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Abdollah Ghasemi · Ali Abedi
Farshid Ghasemi
Propagation
Engineering
inWireless
Communications
SecondEdition

Propagation Engineering in Wireless
Communications

Propagation Engineering in Wireless Communications 2nd Edition Abdollah Ghasemi

Abdollah Ghasemi • Ali Abedi • Farshid Ghasemi
Propagation Engineering
in Wireless Communications
Second Edition
123

Abdollah Ghasemi
Tarhe Ertebatat Telecom Consultants
Tehran, Iran
Farshid Ghasemi
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia, USA
Ali Abedi
University of Maine
Orono, Maine, USA
ISBN 978-3-319-32782-2 ISBN 978-3-319-32783-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32783-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016937357
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2012, 2016
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made.
Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature
The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland

Introduction
To:
All scientists and experts
who work hard to promote
the living standards of the
world community.
To meet the ever-increasing telecommunications needs of the world community,
it is a crucial requirement to employ radio services. Among vast and fast expansions
during recent decades, the satellite services, navigational aids, remote sensing,
telemetering, audio and video broadcasting, high-speed data communications,
mobile radio systems, and some other special radio services may be addressed.
Radiowaves propagating between the transmitter and receiver antennas are
subject to a number of phenomena which should be studied and differentiated
carefully for designing a reliable radio link. Engineering of radiowave propagation
as an outstanding and highly specialized issue is required for all types of radiocom-
munications. The pressure to provide data for more effective use of the frequency
spectrum, as a natural and limited source of radio systems, requires wider improved
prediction methods especially for new bands.
The subject of radiowave propagation is now too large to be treated in a single-
volume book, encompassing all theoretical and practical aspects. The purpose of
this book is to deal in brief with the basic principles needed for understanding of
radiowave propagation for common frequency bands used in radiocommunications.
It includes descriptions of new achievements and developed propagation models.
The provided materials are intended to bridge the gap between theoretical calcula-
tions and approaches and applied procedures needed for radio link design in a proper
manner.
The intention of the authors is to emphasize on the propagation engineering,
giving sufficient fundamental information, while going on to explain the use of
basic principles together with technical achievements in this field and formulation
of prediction models and planning tools for radio network design. To do this, study
v

vi Introduction
and analysis of main propagation phenomena and mechanisms in a professional way
and based on the recommendations of the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU) is a fundamental requirement.
To use the book in an efficient manner, the following points should be taken into
account:
1. The primary objective of the book is to introduce the most of propagation
phenomena and mechanisms likely to be encountered practically and to present
fundamental principles. It serves to introduce and orient the reader to those
aspects of propagation that must be considered in the design and evaluation of
a radio link of a given type and operating frequency.
2. The content of the book covers most topics required for academic or applied
courses regarding radiowave propagation. For better understanding, the reader
is required to have a good background of advanced and applied mathematics,
electromagnetic theory, and principles of radio fields and waves.
3. Considerable portion of the material at hand is based on the ITU radio
recommendations. Study group no. 3 of the ITU radio sector is devoted to the
studies of radiowave propagation and related results presented through series P
of ITU-R recommendations.
4. A great effort is made to the extent possible, to clarify obscure points and
improve existing gaps between pure theoretical approaches and practical
procedures. The reader must look elsewhere for more details of the theory of
radiowave propagation and analysis of phenomena such as reflection, refrac-
tion, diffraction, absorption, attenuation, precipitation, focusing/defocusing,
fading, scintillation, scattering, dispersion, depolarization, etc.
5. The aim throughout the book is to give the simplest and most direct account
of the applied procedures. There are over 90 solved examples distributed in
volume 1 to encourage students and experts to use the relevant procedures and
basic principles by themselves.
6. The whole book has been organized in two volumes each containing nine
chapters. The first one includes basic principles, tropospheric and ionospheric
propagation, MF/HF ionospheric links, mobile networks, fixed line of sight
tropospheric links, and propagation of radiowaves in the guided media. The
second volume deals with propagation mechanisms related to radar, satellite,
short distance, broadcasting, and trans-horizon radio links complete with two
chapters dedicated to radio noises and main parameters of radio link design.
7. The structure of each chapter typically consists of an introduction, definitions,
basic formulas and expressions, applied relations, calculation procedures,
tables, figures, examples, summary, questions, and problems related to the
chapter topic.
8. Volume 1 includes over 155 illustrations, 20 tables, 90 solved examples, 200
questions, 158 problems, acronyms, and appendices.
9. In the case of any particular requirement for a dedicated system, specific
combination of chapters may be selected. As example, for terrestrial fixed radio
links, Chaps. 1, 2, 3, and 7; for terrestrial mobile radio network, Chaps. 1, 2, 3,

Introduction vii
and 6; and for satellite links, Chaps. 1, 2, 3, and 4 of volume 1 and some
dedicated chapters of volume 2 should be studied.
10. There are six appendices in volume 1 providing additional information regard-
ing logarithmic system of units, ITU-based terms and definitions, ITU-R
recommendations, list of ITU-R recommendations related to propagation (P
series), references, software and websites, acronyms, and book index.
I am most grateful to my main partners in the present project, Dr. A. Abedi
from the University of Maine and Dr. F. Ghasemi from the Georgia Institute of
Technology, for their valuable efforts and providing necessary motivation to compile
this book. I would like to appreciate also the efforts of all involved parties in the
project including experts; TEC Engineering Group Dr. Farnaz Ghasemi, Dr. M.
Khatir, and A. Aminpour; students F. Afghah, A. Razi, K. Yasami, and N. Hariri;
and typing, drafting, and publishing groups.
Tehran, Iran A. Ghasemi
2016

