Presentation of Chapter 1-3 (Explanation w/ Examples)

PRESENTATION
OF CHAPTER 1-3
PRESENTED BY:
APRIL C. CA JUCOM, MA.ED
CARLOS F. GONZALES HIGH SCHOOL
MAGUINAO, SAN RAFAEL, BULACAN

WHAT IS VARIABLE?
A variable is any factor or property that a
researcher measures, controls, and/or
manipulates. It is also the changing quantity
or measure of any factor, trait, or condition
that can exist in differing amounts or types. It
is also a logical set of attributes,
characteristics, numbers, or quantities that
can be measured or counted. It is also called
a data item.

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
1. Numeric variables – these are variables with
values that describe a measurable numerical
quantity and answer the questions “how many”
or “how much”. These values are considered as
quantitative data.
• Continuous variable – these variables can
assume any value between a certain set of real
numbers.
• Discrete variable – these variables can only
assume any whole value within the limits of the

2. Categorical variables – these are variables with
values that describe a quality or characteristics of
data unit like “what type” or “what category”.
• Ordinal variables – these variables can take a value
which can be logically ordered or ranked.
• Nominal variables – these variables whose values
cannot be organized in a logical sequence.
• Dichotomous variables – these variables represent
only two categories.
• Polychotomous variables – these variables that
have many categories.

3. Experimental variables
• Independent variable – these variables are usually
manipulated in an experiment.
• Dependent variable – these variables are usually
affected by the manipulation of the independent
variables.
• Extraneous variables – these variables already
existing during the conduct of an experiment.
4. Non-experimental variables
• Predictor variables – these variables changes the
other variable/s in a non-experimental study.
• Criterion variables – these variables are usually

5. Variables according to the number being
studied.
a) Univariate study – only one variable is being
studied.
b) Bivariate study – two variables are being
studied.
c) Polyvariate study – more than two variables are
being studied.

RESEARCH TITLE
The title should have the following:
• Summarize the main idea of the paper;
• Be a concise statement of the main topic;
• Include the major variable/s;
• Show the relationship of the main variables of
the study;
• Include the main task of the researcher about
the major variables under study; and
• Mention the participants (in a general
and the setting.

The researcher must be reminded of the following:
• In formulating the title, the researcher should
avoid using words that serve no useful
purposes . The words methods, results,
investigations, and study appear redundant
when use in the thesis title.
• The title must have 10 to 15 words.

Examples of Thesis Title
1. Frequency of Tardiness and Level of Support of
Parents Among High School Students in
Selected Public Schools
2. Testing the Efficient Market Hypothesis on the
Philippine Peso-Dollar Rates
3. Effects of Peer Pressure on the Habit-forming
Behavior of Honor Students
4. Evaluation of the Services of Bangko Sentral ng
Pilipinas: Basis for Service Enhancement
5. Work Values and Job Satisfaction Level of

TITLE RESEARCH:
AN EXPERIMENT ON THE METHODS OF TEACHING AND
LANGUAGE ACHIEVEMENT AMONG ELEMENTARY PUPILS
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: METHOD OF TEACHING
DEPENDENT VARIABLE: LANGUAGE ACHIEVEMENT
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE: VENTILATION FACILITIES

CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING
RESEARCH PROBLEM
A. External Criteria
1. Novelty – the topic must not have been used
by many researchers.
2. Availability of subjects – since this is practical
research, it is suggested that you think of
study participants who are within your reach.
3. Administrative support – refers to the aid or
assistance that can be solicited from the
school or extended by the community.

4. Availability and adequacy of facilities and
equipment – devices such as computers,
telephones, WiFi, etc. used in undertaking the
research must be considered.
5. Ethical Considerations – ensure that all activities
to be undertaken are acceptable and are done
in accordance with what is legal and morally
right.

B. Internal Criteria
1. Experience, training, and professional
qualifications – constitute the researcher’s
knowledge, expertise, and experience in order
for him/her to cope with the research
2. Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity, and
perceptiveness of the researcher – these are
essential attitudes that bring anticipated
satisfaction or enjoyment in the completion of
research tasks.

3. Time factor – considers the fact that studies
must be pursued in a given time frame.
4. Costs and returns – these factors matter in
choosing a research problem. Research is an
expensive undertaking.
5. Hazards, penalties, and handicaps – are
determined by the researcher’s physical and
intellectual capacity and moral judgment.

