Process theory
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This document discusses the process of theory construction in social science research. It defines a theory as a set of statements about relationships between concepts or constructs. Theories can take various forms, such as models or hypotheses, and can be used in both basic and applied research. A good theory is useful, has consensus among scientists, and is logically consistent, agrees with known facts, and is testable. While science aims to be objective, the process of developing theories inherently involves some subjectivity.
Process theory
- 1. In The Name OF God
- 3. Dr James Jaccard Professor of Social Work; Associate Dean for Research; Co-director, Center for Latino Adolescent and Family Health Dr Jacob Jacoby Ph.D. in Social Psychology, Michigan State University, 1966 M.A. in Psychology, Brooklyn College, The City University of New York, 1963 B.A. in Psychology, Brooklyn College, The City University of New York, 1961
- 5. What Is a Theory
- 6. Theory……………………….. • As nonscientists we develop and use conceptual systems to better understand the physical and social world around us. • When working as scientists, we do the very same thing.
- 7. Theory……………………….. • Such conceptualizations may be based on what we observe, imagine, or are stimulated to think about after engaging in mind games of our own, considering what others have said about the issue at hand, or after empirical observations have been made.
- 8. Theory……………………….. • The conceptualization is then given concrete expression via some external symbol system. That is, our ideas are converted into words, numbers, diagrams, and so on.
- 10. Theory……………………….. • The process of formulating conceptual systems and converting them into symbolic expressions is termed theorization or theory construction
- 12. Theory……………………….. • The term theory has been defined by social scientists. Some examples are: • A theory is a symbolic construction. (Kaplan, 1964, p. 296) • It will be convenient for our purposes to define a theory simply as a set of statements or sentences. (Simon & Newell, 1956, p. 67)
- 13. Theory……………………….. • Basically, a theory consists of one or more functional statements or propositions that treat the relationship of variables so as to account for a phenomenon or set of phenomena.(Hollander, 1967, p. 55)
- 14. Theory……………………….. • Although theories differ in many respects, we contend that, at their core, all theories consist of concepts and relationships between those concepts. For this reason, it is sufficient for the purposes of this book to define a theory very simply: A theory is a set of statements about the relationship(s) between two or more concepts or constructs.
- 16. Model • A term often used by scientists when referring to the conceptual realm is model • The distinction between theories and models in the social science literature is not always apparent
- 17. Theories, Models • Although there may indeed be meaningful distinctions between theories and models, it also is the case that models, like theories, involve concepts and relationships between concept Accordingly, we use the terms theory and model interchangeably
- 18. Theories, Models • A theoretical expression refers to any external symbolic representation of an internal conceptual system
- 19. Hypotheses • Another term frequently used in scientific theorizing is hypothesis. • Many scientists define hypotheses as empirically testable statements that are derived from theories and that form a basic for rejecting or not rejecting those theories, depending on the results of empirical testing
- 20. • For this reason, we do not distinguish them from theoretical and model-based statements. All three types of conceptual systems—theories, models, and hypotheses— can be classified for our purposes under the more generic term theoretical expression
- 22. Types of Theories • Philosophers of science have developed typologies of theories so as to better understand the range of theoretical expressions that occur in science
- 23. The Role of Theory in Basic versus Applied Research
- 24. Basic versus Applied Research • An often-heard distinction is that between basic and applied scientific research, yet the essential difference between these two types of research is difficult to identify.
- 25. Basic versus Applied Research • According to one perspective, basic researchers use theories whereas applied researchers do not. • Another basis for distinguishing the two approaches emphasizes the intent of the researcher. • Another criterion that often is suggested for distinguishing between basic and applied research focuses on the abstractness of the concepts in the conceptual network
- 26. Basic Researchers Use TheoriesWhereas AppliedResearchers Do Not EmphasizesThe Intent Of The Researcher Focuses OnThe Abstractness OfThe Concepts Basic versus Applied Research
- 27. Basic versus Applied Research • There seems to be no single basis that proves sufficient for clearly distinguishing between basic and applied research. Perhaps the best approach is to note a set of attributes that, when employed in combination, seems to provide some basis for making such a distinction
- 29. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD THEORY
- 30. :A GOOD THEORY • How do we know if a theory is a good theory?
- 31. A GOOD THEORY • Several criteria have been proposed for e evaluating theoretical expressions: • If we assume that the purpose of a theory is to help us better understand our world: • 1- utility: Theoretical expressions are valued to the extent that they serve as useful guides to the world we experience, that is, to the extent that they enable us to achieve some understanding of our world
- 32. A GOOD THEORY • Recognize that utility is a relative notion
- 33. A GOOD THEORY 2-Consensual validation: Consensual validation is one basis by which theories are accepted or rejected by scientists. This term refers to the degree of consensus among the scientific community about the validity of the theory.
- 34. A GOOD THEORY • The philosopher Karl Popper (1968) believed that adherents of what most scientists judge to be a “bad theory” eventually die off or leave science, rendering the theory obsolete with time
- 35. A GOOD THEORY • Shaw and Costanzo (1982) distinguish two broad classes of criteria for determining a good theory:
- 36. Shaw and Costanzo 1-those criteria that are necessary 2-those that are desirable but not essential to acceptance
- 37. Shaw and Costanzo The Theory Must Be Logically Consistent The Theory Must Be In Agreement With Known Data And Facts The Theory Must Be Testable Those Criteria That Are Necessary
- 38. Shaw and Costanzo 1-a theory should be stated in terms that can be understood and communicated to other scientists. 2-the theory should strive to be parsimonious in that it adequately explains a phenomenon, but with a minimum of concepts and principles and facts 3-a theory should be consistent with other accepted theories that have achieved consensus among the scientific community those that are desirable but not essential to acceptance 6-scope. Other things being equal, the greater the range of the theory 5-Creativity or novelty 4-scope. Other things being equal, the greater the range of the theory
- 39. SCIENCE AND OBJECTIVITY • It is often asserted that scientists are objective in their approach to understanding and that the hallmark of science is its objectivity. In some respects, science is anything but objective.
- 41. SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING COMMENTS • Theorizing involves conceptualizing some phenomena in terms of a set of expressions, encompassing concepts and relationships among them, and then expressing these ideas via a symbol system, typically words and/or numbers. • Scientists have described a range of criteria for evaluating theories, some of which are deemed essential whereas others are deemed desirable.
- 42. SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING COMMENTS • The process of theorizing is a complex enterprise that is difficult to teach. The remainder of this book provides the reader with heuristics and conceptual systems that may prove useful in such endeavors
- 43. Reflection: THE PROCESS OF THEORY CONSTRUCTION?????