Contents
1 Introduction to Radiowaves................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................................ 1
1.2 Radio Services ......................................................... 2
1.3 International Codes and Standards.................................... 3
1.3.1 Objectives .................................................... 3
1.3.2 Class of Codes and Standards ............................... 3
1.3.3 Radio Regulations............................................ 4
1.3.4 ITU-R Recommendations ................................... 5
1.4 Basic Terms and Definitions .......................................... 5
1.5 Classification of Radio Systems ...................................... 6
1.5.1 Classification Based on Frequency Bands .................. 6
1.5.2 Classification Based on Service Types ...................... 6
1.6 Radio Frequency Bands ............................................... 7
1.6.1 Role of Frequency in Radiocommunications ............... 7
1.6.2 Classification of Frequency Bands .......................... 7
1.7 Application of Frequency Bands...................................... 8
1.7.1 ELF, ULF, and VLF Bands .................................. 9
1.7.2 LF Band (30–300 kHz) ...................................... 9
1.7.3 MF Band (300–3000 kHz) .................................. 9
1.7.4 HF Band (3–30 MHz) ....................................... 10
1.7.5 VHF Band (30–300 MHz) .................................. 10
1.7.6 UHF Band (300–3000 MHz) ................................ 10
1.7.7 SHF Band (3–30 GHz) ...................................... 10
1.7.8 EHF Band (30–300 GHz) ................................... 11
1.7.9 Micrometric and Nanometric Bands ........................ 11
1.8 Frequency Allocation.................................................. 11
1.8.1 Introduction .................................................. 11
1.8.2 Frequency Registration ...................................... 12
1.8.3 ITU Regions for Frequency Allocation ..................... 12
1.8.4 Frequency Assignment ...................................... 13
ix

x Contents
1.9 Atmosphere Layers .................................................... 14
1.9.1 Troposphere Layer ........................................... 15
1.9.2 Stratosphere Layer ........................................... 16
1.9.3 Ionosphere Layer............................................. 16
1.9.4 Magnetosphere Layer ........................................ 17
1.10 Designation of Emissions ............................................. 18
1.11 Summary ............................................................... 19
1.12 Exercises ............................................................... 19
2 Basic Principles in Radiowave Propagation............................... 23
2.1 Introduction ............................................................ 23
2.2 Transmission Media ................................................... 24
2.2.1 Media Characteristics ........................................ 24
2.2.2 Radiowave Velocity .......................................... 25
2.2.3 Depth of Radiowave Penetration ............................ 26
2.3 Electromagnetic Waves................................................ 28
2.3.1 Maxwell Equations .......................................... 28
2.3.2 Electromagnetic Wave Spectrum............................ 29
2.4 Wave Equations and Spectrum ........................................ 29
2.4.1 Plane Waves .................................................. 29
2.4.2 Radiowave Spectrum ........................................ 30
2.5 Media Effects on Radiowaves......................................... 31
2.6 Propagation Parameters ............................................... 31
2.7 Radiowave Polarization ............................................... 32
2.7.1 Definition of Polarization.................................... 32
2.8 Main Types of Radiowave Polarization............................... 32
2.8.1 Basic Polarized Radiowaves................................. 33
2.9 Radio Links ............................................................ 36
2.10 Free-Space Loss ....................................................... 37
2.10.1 Power Flux Density .......................................... 37
2.10.2 Free-Space Loss.............................................. 38
2.10.3 ITU-R Formulas.............................................. 40
2.11 Equivalent Radiated Power............................................ 43
2.11.1 Antenna Gain................................................. 43
2.11.2 ERP and EIRP................................................ 44
2.11.3 Electric Field Intensity....................................... 44
2.12 Transmission Loss ..................................................... 46
2.12.1 Loss Terms in Radio Links .................................. 46
2.12.2 Basic Transmission Loss .................................... 46
2.12.3 System and Total Losses..................................... 48
2.13 Radio Ray Path and K-Factor ......................................... 49
2.13.1 Curvature of Ray Path ....................................... 49
2.13.2 K-Factor ...................................................... 51
2.14 Summary ............................................................... 52
2.15 Exercises ............................................................... 53

Contents xi
3 Radiowave Propagation in Troposphere................................... 57
3.1 Introduction ............................................................ 57
3.2 Earth Atmosphere...................................................... 58
3.2.1 Major Parameters ............................................ 58
3.2.2 Lower Part of Troposphere .................................. 59
3.2.3 Standard Earth Atmosphere ................................. 59
3.2.4 Non-standard Atmospheric Parameters ..................... 61
3.3 Radiowave Refraction ................................................. 62
3.3.1 Refractive Index of Air ...................................... 63
3.3.2 Wave Path and Effective Earth Radius ...................... 64
3.4 K-Factor ................................................................ 64
3.4.1 Definition ..................................................... 64
3.4.2 Variation Range of K-Factor ................................ 65
3.4.3 The Earth Bulge.............................................. 66
3.4.4 Radio Horizon................................................ 68
3.4.5 Atmospheric Duct............................................ 70
3.5 Radiowave Attenuation in Troposphere .............................. 78
3.5.1 Introduction .................................................. 78
3.5.2 Rain Attenuation ............................................. 78
3.5.3 Cloud and Fog Attenuation .................................. 82
3.5.4 Hail and Snow Attenuation .................................. 84
3.5.5 Aerosols ...................................................... 86
3.6 Radiowave Reflection ................................................. 87
3.6.1 Reflection Equations ......................................... 87
3.6.2 Multipath Reception ......................................... 91
3.6.3 Coverage Diagram and Height Gain Curve................. 93
3.6.4 Fresnel Zones ................................................ 96
3.6.5 Fresnel Radius Calculation .................................. 97
3.7 Radiowave Diffraction................................................. 100
3.7.1 Introduction .................................................. 100
3.7.2 Diffraction Parameter ........................................ 101
3.7.3 Field in Diffraction Region .................................. 102
3.7.4 Field in Interference Region ................................. 103
3.7.5 Field in the Midpath Region................................. 105
3.8 Attenuation of Obstacles .............................................. 108
3.8.1 Obstruction Loss in Diffraction Condition ................. 108
3.8.2 Obstructed Radio Path ....................................... 111
3.9 Forest and Vegetation Area............................................ 112
3.9.1 Overall Views ................................................ 112
3.9.2 VHF/UHF Frequency Bands ................................ 114
3.9.3 SHF/EHF Frequency Bands ................................. 116
3.10 Summary ............................................................... 120
3.11 Exercises ............................................................... 121