THE INTRODUCTION
The introduction is very important in establishing
the cognitive setting of the research and it involve
(a) discussing why these is a need to study the
problem
(b) clarifying the important terminologies for the
reader to easily understand what the research is
about, and
(c) establishing the degree of seriousness of the
problem which has prompted the researcher to
look for solutions.
The introduction must only be short and concise. It

The following questions will aid the researcher in
formulating the introduction:
1. What is the rationale of the research problem? –
This question is answered by sharing with the
beneficiaries the reasons why the researcher has
decided to look for solutions to the problem.
Examples:
• Personal Experience
• Article Read
• Witness
• News Heard
• Theory that needs to be clarified

The research proponent should describe the
existing and prevailing problem situation based on
his/her experience. The scope may be local,
national, or international.

2. What is the setting of the research problem? –
The setting forms part of the delimitation of the
problem, as it defines the geographic boundaries
of the study and implies certain demographic
characteristics.
Examples:
• If the setting is a school
• Discuss its vision-mission
• Special clientele
• Unique mode of student transportation
3. What is the basic literature foundation of the
study? – This is different from the review of related

This part defines or clarifies the terms or
variables used in the study. The terms and
variables must be clear to the researcher so that
he/she can make his/her reader understand them
as well. This backgrounder assist the researcher in
determining the boundaries of the study.

4. How serious is the chosen research problem? –
Why is there a need to look for solutions to the
problem? In the aspect, the researcher must see
intensity and magnitude of the problem.
5. What is the general objective of the research
problem? – This is derived from the general
statement of the problem and should be the basis
of the enumerated statements of specific problems.
6. What is the overall purpose of the research
problem? – It must be stressed that the researcher
should be totally aware of the purpose of the
research problem.

Example:
Introduction
Globalization implies a unique set of managerial
skills that indicates a good degree of consistency in
the qualities required to be called a global manager.
International setting, managerial competencies are
skills, motives and attitudes necessary to a job, and
include such as characteristics as communication skills
problem solving and the ability to work within a team.
In the Philippines, there is Office Performance
Commitment and Review Form (OPCRF) administered
by the Department of Education (DepEd) which is an

performance rating given to school administrators and
school heads to measure the core behavioral
competencies over the range of setting direction,
instructional leadership, learning environment, human
resource management and development, leadership
and governance, school community-partnership, and
physical facilities development. Overall competency
are ratings of school administrators to give a prompt
glint of the present managerial outcome and in the
operation of the school.
In relation with this, teachers competencies are
stated as one of the domain of the National

Education (DepEd) and also served as criterion to
justify that teachers are effective supplemented
towards students. Therefore, managerial
competencies of school administrators enrich teachers’
capability to design fair and just system,
understanding and able to accept the differences of
teachers’ abilities, experiences, and family
backgrounds and create harmonious and efficient
teaching strategy and learning method. A good and
competent school heads are the most crucial portion
in refining teachers’ performance and end with high
performance of school. Most schools don’t explain

because if it is not surely describe, school
administrators; school heads may not be sensible and
assumption to enhance dry run exercises or
competencies in the school, which consistently may
influence teachers’ performance adversary and
managerial competencies of school administrators.
The School Division of Bulacan usually bring beyond
to do more than expected the limits of excellence and
give the “Total Quality of Basic Education Services”
that school should give to the learners. Students are
competitive in terms of academics and well equipped
using technology. Awards and recognition received by

that school administrators and teachers do their role
as good manager and instructional leader.
With these, the researcher was inspired to conduct
this study in order to determine the managerial
competencies of school administrators and teachers’
performance in the Division of Bulacan which provided
inputs in the design and development of an Executive
Training Plan. Moreover, the intent of this study was
idealized to open up and advocate the school
administrators, enhancement of competencies which
are necessary for effectuating efficient, committed,
dedicated and enthusiastic school administrator

THE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The first chapter of the research study is entitled
“The Problem” or “The Problem and Its
Its purpose is to introduce the research problem,
clarify important variables, discuss its delimitation, and
specify its significance to the field of the study. It has
the following essential elements:
a) Introduction
b) Statement of the Problem
c) Scope and Delimitation
d) Significance of the Study
e) Notes in Chapter 1

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
When we speak of the significance of the study, we
are identifying the beneficiaries and the benefits it will
give when the problem is solved. The beneficiaries
include the individuals like students, pupils, teachers,
doctors, principals, parents, and others; the
government; non-governmental
The sequence of the beneficiaries of the research
starts from the most benefited to the least benefited.
The benefits must be specific and arranged according
to the degree of significance.

Significance of the Study Example (David, 2014)
This study will be greatly importance to the following:
Pupils. As the center of educational system, pupils
will benefit from this study if their teachers will
enhance their work performance by improving their
financial literacy. Pupils will surely acquire the
expected competencies they need to learn from
financially literate teachers. This can also provide
pupils insights on how to improve their knowledge
skills in handling their finances as exemplified by their
financially literate teachers.

