive that such a punishment would be sent by the God of holiness, to humble the apostle after his exalted privileges. How could the apostle "glory in such an infirmity," or how coiild it, if restrained, be known to others, and make him appear contemptible? No vicious propensity, such as recluses and celibates dream of, can therefore be meant. 2. Nor could the infliction refer to any adversary, as some have thought, because the Canaanites are said to have been "thorns in the eyes of Israel." Whatever enemy the apostle had, such opposition must have pained his mind, not his flesh; nor could he exult in such animosity; nay, from the nature of his work, he could not be freed from it. 3.
- 47. Being " in the flesh," it could not be an}' natural defect ; for it was not in the flesh from his birth, but was given to him only after these revelations, and "given" to him by God. Nor could the apostle have prayed so fervently for the removal of any native deformity. 4. This " thorn in the flesh," therefore, was a corporeal infliction, and was sent after these visions, and for the purpose of preventing the apostle from being filled with spiritual pride. Twice in the same verse does he repeat the design, " lest I should be exalted above measure." Some, on very trivial grounds, have supposed it to have been a species of ophthalmia, becaiise he says to the Galatians, ' ' Where, then, is the blessedness ye spake of ? for I bear y
- 48. THO Eut that there was a peculiar species of corporeal weakness about the apostle is evident from various portions of his writings: — "My temx^tation, which was in my flesh, ye despised not nor rejected" — the last word means "nauseated" (Gal. iv, 14), May there not in this phraseology be an allusion to that infliction which followed his visions and revelations? The reference, both in his epistle to the Corinthians and in that to the Galatians, is to bodily ailment; and the thorn was emphatically a trial, the more severe as it succeeded an instance of unwonted favour. Now, as this weakness of body followed the vision so closely, may not the vision be introduced as having been its proximate cause? Mental excitement i^roduces an instant and overpowering effect on the body. Daniel relates that he fainted and was sick certain days after a communication from Gabriel. And might it not be fi-om a temporary stupefaction, induced by the "abitndance of the revelations," that the apostle w^as unable to tell "whether he was in the body or not?" If ordinary visions caused results such as those felt by Daniel, might not the vision of Paul, so extraordinary in its nature, i)roduce such an impression on the brain and nervous system as to leave a partial or epileptic paralysis, defect of speech, and distortion of countenance? From the manner in which Paul speaks in various places it is evident that his enemies scoffed at his infirmity, and that it was sometimes a hindrance to his success. But could the apostle glory in any quality belonging to himself by which the Gospel suffered? Why then did he glory in this infinnity? not certainly from its effects, but from its origin. Had it been a common infirmitj^, disqualifying him from serving Christ M'itli all that success which his energy and zeal might otherwise have secured, so far from being a subject of glorying, would it not have been a theme of sorrow and regret? But as it was so closely connected with visions and revelations of the Lord, though it was a terrible infliction, yet, as it always reminded him of those special tokens of his Saviour's love when he was caught up to the third heavens, was it not natural for him to glory, as does the warrior in the scars of a victorious field ? Had Paxil been favoured less, this effect might not have been
- 49. produced. While, therefore, he suffered what others were not called to_ endtire, he gloried in such suffering, as liaving residted from privileges which others were not invited to enjoy. Thus, in relating this mystei-ious portion of his history, might he say, "Yet of myself will I not glory, but in mine infirmities." Again, in this epistle, he alludes to some who said of him, "His Ix)dily presence is weak, and his speech contemptible;" and yet, to the same man as the god of eloquence, the inhabitants of Lystra would glady have "done sacrifice." What greater infliction, then, could Paul have experienced than the loss of rhetorical fluency and impressive G42 T^I^ delivery, both of which seem to have departed from him? And, as this chastisement must have been felt by the apostle in every public address, and must have produced a continued uneasiness, as contrasted with his original powers of oratory, how aptly is it styled a "thorn" or "stake" "in the flesh" — a deep puncture ; and the thoi-n, still rankling in the wound, causing intense