xii Contents
4 Radiowave Propagation in Ionosphere .................................... 127
4.1 Introduction ............................................................ 127
4.2 Ionization in Ionosphere Layer........................................ 127
4.2.1 Ionization and Plasma State ................................. 127
4.2.2 Ionosphere Layer Classification ............................. 129
4.2.3 Ionospheric Phenomena ..................................... 129
4.3 Ionospheric Communications in MF/HF Frequency Band .......... 131
4.3.1 Radiowave Propagation in Ionosphere ...................... 131
4.3.2 Applications .................................................. 132
4.3.3 Vertical Propagation in Ionosphere.......................... 133
4.3.4 Inclined Propagation of Ionospheric Waves ................ 135
4.3.5 Optimum Usage Frequency ................................. 136
4.3.6 Long-Distance Communications ............................ 138
4.3.7 Effects of D Sub-layer and Day/Night Frequencies ........ 140
4.3.8 Time Delay of Different Transmission Modes ............. 140
4.3.9 Solar Effects.................................................. 143
4.3.10 Geomagnetic Field Effect ................................... 144
4.4 Ionosphere Effects on Satellite Communications .................... 145
4.4.1 Main Effects.................................................. 145
4.4.2 Ionosphere Ionization ........................................ 146
4.4.3 Faraday Rotation ............................................. 147
4.4.4 Group Delay.................................................. 148
4.4.5 Dispersion .................................................... 148
4.4.6 Scintillation .................................................. 150
4.4.7 Frequency Dependence of Ionospheric Effects ............. 152
4.5 Ionosphere Reference Characteristics ................................ 153
4.5.1 Introduction .................................................. 153
4.5.2 Mapping Functions .......................................... 154
4.5.3 Prediction of f0F2 and M.3000/F2 ......................... 156
4.5.4 Prediction of f0E ............................................. 157
4.5.5 Prediction of f0F1 ............................................ 159
4.5.6 Software Programs ........................................... 161
4.6 Ionosphere Main Parameters .......................................... 162
4.6.1 Main Indices.................................................. 162
4.6.2 Sunspot Numbers ............................................ 163
4.6.3 Index ˆ ....................................................... 164
4.7 Summary ............................................................... 165
4.8 Exercises ............................................................... 166
5 Propagation in 3 kHz to 30 MHz Band .................................... 171
5.1 Introduction ............................................................ 171
5.1.1 Applications .................................................. 171
5.1.2 Evolution Trend .............................................. 172
5.1.3 Main Considerations ......................................... 172

Contents xiii
5.2 Propagation in VLF/LF Frequency Band............................. 173
5.2.1 Introduction .................................................. 173
5.2.2 Radiowave Propagation in Seawater ........................ 173
5.2.3 Design Considerations ....................................... 175
5.2.4 Submarine Vessel Radiocommunications................... 176
5.2.5 Propagation in the Earth Atmosphere ....................... 180
5.3 Surface Wave Propagation ............................................ 181
5.3.1 Introduction .................................................. 181
5.3.2 Electric Characteristics ...................................... 181
5.3.3 Electric Characteristic Variation............................. 181
5.3.4 Wave Penetration............................................. 183
5.3.5 Effective Factors in Electric Characteristics ................ 184
5.3.6 Received Power .............................................. 185
5.3.7 Vertically Polarized Waves .................................. 185
5.3.8 Horizontally Polarized Waves ............................... 187
5.3.9 ITU-R Diagrams ............................................. 188
5.3.10 Mixed Paths .................................................. 194
5.4 Wave Propagation in MF/HF Band ................................... 196
5.4.1 Location of the Control Points .............................. 196
5.4.2 Screening Frequency for E and F2 Layers .................. 197
5.4.3 Propagation Modes .......................................... 198
5.4.4 Wave Elevation Angle ....................................... 199
5.4.5 Field Intensity of Waves ..................................... 199
5.4.6 Received Power .............................................. 203
5.4.7 Signal-to-Noise Ratio ........................................ 204
5.4.8 Lowest Usable Frequency ................................... 205
5.4.9 Design Considerations ....................................... 205
5.4.10 Wave Propagation in MF Band.............................. 209
5.5 Summary ............................................................... 211
5.6 Exercises ............................................................... 212
6 Terrestrial Mobile Radio Propagation..................................... 217
6.1 Introduction ............................................................ 217
6.2 Diffraction Loss........................................................ 219
6.2.1 Fresnel Zones ................................................ 219
6.2.2 Basic Concepts ............................................... 220
6.2.3 Diffraction of Spherical Earth ............................... 222
6.2.4 Obstacle Diffraction ......................................... 226
6.2.5 Single Knife-Edge Obstacles ................................ 226
6.2.6 Single Rounded Obstacles ................................... 227
6.2.7 Double Isolated Obstacles ................................... 230
6.2.8 Multiple Isolated Obstacles.................................. 234
6.3 Propagation Environment in Mobile Radio Communications ....... 235
6.4 Signal Level Variability ............................................... 236
6.4.1 Introduction .................................................. 236