Teachers. This will provide the springboard for the
teachers to reflect on their knowledge, attitudes, and
behavior regarding financial matters. Eventually they
will become masters of their own financial games that
will make them productive and financially secured
individuals. In effect, better work performance will be
demonstrate by teachers for the betterment of their
learners.
School Administrators. This will provide school
administrators ideas on the importance of financial
literacy to the work performance of teachers. It will
serve as a basis for them to develop programs that

enhance the financial knowledge, attitude, and behavior
of teachers. In addition, this will help them decide to
include financial education as part of the basic education
curriculum. As Lusardi et. al (2009) said, people should be
educated about financial matters as early as possible in
their lives. Financial education should start from the
primary school and should be an integral part of good
governance of financial institutions to promote
accountability and responsibility.
Parents. This will help them realize the importance
of financial education in human life. This will lead to them
educate themselves financially for their own financial well
being. This will also motivate them to teach their children

THE CONCEPTUAL/THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
What is Framework?
A framework is similar to a skeleton. It is a basic
structure or frame of reference which is designed to
support or enclose something (Merriam-Webster,
As a skeleton gives shape, form, and strength to the
body so it can stand erect, so do the different
concepts and theories. These concepts and theories
serve as the building blocks (or the “skeleton”) for the
foundation or bases of the study.

Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework which may be
formulated from an existing theory/ies serves as the
foundation of the study. In such case, the paradigm
that is originally used by the theorist can be fully
adopted in the present study.
The word“theory” is derived from the Greek word,
theoria, which means“vision”. A theory is a conceptual
idea that is used to describe, explain, predict, or
understand a certain phenomenon.

Theoretical Framework Example 1
This study is anchored on the theory of Bigg (2004)
and Friedman (1970). The business ethics theory by
Bigg is based on the wider social obligation and the
moral duty that business has toward society.
According to this theory, there are three (3) varied
interrelated ethical grounds. These are changing and
emerging social responsiveness and social
expectations to particular social problems; eternal
intrinsic values that are inspired by ethics and
by some normative and universal principles of social
justice, fairness,

corporate social obligations are regarded often as a
strategic instrument for corporate competitive benefit
and more profit gain.
It is, therefore, noted that although the business
enterprise’s mission is to have profits, they should not
forget giving back to the shareholders or clients the
appropriate returns not only on the quality of their
products but also in some other ways like attending to
some obligations through the different programs that
will benefit the community they are serving. (Cristobal
& Montella, 2016)

Conceptual Framework
The explanation of the scope and range of a
concept or construct can be done even without a
theory or, in some cases, with a combination of two
more theories which lead to a researcher’s
framework. This is called a conceptual framework.
Paradigm of the Study
The result of a clear understanding of the
conceptual or theoretical framework is a
presentation of the study called the paradigm.

The common paradigms or models of the study used
are as follows:
1. IPO model (Input-Process-Output). This model is
largely used when the research attempts to isolate
the factor or major variable that causes the
problem, subject, or phenomenon under
investigation. This model is used when the
statements of the problem are all factor isolating
questions.

Example:
• Profile of
entrepreneurs
a)Age
b)Sex
c)Seminars attended
• Roles of
entrepreneurs
a)Assessment
b)Planning
c)Implementation
d)Evaluation
Analysis of
data
through the
questionnair
e, informal
interviews,
and
statistical
treatment
Profile and
roles of
entrepreneurs
are determined
Figure 12.1. Sample of IPO Model
Entrepreneurs’ Roles Toward Improved Work
Performance

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
It will be difficult to conduct any research unless a
clear problem is initially stated. Stating the problem
helps the researcher clarify various essential elements
of research such as the major variables, the general
and specific objectives, and the appropriate
methodology.
The opening paragraph of this part of the research
paper containes the general problem of the study. It
has to be restated with specific details on the
participants, setting, and period of study.

The important elements in the statement of the
general problem are:
• Main tasks – they satisfy the question, “what to
with the major variables such as to associate, to
relate, to assess, to measure, to determine, etc.
• Main or major variables
• Participants: subjects or respondents
• The specific setting
• Coverage date of the conduct of study
• For the developmental research, the intended
outputs such as an intervention program, module,
policies, among others.