and constant agony? And this visitation was " a messenger of Satan to buft'et him " — a mode of desciiption which very probably means that Satan took advantage of Paul's infii-mity to counteract his labours and expose him to contempt. How edifying the conduct of Paul under this dispensation! He resorted to prayer, and directed his supiDlications to Jesus, the "Lord" being a common appellation of the Saviour. Would Paul, in such circumstances, have prayed to a creature? Are not Christians still directed by a natural impulse ' ' to seek the Lord in their afltliction early?" THORNS. (See Thistles.) THOUGHT (Matt. vi. 34). "Take no thought for the morrow." At the time when the English version was made, the word "thought" meant anxious thought. Thus it is said in an old publication, ' ' Queen Catherine Parr died of thought;" *and Holland, an old writer, speaks of a man who died " for very thought and grief of heart." THREE. (See Number.) THREE TAVERNS (Acts xxviii. 15)-a place so called, perhaps, from the circumstance that three houses of public entertainment were established there. It was a station on the Appian road, about 33 miles from Rome ; and Paul, when on his Avay to Rome as a prisoner, was met at that place by some brethren from that city, who had heard of his approach. THRESH (Isa. xli. 15),
- 50. THRESHINGELOOR (Gen. L 10). The ancient threshingfloors were placed on elevations open on every side to the -wind. Though called floors, they were anciently nothing but plats of ground, levelled and rolled, so as to be as hard as a floor. The sheaves were thrown together in a loose heap, and the grain beaten out by a machine, or by the feet of oxen (Deut. xx . 4). The threshing-machine was formed vi a heavy square frame, with rollers, each of which was encircled by three or four iron rinu or wheels serrated like the teeth of a saw (Isa. xli. 15). The machine was di-awn by a pai. of oxen, the driver sitting on a cross-pioi fastened to the frame ; and as tlie heavy rollerpassed over it, the grain A'as crushed out on every side. Sometimes this frame was so constructed as to resemble a cart (Isa. xxviii. '27, 28), and furnishes a striking figure of violent! and destruction (Amos i. 3; Hab. iii. 12). After the grain was threshed and MdnnoAved (see Fan), the chaff and fine straw were collected on a neighbouring hill and burned (Isa. V. 24 ; Matt. iii. 12). lu Isa. xli. 15 "a new sharj) threshing in y
- 51. THE Btrument, havinj^ teeth," is mentioned, which haa been thus described : — It is a ])t)ard about 3 feet wide, 0 or 8 feet long, and 3 inches thick. Ou the lower side many holes are made, from an inch and a half to 2 inches, in which are fastened pieces of stone, flint, or iron. These project, it may be, from a half to three- quarters of an inch from the face of the board, and serve as teeth to tear the beards of the grain in pieces. Oxen are fastened to the forward end of the boards, and driven round the floor, drawing it after them. The driver of the oxen usually stands or sits on the instrument. The oxen are usually without muzzles, and are often, as they piiss around, taking up from time to time a few straws and feeding on them. After the grain is thus threshed out, it is stored, or "gathered into the gamer." The following cut represents Egyptians storing up the produce of the field : — THREsniNG-FLOOR OF Ornan. The apparent discrepancy between 2 Sam. xxiv. 24 and 1 Chr. xxi. 25 is reconciled by the jjrobable supposition, that in the former case nothing is included but the floor, oxen, and threshing machine; and in the latter, the whole hill whereon the temple was afterwards erected. (See Arauxah.) THRONE. (See Footstool.) THUMMIM. (See Vuui.) THUNDER (Ps. civ. 7). The sublime sound of thunder is described as the voice of God. In Ps. xxix. is a magnificent descrii^tion of a thunderstorm : — "The voice of Jehovah is upon the floods; The God of gloi-y thundereth ; Johovali is ui^on many waters. The voice of Jehovah is powerful ; Tlie voice of Jeliovah is in majesty. The voice of Jehovah shivereth tlie cPfTars; Yea, Jehovah shivereth the cedars of Lebauon " Thtmder was a fre^qnent accompaniment and attestation of the divine presence (Ps. xviii. 13 ; Ixxxi. 7 ; 1 Sam. xii. 17). In Jer. x. 13 occurs a description of an Eastern tornado. Moffat illustrates this inspired picture in the following paragi-aph :— " The peals of thunder are such as to make the very earth tremble. The lightning is of three descriptions: one kind passing from cloud to cloud; this is seldom accoinjianied with any rain. Another kind is the fc^rked, which may be seen x^Jissing through a cloud and striking the eai*th ; this is considered the most dangerous. The most conamon is what we are in the habit of calling
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