xiv Contents
6.4.2 Shadow ....................................................... 237
6.4.3 Location Variability .......................................... 237
6.4.4 Time Variability .............................................. 241
6.4.5 Location and Time Variability............................... 241
6.4.6 Fade Margin .................................................. 242
6.5 Polarization ............................................................ 243
6.5.1 Depolarization Effects ....................................... 243
6.5.2 Polarization Diversity........................................ 244
6.6 Antenna Height ........................................................ 244
6.6.1 Outlines....................................................... 244
6.6.2 Antenna Height Gain ........................................ 245
6.6.3 Fixed Antenna Height Gain ................................. 247
6.6.4 Mobile Antenna Gain ........................................ 248
6.7 Reflection and Multipath .............................................. 249
6.7.1 Local Reflections............................................. 249
6.7.2 Correlation Between Main and Unwanted Signals ......... 250
6.7.3 Multipath Fading ............................................. 251
6.8 Time Delay Spread .................................................... 251
6.8.1 Received Signal Time Delay ................................ 251
6.8.2 System Performance ......................................... 253
6.9 Climate Effects ........................................................ 254
6.9.1 Index of Refraction .......................................... 254
6.9.2 Climate Factors .............................................. 254
6.10 Earth Effects ........................................................... 255
6.10.1 Seawater ...................................................... 256
6.10.2 Fields and Hills .............................................. 256
6.11 Guided Radiowave Propagation....................................... 257
6.11.1 Radiowave Propagation in Tunnels ......................... 258
6.11.2 Leaky Feeders ................................................ 259
6.11.3 Air Duct ...................................................... 259
6.12 Mobility Effects........................................................ 260
6.12.1 Surrounded Areas ............................................ 260
6.12.2 Body Loss .................................................... 260
6.13 Media Conditions ...................................................... 260
6.13.1 Introduction .................................................. 260
6.13.2 Main Factors ................................................. 261
6.13.3 Received Power Equation ................................... 262
6.14 Received Signal Level ................................................. 265
6.14.1 Introduction .................................................. 265
6.14.2 Link Power Budget Equation................................ 265
6.15 Area Coverage Prediction Models .................................... 268
6.15.1 Introduction .................................................. 268
6.15.2 Classification of Models ..................................... 268
6.15.3 Model Limitations ........................................... 269

Contents xv
6.16 Basic Models........................................................... 269
6.16.1 Theoretical Model............................................ 269
6.16.2 Simple Empirical Model..................................... 270
6.17 Applied Models ........................................................ 272
6.17.1 Bullington Model ............................................ 272
6.17.2 Hata Model ................................................... 274
6.17.3 COST 231-Hata Model ...................................... 276
6.17.4 Lee Model .................................................... 277
6.18 Summary ............................................................... 280
6.19 Exercises ............................................................... 281
7 Line-of-Sight Propagation .................................................. 291
7.1 Introduction ............................................................ 291
7.1.1 Propagation Environment.................................... 291
7.1.2 Main Factors ................................................. 292
7.1.3 Frequency Bands ............................................. 292
7.2 Ray Trajectory ......................................................... 293
7.2.1 Radius of Radio Path Curvature............................. 293
7.2.2 K-Factor ...................................................... 295
7.2.3 Earth Atmosphere ............................................ 297
7.2.4 Typical Values of K-Factor .................................. 298
7.2.5 Radio Path Profiles........................................... 299
7.3 Terrestrial Obstacles ................................................... 302
7.3.1 Obstacle Types ............................................... 302
7.3.2 Fresnel Radius................................................ 303
7.3.3 Diffraction Loss .............................................. 303
7.4 Radio Path Clearance .................................................. 305
7.4.1 Single-Antenna Criterion .................................... 305
7.4.2 Two-Antenna Space Diversity Criterion .................... 306
7.4.3 Three-Antenna Space Diversity Configuration ............. 306
7.4.4 Minimum Antenna Height................................... 307
7.4.5 Single-Antenna Height ...................................... 307
7.4.6 Antenna Space Diversity .................................... 307
7.4.7 Optimum Antenna Height ................................... 308
7.4.8 Antenna Around Clearance.................................. 309
7.5 Propagation Loss in LOS Radio Links ............................... 311
7.5.1 Communication Equation ................................... 311
7.5.2 Propagation Loss............................................. 313
7.5.3 Precipitation Loss ............................................ 314
7.5.4 Cross-Polarization Discrimination, XPD ................... 319
7.5.5 Antenna to Air Coupling Loss .............................. 322
7.6 Design Criteria......................................................... 322
7.6.1 Hypothetical Reference Circuit ............................. 323
7.6.2 Grade of the System ......................................... 323
7.6.3 Availability and Unavailability Criteria ..................... 324