The following are example of a general problem:
1. The main problem of this research problem is to
look into influence of video games and the
utilization of social media on the language
proficiency of the freshman students of Leyte
National High School for the first semester of
academic year 2014-2015. The result of this
investigation will be the basis of the formulation of
guidelines in the development, organization, and
implementation of effective study habits.
2. This study aims to assess the behavioral habits
traits of senior high school students and to relate

them to the productivity level in reviewing lessons
and passing the long examinations. This study is to
be conducted during the first semester of SY 2016-
2017 in the Division of Palo, Leyte.
3. This investigation aims to assess the level of
performance of technical-vocational instructors
and relate it to the efficiency level of senior high
school management students undergoing on-
the-job training in selected businesses in Palo,
Leyte during the school year 2014-2015.

There are two general types formulated in
research. These are the non-researchable and
researchable questions.
Non-researchable questions are questions of
value that are answerable by yes or no.
Example:
• Should master teachers be watchful over their
new students?
Researchable questions are questions of value,
opinion, or policy raised to gather data and it
involves the use of question words such as who,

The general problem is followed by an
enumeration of the specific problems. The specific
problems are usually stated as questions that the
researcher seeks to answer.
The specific problems must meet the following
criteria:
1. They must be in question form;
2. They must define the population and the
sample (that is, the respondents or subjects) of
the study;
3. They must identify the variables (major and

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Factor-isolating Questions (“What is this”) – They are
sometimes called their factor naming questions.
isolate, categorize, describe, or name factors and
situations.
Example:
1. What is the profile of the school managers in
terms of:
1.1. Age;
1.2. Management experience;
a) educational attainment;
b) Management training?

Factor-Relating Questions (“What is happening
here”) – Their goal is to determine the relationship
among factors that have been identified. These are
usually questions for a non-experimental type of
research.
Examples:
1. How does the study habits influence the
achievement level of the Grade 11 students in
their major subjects?
2. What is the significant association between the
nature and economic status of the family and the

Situation-relating questions (“What will happen
if..?”) – These questions usually yield hypotheses
testing or experimental study designs in which the
researcher manipulates the variables to see what will
happen.
Examples:
1. What are the effects of the traditional methods of
teaching on the level of performance of the ABM
students?
2. How significantly different is the performance of
the morning call center agents to that of evening
call center agents?

Situation-producing questions (“How can I make it
happen?”) – These questions establish explicit goals
for actions, develop plans or prescriptions to achieve
goals, and specify the conditions under which these
goals will be accomplished.
Examples:
1. What policy is to be formulated to manage the
effective involvement of high school students in
social media?
2. What faculty development activities could be
developed based on the results of the study?

THE HYPOTHESIS AND ASSUMPTIONS
OF THE STUDY
Hypothesis of the Study
A hypothesis is a tentative prediction about the
relationship between two or more variables in a
population under study (Polit, 2007).
It is also considered an intelligent guess that
occurs with at least 2 variables: one is independent
and the other is dependent.

Kinds of Hypotheses
1. Simple Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis
formulated when predicting a relationship
between an independent variable and a
dependent variable.
Examples:
a) The nature of teachers is related to the nature
the students.
b) There is a relationship between the level of
exercise and weight retention among
elementary school children.

2. Complex hypothesis. It is a hypothesis formulated
when predicting the relationships of two or more
independent variables to two or more dependent
variables.
Examples:
a) There is no significant relationship between the
profile, classroom leadership, and management
skills and the school’s performance of Sunday
school teachers.
b) The personal profile and professional profile of
subject coordinators affect the level of
performance of the teachers.

3. Directional hypothesis. It is a hypothesis that
specifies not only the existence but also the
expected direction of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables.
Examples:
a) Lower levels of exercise are associated with
weight retention than higher levels of exercise.
b) The types of promotional campaigns positively
affect the level of patronage of customers.
c) The higher the intake of fiber, the lower is the
weight of the physical mass.

4. Non-directional hypothesis. It is a hypothesis that
does not stipulate the direction of the relationship
between the independent and dependent
variables.
Examples:
a) Women with different levels of postpartum
depression differ with regard to weight retention.
b) The source of stress are related to the different
coping mechanism among teachers.
c) The number of hours spend in reviewing is
associated with the level of performance in

5. Null Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis formulated for
the purpose of statistical analysis.
a) There is no significant relationship between the
reasons for using alternative medicine and the
level of comfort of the patients.
b) The kind of teaching methods used has no effect
on the level of performance of students as shown
in their academic grades and behavior in class.
c) The traits of the middle-level managers do not
significantly affect the productivity level of crews
food chains.

6. Research Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis which
states the actual expected relationships
variables. It is always expressed affirmatively
is called substantive or scientific hypotheses.

ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY
The study or research assumptions are
propositions taken to be true based upon the
presupposition without preponderance of the
facts. These propositions often refer to the
different variables or sub-variables being studied.