xvi Contents
7.6.4 Quality Criterion ............................................. 326
7.6.5 Performance Criterion ....................................... 326
7.7 Fading of the Received Signal ........................................ 327
7.7.1 Permanent Attenuations ..................................... 327
7.7.2 Occasional Attenuations ..................................... 328
7.7.3 Fading ........................................................ 328
7.7.4 Multipath ..................................................... 329
7.7.5 Overreach Reception......................................... 332
7.7.6 Fading Occurrence Probability .............................. 334
7.7.7 New ITU-R Method ......................................... 337
7.8 Outage Time ........................................................... 344
7.8.1 Introduction .................................................. 344
7.8.2 Fade Margin .................................................. 344
7.8.3 Link Outage Time............................................ 345
7.8.4 Fade Margin Calculation .................................... 347
7.9 Design Considerations................................................. 348
7.9.1 Design Criteria ............................................... 348
7.9.2 Radio Site Selection ......................................... 349
7.9.3 Foundations and Earthling Network ........................ 349
7.9.4 Climate ....................................................... 350
7.9.5 Radio Path Inclination ....................................... 350
7.9.6 Zigzag Path ................................................... 350
7.9.7 Path Length................................................... 351
7.9.8 Antenna Around Clearance.................................. 351
7.9.9 Radio Sources ................................................ 351
7.9.10 Precipitation .................................................. 352
7.9.11 Improvement Techniques .................................... 352
7.9.12 Technical Calculations ....................................... 352
7.10 Summary ............................................................... 353
7.11 Exercises ............................................................... 354
8 Propagation in Guided Media .............................................. 361
8.1 Introduction ............................................................ 361
8.2 RF Leaky Cable........................................................ 361
8.3 Waveguides ............................................................ 363
8.3.1 TE Modes .................................................... 364
8.3.2 TM Modes.................................................... 367
8.4 Fiber Optic Cable ...................................................... 369
8.4.1 Introduction .................................................. 369
8.4.2 FOC Band and Windows .................................... 370
8.4.3 Applications in Telecommunications ....................... 372
8.4.4 Propagation Principles in FOC .............................. 376
8.4.5 Main Parameters ............................................. 379
8.4.6 Limiting Factors in FOC Networks ......................... 381
8.4.7 FOC Standards ............................................... 385
8.4.8 FOC Telecom Networks ..................................... 385

Contents xvii
8.4.9 FOC Link Calculations ...................................... 388
8.4.10 Mechanical and Civil Considerations ....................... 397
8.5 Summary ............................................................... 398
8.6 Exercises ............................................................... 398
9 Selected Topics in Radiowave Propagation ............................... 403
9.1 Scope ................................................................... 403
9.2 Optical Radio Links ................................................... 404
9.2.1 Introduction .................................................. 404
9.2.2 Main Atmospheric Effects................................... 405
9.2.3 Atmospheric Absorption..................................... 405
9.2.4 Atmospheric Scattering ...................................... 406
9.2.5 Scintillation .................................................. 408
9.2.6 Atmospheric Precipitation ................................... 409
9.2.7 Aerosol Absorption .......................................... 412
9.2.8 Ambient Sunlight Effect ..................................... 413
9.2.9 Visibility...................................................... 414
9.3 Optical Radio Link Design ............................................ 415
9.3.1 Design Calculations.......................................... 415
9.3.2 FSO Link Design ............................................ 421
9.4 Radiowave Propagation in 20–375 THz .............................. 424
9.4.1 Main Effects of Atmosphere ................................ 424
9.4.2 Absorption.................................................... 425
9.4.3 Scattering ..................................................... 425
9.4.4 Turbulence.................................................... 427
APPENDIX ....................................................................... 429
A Logarithmic System of Units ............................................... 429
A.1 Introduction ............................................................ 429
A.2 Definition .............................................................. 429
A.3 Basic Formulas ........................................................ 430
A.4 Common Logarithmic Quantities ..................................... 430
A.5 Principles of Logarithmic System of Units........................... 431
A.6 Advantages of Logarithmic System of Units ......................... 432
B ITU-R Recommendations P-Series......................................... 435
C ITU-R-Based Terms and Definitions Related to Propagation
in Non-ionized Media (P-310)............................................... 441
C.1 Vocabulary of Terms Used in Radio Propagation
in Non-ionized Media ................................................. 441
Bibliography ...................................................................... 447
Index............................................................................... 451

Chapter 1
Introduction to Radiowaves
1.1 Introduction
In 1865 James Clerk Maxwell introduced the notion of electromagnetic (EM)
waves propagating with constant speed in homogenous media, based on relations
between varying electric and magnetic fields. The speed of EM waves in free space
corresponds to the speed of light and is equal to 3 108
m/s. Several years later, a
German scientist named Hertz found out that radiowaves have a nature similar to
EM waves but they are invisible.
Radiowaves radiating from transmitter antenna are collected by receiver antenna
after propagating between antennas. They are affected by several phenomena during
propagation. The imposed effects are due to transmission media as a function of
radiowave characteristics such as frequency bandwidth, polarization, and type of
signal.
In general, radiowaves are some type of electromagnetic waves in a specific
frequency band. Although a distinctive spectrum is not determined for radiowaves,
in this book, propagational phenomena are limited to frequency bands devised by
International Telecommunications Union, ITU, i.e., 3 kHz to 275 GHz.
Due to the key role of radiocommunications, a lot of studies, researches,
and efforts have been spared by competent experts, institutes, organizations, and
administrations all over the world for radiowave propagation and using higher-
frequency bands.
Major results and achievements in radiowave propagation are collected and
summarized in series P of ITU-R recommendations which are revised and updated
periodically. In this book, the last version of these recommendations is employed.
As a fast reference, the lists of series P of ITU-R recommendations are given in the
Appendix B.
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
A. Ghasemi et al., Propagation Engineering in Wireless Communications,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32783-9_1
1