Assumptions of the Study Example 1
Relationship Between the Psychosocial Health Effects
of Stress and the Coping Mechanisms of Nursing
Student Mothers (Ancero, et.al., 2010)
The following assumptions are enumerated by the
researchers:
1. Disorders can be acquired from abnormal stress
response.
2. Different sources of stress can be managed
through a healthy way of response.
3. Managing stress with exercise of stress can
negative physical and mental health effects.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
The important terms used in the study must be
defined clearly. Some of these terms appear in the
thesis title, statement of the problem, theoretical
paradigm, and in the scope and delimitation of the
study.
When a term is defined using books and
dictionaries then it is defined conceptually. On the
other hand, when the definition of the terms is
based on how it is used in the study, it is defined

A combination of the two methods is often helpful.
Terms that are defined must be arranged
alphabetically. Moreover, before defining the
enumerated or listed terms must be an opening
sentence or an introductory paragraph.
a) Terms that are defined conceptually:
• Human Resource Management. It is the term
to describe formal system devised for the
management of people within an organization. The
responsibilities of a human resource manager fall
into three major areas: staffing, employee

• Individual Performance Committee and Review
Form (IPCRF). This is the form that shall reflect the
individual commitments and performance, which
shall be accomplished by teachers. (DepEd Order
No.2, series 2015).
b. Terms that are defined operationally:
• Executive training plan. Refers to the plan designed
for school administrators in the Division of Bulacan
order to improve their managerial competencies
later would result to better teachers’ performance.
• School administrator. Refers to the principal/school
head, department head and key coordinators in a
particular.

THE SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE
STUDYThe scope of the study is determined by the major
variables of the study while sub-variables and their
characteristics, attributes, or indicators, serve as the
delimitation.
A variable is any factor or property that a researcher
researcher measures, controls, and/or manipulates. It
may be a concept or a construct.
A concept is generally accepted collection of
characteristics that can be defined by a dictionary and
commonly used by an educator.

A construct is a new characteristics that results from
the conduct of research.
In formulating the“scope and delimitation”, it is
essential that the researcher has already defined the
major variables of the study which are contained in the
title of the research and in the general statement of
the problem.
The delimitation pertains to the boundaries of the
study with respect to the major variable/s, and is
further clarified by the sub-variables.
The indicators the concepts or ideas the researcher
has gathered from reading various literature regarding

Selecting the sub-variables can be objectively done
by determining the reasons why the researcher has
chosen them as the delimitations. Therefore, the
empirical evidence, as well as the author/s of the
literature upon which the researcher bases his decision
must be noted or referred to.
Example:
Scope (Major variable/s) – level of behavior
Delimitation (Sub-variables) – facial expressions during
recitation, communication skills, body gestures.
Indicators – for facial expressions (Note: This can be
measured or quantified using the Likert scale point

Scope and Delimitation Example (Lisud, 2014)
This study focused on three major variables of
clinical supervision, common responses to the
classroom observation, and the level of performance.
The conduct of clinical supervision concentrated in
the areas of diversity of learners; content and
pedagogy; and planning, assessing, and reporting
learner’s outcomes. The content and pedagogy as a
sub-variable was sub-divided into teacher behavior in
actual teaching and learner’s behavior in the
classroom. The common responses of the elementary
teachers with respect to the classroom observation

was assessed before, during, after the conduct of the
said activity. Lastly, the level of performance was
determined through the result of the competency-
based performance appraisal system for teachers.
The fourteen elementary schools in the District of
Limay were the schools where the study was
conducted. These elementary schools were the
Alangan ES, Arsenal ES, Bacong ES, Bliss ES, Carbon ES,
Duale ES, Gabaldon, ES, Kinaragan ES, Kitang ES,
Lamao ES, Bo.Lus ES, Peas ES, and St. Francis ES. The
principals and Grade-VI teachers of the
abovementioned schools served as the respondents of

This study utilized important documents and the
competency-based performance appraisal system for
teachers during the AY 2012-2013.

THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Related literature is also called conceptual
literature. Gathering literature related to the
research is very important to clarify the different
variables being studied. The related literature
removes any unclear surrounding concepts central
to the study. If the review of related literature and
studies are gathered appropriately and adequately,
the different research variables and the delimitation
of the study are determined. The indicators per
variable are likewise identified and objectively

All indicators are clearly based on read articles from
different published materials like:
LOCAL/FOREIGN LITERATURE LOCAL/FOREIGN STUDIES
• Reference books • Thesis
• Textbooks • Dissertation
• Manuals
• Encyclopedia
• Dictionaries
• Broadsheets
• Journals
• Periodicals
• Online Sources

Tips in Writing the Review of Related Literature
1. Open web sources are not usually considered
reliable sources for academic research.
2. Place each work in the context of its contribution
to the understanding of the subject under review.
3. Describe the relationship of each work to the
others under consideration.
4. Identify new ways to interpret and shed light on
any gaps in previous research.
5. Resolve conflicts between or among previous
studies arising from obviously or seemingly
contradictory ideas.

6. Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent
duplication of effort.
7. Point the way forward for further research.
8. Place one’s original work in the context of
existing literature.

Review of Related Literature (Examples)
Local Literature
DepEd Order No. 32,s. (2010) otherwise known as
“National Adoption and Implementation of the
Competency Based Standard for School Heads
(NCBSSH) defines the standard through the domains
and strands which can be used as basis for the school
head’s decision making, actions and performance of
their functions. It shall be used as basis for preparation
of the comprehensive training and development based
on expected tasks that will be utilized to deliver supply-
driven training programs to ensure efficient, effective

Foreign Literature
Mani (2010) stressed that evaluation and
performance is equally as important to education. It
becomes the key to a good system. It makes the
difference between viewing teaching as a “job” and
viewing it as a “profession”. It has two education
implications. First, it improves school services and
makes worthy of public respect. Second, enthusiastic
teachers communicate their satisfaction and approval
not only to students, but also to parents and public.
Good teachers are valuable assets to any school
system.

Local Studies
In the study of Goden, Lumbab, & Coton, (2016), it
aimed to determine the influence of school heads’
instructional competencies on the teachers’.
Management behavior in Leyte division, Philippines.
The descriptive-correlational design was adopted with
the use of survey questionnaire as the tool in data
gathering. The teacher’s performance for the last.
years was very satisfactory. The level of instructional
competence of the school heads fell on the
category. In professional competency, the school
evaluated their teachers very competently. The school

The authors concluded that the management
behavior of the school heads was highly effective. In
the areas key processes and core components, the
school heads were highly effective. The instructional
competencies of the school heads did not relate or
affect their management behavior.

Foreign Studies
According to Akinfolarin and Rufai (2017), there
must be a good communication mechanism among
teachers’, students’ and school administrators’ within
and outside the school for goals achievement at all
levels of education. The presence of good
and communication system in school management
will help to carry teachers’ and students’ along with
school aims and objectives which would motivate
them for improved teaching and learning process.
Some facilities in our schools are underutilized while
some are over utilized and some are not available.

are not adequate or mismanaged. Material
resource management functions include
planning, procuring, storing, utilization and
maintenance of school facilities to enhance the
quality of teaching and learning process. Also,
periodic inspection of school facilities should be
carried out by stakeholders in the education
industry in order to identify the areas that are
deficient for solution.

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1. Research Design – it is a very important aspect of
research methodology which describes the
research mode.
2. Respondents of the Study – this describes the
target population and the sample frame.
3. Instruments of the Study – it describes the specific
type of research instrument that be used such as
questionnaire, checklist, questionnaire-checklist,
interview schedule, teacher-made tests, and the
like.

4. Establishing and validating reliability – the
instrument must pass the validity and reliability
tests before it is utilized.
5. Statistical Treatment – one of the many ways of
establishing the objectivity of research findings
is by subjecting the data to different but
appropriate statistical formulas and processes.

1.Purpose of Objectives
a) Descriptive – this design is utilized for the
purpose of accurately portraying a population
that has been chosen because of some specific
characteristics.
b) Comparative – this design is used to compare
compare and contrast representative samples
from two or more groups or subjects in relation
to certain designated variables that occur in
normal condition.

c) Correlational – the design is used to investigate
the direction and magnitude of relationships
among variables in a particular population.
d) Evaluative – this design involves making a
judgement of worth or value.
Research Design Example
This study is quantitative in nature since the
questions posed will be answered by numerical data.
Specifically, this investigation utilized a true
experimental design or a pre - post test design
(Cristobal, 2009). In a pre-post design a pretest was

given to students of Algebra. Then, after the
pretest, an intervention method was concluded.
Polynomials were taught using a computer
program. After 10 hours of teaching, a posttest was
given to students.

PARTICIPANTS OF THE STUDY
Subjects can be individuals or groups to which
interventions or processes are applied.
The participants or respondents are individuals
or groups of people that serve as the sources of
information during the data collection.
The population is composed of persons or
objects that possess some common characteristics
that are of interest to the researcher

There are two groups of population: the target
population and the accessible population. The
target population consists of the entire group of
people or objects to which the finding of the study
generally apply. Meanwhile, the accessible
population is the specific study population.
A parameter is a numeric characteristic of a
population.
It is very impractical for the researcher to get
data from the entire population especially if it is
very large; in this case, a sample is derived.