2 1 Introduction to Radiowaves
1.2 Radio Services
Radiowaves are used for transmitting various kinds of audio, video, data, control,
and navigational signals. Among numerous applications are the following groups:
• Aeronautical, land, and maritime mobile services
• Search and rescue and navigational aids
• Different types of satellite services
• Fixed services of low, medium, and high capacity
• Audio and video broadcasting
• Telemetry, SCADA, and remote sensing
• Aeronautical, land, and maritime traffic control systems
• Radio special services for industrial, scientific, research, medical, and social
applications
Radio services, based on the ITU classification for frequency allocation included
in the Article 5, are as follow:
1. Aeronautical mobile service
2. Aeronautical radio navigation
3. Aeronautical radio navigation satellite
4. Amateur satellite service
5. Amateur service
6. Broadcasting satellite service
7. Broadcasting service
8. Downlink service
9. Earth exploration satellite service
10. Fixed satellite service
11. Fixed service
12. Inter-satellite service
13. Land mobile service
14. Maritime mobile service
15. Maritime radio navigation
16. Meteorological aids service
17. Meteorological satellite service
18. Mobile except aeronautical service
19. Mobile satellite service
20. Mobile service
21. Radio astronomy
22. Radio determination satellite
23. Radio location
24. Radio navigation
25. Radio navigation satellite
26. Secondary (non-satellite) service
27. Secondary (satellite) service
28. Space operation service

1.3 International Codes and Standards 3
29. Space research service
30. Standard frequency and time signal
31. Standard frequency and time signal satellite
32. Uplink service
1.3 International Codes and Standards
1.3.1 Objectives
In radiocommunications, field, codes, and standards have an outstanding position
due to a number of reasons including, but not limited to, the following:
• Ever-increasing demand for a variety of services
• Growing requirements for more traffic and higher capacities
• Desired signal when radiated from transmitting antenna is beyond control and
may act as an interfering source for a number of receivers except desired one(s).
• There are two parties for each radio link, i.e., transmitter and receiver. For
a perfect and proper operation, their specifications should be standard and
compatible; otherwise, they cannot work satisfactorily.
• In fact, standards are minimum technical requirements which shall be observed
by telecommunications industries and service providers.
• Better standards result in better service quality.
1.3.2 Class of Codes and Standards
As depicted in Fig. 1.1, levels of governing codes and standards in telecommunica-
tions are as follows:
• International level adopted by international bodies such as ITU, ISO, IMO,
ICAO, etc.
• Regional level adopted by a number of countries such as European Telecommu-
nications Standard Institute, ETSI.
• National level adopted by each country such as EIA, ANSI, DIN, JSA, etc.
• Special/local level adopted by some organizations and dedicated to special
networks such as Inmarsat, Intelsat, Eutelsat, TETRA, etc.

Fig. 1.1 Classification of telecommunications standards
1.3.3 Radio Regulations
ITU Radio Regulations are recognized internationally and applied by all member
states/countries. The Regulations are arranged in nine chapters as follows:
Chapter I: Terminology and technical characteristics
Chapter II: Frequencies
Chapter III: Coordination, notification, and recording of frequency assignments
and plan modifications
Chapter IV: Interferences
Chapter V: Administrative provisions
Chapter VI: Provisions for services and stations
Chapter VII: Distress and safety communications
Chapter VIII: Aeronautical services
Chapter IX: Maritime services
It is followed by 42 appendixes and a number of resolutions and recommen-
dations as well. The ITU Radio Regulations usually are updated and modified
accordingly through World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC) held by ITU
secretariat.

1.4 Basic Terms and Definitions 5
1.3.4 ITU-R Recommendations
In Radio sector of ITU (known as ITU-R), a Radiocommunications Study Group
has been for many years involved in introducing some technical guidelines under
several recommendations on a worldwide basis. The products of ITU-R are prepared
in different series named:
Series Subject
BO Broadcasting satellite service (sound and television)
BR Sound and television recording
BS Broadcasting service (sound)
BT Broadcasting service (television)
F Fixed service
IS Inter-service sharing and compatibility
M Mobile, radiodetermination, amateur, and related satellite services
P Radiowave propagation
RA Radioastronomy
S Fixed satellite service
SA Space applications and meteorology
SF Frequency sharing between the fixed satellite service and the fixed service
SM Spectrum management
SNG Satellite news gathering
TF Time signals and frequency standards emissions
V Vocabulary and related subjects
Series P is dedicated to the radiowaves propagation issues for which all relevant
recommendations are listed in the Appendix B. These recommendations which
will be referred frequently in the book are rich from technical points of view and
supported by many experts in the international level.
1.4 Basic Terms and Definitions
In principal, basic terms and definitions are set by the international/professional
organizations such as ITU to prevent misleading and different interpretation of
technical terms. Terms and definitions used in this book are generally those specified
by relevant ITU Regulations and Recommendations including ITU-R, P-310.
For a quick reference, this Recommendation is given in Appendix C. Terms and
definitions correspond to the following three main sectors:
• Radiowaves
• Ground effects on radiowave propagation
• Troposphere effects on radiowave propagation

It should be noted that the terms and definitions included in Appendix C are not
complete and additional items have been specified if required.
1.5 Classification of Radio Systems
There is not a general and widespread procedure for classification of radio systems.
Here, two more popular ones are stated.
1.5.1 Classification Based on Frequency Bands
In this approach, radio systems are introduced with respect to their frequency band
such as MF, MF/HF, HF, VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF radio systems. Other non-classic
terms such as the following ones are also used occasionally:
• Shortwave (SW), medium wave (MW), and long wave (LW) in radio broadcast-
ing
• L, C, Ku, and Ka bands in satellite communications
• S, C, and X bands in radar systems
1.5.2 Classification Based on Service Types
This approach is usually employed by ITU or end users to determine the provided
services, such as:
• Aeronautical or maritime radio-navigational aids
• Audio or video broadcasting
• Fixed or mobile satellite services
• Aeronautical, land, and maritime mobile services
• Point-to-point or point-to-multipoint (P-MP) fixed radio services
• Radar systems
• Wireless communications
• Radio special services
• Radio amateur services
Each of the above services usually includes several various systems. For example,
a satellite radio system may be referred to by each one of the following items:
• Fixed systems like Intelsat and Eutelsat
• Mobile systems like Inmarsat
• Meteorological satellite such as Meteosat
• Earth exploration systems
• Remote sensing and telemetry