A sample is a subset of the entire population
or a group of individuals that represents the
population and serves as the respondents of the
study.
A statistic is a numeric characteristic of a
sample.
A single member of the sample is called an
element.

Ways to Determine the Sample Size
An important task of the researcher is to
determine the acceptable sample size. The larger
sample, the more reliable, the result of the study.
Hence, it is advisable to have a large enough
for it will yield more reliable results.
Factors to Consider in Determining the Sample Size
1. Homogeneity of the Population – the higher the
degree of variation within the population, the
smaller the sample size that can be utilized.

2. Degree of precision desired by the researcher –
a large sample size will result in greater precision
or accuracy of results.
3. Types of sampling procedure – probability
sampling utilizes smaller sample sizes than non-
probability sampling.
4. The use of formulas
a) Slovin’s formula – it is used to compute for
sample size (Sevilla, 2003). This formula is used
when you have limited information about the
characteristics of the population and are using a
non-probability sampling procedure. (Ellen,

n = N
1 + Ne2
Where:
n = a sample size
N = population size
e = desired margin of error

Kinds of Sampling
1. Probability Sampling – this is a type of sampling in
which all members of the population are given a
chance of being selected. This is also called
scientific sampling.
a) Simple Random Sampling – this is a method of
choosing samples in which all the members of the
population are given an equal chance to be
as respondents.
b) Stratified Random Sampling – the population is
first divided into different strata then the sampling
follows. Age, gender, and educational qualifications
are just some of the criteria used in dividing the

c) Cluster Sampling – this is used in large-scale
studies in which the population is geographically
spread out. In these cases, sampling procedures
may be difficult and time-consuming.
d) Systematic Sampling – it is a method of selecting
every nth element of the population (e.g., every
fifth, eighth, ninth, or eleventh element).
2. Non-probability Sampling – this is a process of
selecting respondents in which the members of
entire population do not have an equal chance of
being selected as samples.

There are cases in which a sample is given priority
instead of other members. This is also termed as non-
scientific sampling.
a) Convenience Sampling – it is also called
accidental or incidental sampling.
b) Quota Sampling – it is somewhat similar to
stratified sampling in which the population is
divided into homogenous strata and then sample
elements are selected from each stratum.
c) Purposive Sampling – it involves the handpicking
of subjects. This is also called judgmental
sampling.

Respondents and Sampling Procedure Example 1
The researcher chose the 4th year college students
of Saint Paul School of Professional studies taking up
Bachelor of Science in Accountancy as the
of this study. This was practical to the researcher since
he belonged to this class, would have no difficulty in
talking with his classmate, and would save time,
energy, money and efforts.
This fourth year Batch Siklab had a total population
of 400. It was large; thus, the sampling method was
applied to come up with an acceptable number of
samples. The researcher used the Slovin’s

formula (N/1+Ne) with a desired margin of error of
.05. He arrived at a sample size of 200. To choose the
final 200 samples, simple random sampling was
applied to give all elements a chance to be included in
the sample.
All students in each block of Batch Siklab during the
sampling was equally given a chance since their names
was put in a fish bowl. Then, the 200 students picked
up comprised the respondents.

INSTRUMENT OF THE STUDY
Most Frequently Used Data Collection Techniques
1. Documentary Analysis – this technique is used
analyze primary and secondary sources that are
available mostly in churches, schools, public or
private offices, hospitals, or in community,
municipal, and city halls.
2. Interview – the instrument used in this method is
the interview schedule. The skill of the
determines if the interviewee is able to express
his/her thoughts clearly.

4. Psychological Tests – these include personality
inventories and projectile techniques. Personally
inventories are self-reported measures that assess the
differences in personality traits, needs, or values of
people.
5. Questionnaire – it is the most commonly used
instrument in research. It is a list of questions about a
particular topic, with spaces provided for the response
to each question, and intended to be answered by a
number of persons (Good, 1984)

Types of Questions
a) Yes or No Type – items are answerable by “yes” or
“no”.
Example:
• Do caregivers have the right to refuse calls?
()Yes () No
b) Recognition type – alternative responses are
already provided, and the respondents simply
choose among the given choices.
Example:
____ Home Economics _____ Automotive
____ Agriculture _____ Others, please specify

c) Completion type – the respondents are asked to fill in
the blanks with the necessary information. Questions
are open-ended.
Example:
When I see a misbehaving student, I will, as a teacher,
_________________________________
In order to pass my failing subjects, I will _____________
regularly.
d) Coding type – numbers are assigned to names,
choices, and other pertinent data.
Example:
• On a scale of one (1) to ten (10), how will you rate the
skills of your manager?