1.6 Radio Frequency Bands 7
• Navigational aids and radio determination systems
• Military systems
• National and regional satellite systems such as INSAT, Arabsat, GSAT, etc.
• VSAT systems
1.6 Radio Frequency Bands
1.6.1 Role of Frequency in Radiocommunications
Frequency, as a natural resource, has a key role in radiocommunications. In this
regard, some of the major facts to clarify its crucial role in radio networks are:
• Most radiowave propagation phenomena depend on the frequency in linear or
nonlinear forms.
• Dependence of technical characteristics of radio equipment and their applications
and service quality on operating frequency.
• Applications of some frequency bands are exclusively allocated to the specific
services.
• Limitation of frequency resources
• Ever-increasing radiocommunications requirements.
Because of new services and exploiting advanced technologies, demand for more
frequency bands is increasing. To meet the new requirements, R D centers and
professional institutes at national and international levels have conducted extensive
studies and investigation which among them are:
• Employing new technologies to improve frequency utilization efficiency such as
higher digital modulation levels, TDMA, CDMA, and compression techniques.
• Using other transmission media such as cable TV, SDH over fiber optics cable,
WDM, and DWDM
• Manufacturing RF components in higher-frequency bands
• Using network and bandwidth management systems
• Using Automatic Transmitter Power Control (ATPC) and frequency reuse tech-
niques
1.6.2 Classification of Frequency Bands
Major frequency bands based on ITU Regulations are listed in Table 1.1. Lower and
upper extremes of the ITU classic frequency bands are defined by the relation given
below:
F=B D 3 10n
to 3 10n1
4 n 11 (1.1)

Table 1.1 ITU classic frequency bands
Wavelength, metric Frequency
Designation
Band
equivalent range number
Myriametric waves 3–30 kHz VLF 4
Kilometric waves 30–300 kHz LF 5
Hectometric waves 300–3000 kHz MF 6
Decametric waves 3–30 MHz HF 7
Metric waves 30–300 MHz VHF 8
Decimetric waves 300–3000 MHz UHF 9
Centimetric waves 3–30 GHz SHF 10
Millimetric waves 30–300 GHz EHF 11
Decimillimetric waves 300–3000 GHz – –
Micrometric waves 300 THz – –
Table 1.2 Initial applied
frequency bands
Frequency range (GHz) Band designation
0.225–0.390 P-band
0.390–1.550 L-band
1.550–3.900 S-Band
3.900–6.200 C-band
6.200–10.900 X-band
10.900–36.00 K-band
36.000–46.000 Q-band
46.000–56.000 V-band
56.000–100.000 W-band
F=B is frequency band in Hertz and n is relevant band number as per Table 1.1.
As indicated in Tables 1.2 and 1.3, there are other classifications known as initial
and new models, respectively. These frequency bands are usually employed by radio
manufacturers and users, for example, L-band in maritime satellite system, C-band
in satellite networks, and C and S bands in radar technology.
1.7 Application of Frequency Bands
Application of frequency bands is controlled by technical requirements and reg-
ulatory considerations but sometimes they are not matched very well. It should
be noted that regulatory constraints are crucial and shall be observed by relevant
manufacturers, operators, and administrations. Although structure of the book is
performed according to the frequency bands but in the following sections brief
descriptions are given for typical applications of each classic band.

1.7 Application of Frequency Bands 9
Table 1.3 New applied
frequency bands
Frequency range (GHz) Band designation
0.100–0.250 A-Band
0.250–0.500 B-band
0.500–1.000 C-band
1.000–2.000 D-band
2.000–3.000 E-band
3.000–4.000 F-band
4.000–6.000 G-band
6.000–8.000 H-band
8.000–10.000 I-band
10.000–20.000 J-band
20.000–40.000 K-band
60.000–80.000 L-band
80.000–100.000 M-band
1.7.1 ELF, ULF, and VLF Bands
• Very limited use, because of very big antennas and poor propagation characteris-
tics
• Low bandwidth resulting in very low data rates
• Submarine telegraphy communications
• High atmospheric noise
1.7.2 LF Band (30–300 kHz)
• Ground waves in short distance communications
• Ground-based waveguide for long-distance communications
• Broadcasting and time signals
• Radio-navigational aids
• High atmospheric noise and limited bandwidth
1.7.3 MF Band (300–3000 kHz)
• Ground waves in short distance communications
• Ground-based or ionospheric hops in long-distance communications specially in
night periods
• Radio broadcasting service in LW (long wave) band
• Maritime mobile and radio navigation services

1.7.4 HF Band (3–30 MHz)
• Ionospheric long haul hops
• Radio broadcasting service in SW (shortwave) band
• Aeronautical and maritime mobile communications
1.7.5 VHF Band (30–300 MHz)
• Line-of-sight (LOS) communications using reflective waves
• Short/medium distance communications using small antennas
• Long-distance receiving due to duct effects
• Aeronautical and maritime radiocommunications
• Over-horizon radiocommunication by troposcatters
• Radar and radio navigation services
• Analog cordless telephone and radio paging services
• LEO satellite systems
1.7.6 UHF Band (300–3000 MHz)
• Line-of-sight (LOS) radiocommunications
• TV broadcasting
• Cellular mobile radio services for public applications
• Private mobile radio networks
• Mobile satellite, GPS, and astronomy communications
• Cordless telephone and radio paging services
• P-P, P-MP, and fixed radio access services
• Over-horizon radiocommunications by troposcatters
• Radar and radio navigation services
• Wireless local loops (WLL) and WiMAX
1.7.7 SHF Band (3–30 GHz)
• Line-of-sight (LOS) microwave systems
• Fixed and mobile satellite networks
• Radar systems and military applications
• Over-horizon radiocommunication by troposcatters
• P-P, P-MP, and fixed radio access systems