Wordings of Questions
1. State questions in an affirmative rather than in a
negative manner.
2. Avoid ambiguous questions.
3. Avoid double negative questions.
4. Avoid double-barreled questions.
Scales Commonly Used in an Instrument
1. Likert Scale – it is a common scaling technique
which consists of several declarative statements
that express a viewpoint on a topic. The
respondents are asked to indicate how much they
agree or disagree with the statements.

Example: Likert Scale to measure attitudes towards by
Mathematics.
Legend: SA –Strongly Agree A – Agree
D –Disagree SD – Strongly Disagree
2. Semantic differential scale – the respondents are
asked to rate concepts in a series of bipolar
adjectives. It has an advantage of being flexible and
easy to construct.
Example: Description of the class president
SA A D SD
I enjoy using calculator
Symbols and Numbers are visibly catchy
Competent 5 4 3 2 1 Incompetent

Data-Gathering Instrument Example 1
Competency-based Modular Learning Material
in Chemistry for Third Year Students: An Action
Research. Tacloban: Unpublished Thesis, Asian
Development Foundation College, Inc.
The instrument employed in the study were the
achievement test for the students and survey
questionnaire for the teacher. These two
instruments were described as follows.
Achievement Test for Students. The achievement
test was a 100 item-test that was developed by the
researcher and designed to

determine the achievement level of third year high
school students in Chemistry. The content of the
test was on the Philippine Secondary School
Competencies.
The Survey Questionnaire for the Teacher. The
survey questionnaire for the teacher is composed of
three parts. It elicited to what extent the skills in
Chemistry were developed among the third year
high school students, the techniques used by the
teacher in teaching the subject, and the problems
encountered in teaching concepts relative to the

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE
INSTRUMENT
Validity
It is the ability of an instrument to measure what
it intends to measure. When a study investigates
the common causes of absences, the content of
instrument must focus on these variables and
indicators.
Types of Validity
1. Face Validity – also known as logical validity,
face validity involves an analysis of whether the

2. Content validity – this is determined by
studying the questions to see whether they are
able to elicit the necessary information. An
instrument with high content validity has to
meet the objectives of the research.
3. Construct validity – this refers to whether the
test corresponds to its theoretical construct.
4. Criterion-related validity or equivalence test –
this type of validity is an expression of how
scores from the test are correlated with an
external criterion.

Establishing the Validity and Reliability of an
Instrument (Example 1)
Data Gathering employed two (2) sets of survey
questionnaires for the students and for the teachers.
These sets developed by the researcher with the
approval of the advisory committee. Pre-testing was
done to improve the survey questionnaire for the
students at the Dona Juana Chico National High
School and for the teachers at the Rizal National
School. These students and teachers did not serve as
respondents of the study.

ensure clarity and to determine whether they could
yield data needed for the study. The pre-test results
showed a Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient of
0.923 indicating a good reliability of the instrument. As
a rule, Cronbach’s alpha must be at least 0.80 to be
considered reliable.

STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA
Statistical treatment is the culmination of the long
process of formulating a hypothesis, constructing the
instrument, and collecting data. It is used to properly
test the hypothesis, answer the research questions,
and present the results of the study in a clear and
understandable manner.
In qualitative research, data are validated by
document analysis, ethnomethodology, and
observation studies.
In quantitative research, it deals more with
numerical data, as in most surveys and experiments, it

Statistical Treatment Example 3
The researcher will use the following statistical
treatment to process the data:
1. Percentages. According to Calmorin (1997)
the percentage is a way of expressing a
proportion, a ratio, or a fraction of a whole
number by using 100 as a denominator.
Formula: Percentage = F/N x 100%
Where:
F – frequency
N - population

2. Weighted Mean, this refers to the set of data
taken from the average of the population
(Broto, 2006).
Formula: WM = ∑fx
N
Where:
WM – weighted mean
∑fx – sum of the products of the frequency
with weights
N – sample size

SAYING:
“ SUCCESS ISN’T JUST ABOUT WHAT YOU
ACCOMPLISH IN YOUR LIFE; IT’S ABOUT
WHAT YOU INSPIRE OTHERS TO DO. “

THANK YOU !!!
APRIL C. CAJUCOM, MA.ED
SHS RESEARCH TEACHER/ SHS GUIDANCE ADVOCATE

Presentation of Chapter 1-3 (Explanation w/ Examples)

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Presentation of Chapter 1-3 (Explanation w/ Examples)