1.8 Frequency Allocation 11
• TV satellite broadcasting
• Remote sensing from satellites
1.7.8 EHF Band (30–300 GHz)
• High-frequency microwave systems
• Broadband fixed wireless access
• Future satellite and high-altitude platforms applications
1.7.9 Micrometric and Nanometric Bands
• Space radiocommunications
• Special satellite communications
• Laser and infrared radiocommunications
• Fiber optics cable networks
1.8 Frequency Allocation
1.8.1 Introduction
Radio frequency band, as a limited natural radio resource, shall be allocated to
a variety of radio services stated in Sect. 1.2. Frequency band allocation shall
be studied carefully and be coordinated on worldwide basis. Major significant
considerations are:
• Geographical distribution
• Types of radio services
• Volume of communications traffic
• Technical limitations
• Radiowaves propagation characteristics
• Edge of radio technologies
ITU has spent a lot of efforts to prepare the Article 5 of radio regulation for
frequency allocation ranging from 9 kHz to 275 GHz bands. The table and related
footnotes have been revised several times and also will be modified in future taking
into account technical achievements and new arising services.

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content

success depends greatly on the skill of the rider, and not
unfrequently a horse of the purest blood may be outstripped by a
less noble animal. To each of the ten horses that have contended, a
name is assigned indicative of his degree of swiftness. Thus the one
that arrives first at the goal is called Modjalla, taking away,
because he takes away care from the heart of his master. The
second is named el Mousalli, from the word salouan, the extremity
of the buttocks, because he follows the first so closely that the
point of his nose touches the other's hindquarters. I must positively
be the mousalli, [that is, the second] if I consent to thy carrying off
the first prize. The third receives the surname of el Msali,
Consoling, because he consoles his master, who is content that
there is only one horse between his own and the winner. The fourth
is el Tali, or the Follower; the fifth el Mourtah, the fifth finger of
the hand; the sixth el Aâtif; the seventh el Hadi, the Lucky one,
because he has his share of success with the foremost; the eighth,
el Mouhammil, one who gives hopes, because he caused his
master to hope that he might be among the winners; the ninth, el
Lathim, or the Buffeted, because he has been humiliated and
rejected on all sides; and the tenth, el Sokeït, the Taciturn,
because his master undergoes the lowest humiliation without
uttering a word—shame closing his mouth. Of these ten horses
seven gain a prize, but the others obtain nothing. At the further end
of the course a vast tent is pitched, into which the seven winners are
admitted in order to shelter them, while the three others are
ignominiously driven away.
IN THE NAME OF ALLAH THE CLEMENT AND MERCIFUL.
We took part in the horse races. Though it was early morning the crowd was as
dense as at the season of pilgrimage.
Horses were brought from every quarter, but no one knows better than
ourselves how to rear and train them.
We arrived at the peep of day with horses whose hoofs were as hollow as cups.
The stars had announced good fortune to them.

They are drawn up according to the purity of their race. The noble is placed by
the side of the noble.
Among them is a black horse with robust limbs and adorned with a white mark
on his forehead. When he feels the bit in his mouth, he dashes off, clearing the
lines traced to indicate the goal.
The star that shines on his forehead equals the brilliancy of Mirzam.[53]
Then a dark bay with a black mane, endowed by nature with admirable
qualities, with a sleek skin, bearing also a star on his forehead, and a white mark
on the upper lip.
Next a horse completely black without a white spot anywhere, but participating
in the excellent qualities of the preceding.
They have been brought to excite the admiration of the spectators, impatient
to see them appear in the lists.
Horsemen mount them, hardy as bars of iron and short of stature. Their voice
is like the roaring of the lion.
Seated on their coursers they look like starlings hovering over the table-land of
a mountain.
At last they draw up in line. In the midst of the assembly of spectators, a man,
a Mussulman like the others, sits in the capacity of umpire. He has been chosen by
common accord as arbiter, and surely his awards will not be tainted with partiality.
The steeds let loose in the arena disperse immediately like pearls that fall from
a necklace, or like a covey of ketâa (gray partridges) discovered by a falcon that
swoops down upon them, attacking them with fury.
The black, with a white mark on the forehead, comes in first.
The bay with the dark mane is second, and the entirely black is without
reproach, for he runs in third.
The Tali is the fourth, and follows the others. But how far is the inhabitant of the
Tahama from the inhabitant of Nedjed!
The fifth, el Mourtah, is not to be blamed, for he has done as well as he could
do.
The Aâtif is the sixth. He comes in all trembling, and his fear well nigh stopped
him in mid-career.
The seventh is the Hadi. The awarder of prizes will give unto him his due.
The Mouhammil, who gave such hopes to his master, has come in the eighth.
He was mistaken. The unfortunate one encountered on his path the bird of ill
omen. He suffered seven horses to pass before him and ran in the eighth—but the
eighth horse is not one of the winners.
The ninth arrives at last. He is the Lathim, the buffeted one, and receives blows
from every one.

On his traces follows, capering about, the Sokeït, the Silent one, with trouble in
his face and humiliation on his forehead. The horseman who rides him at the tail
of the others is the object of reproaches from all sides, and still more so his
groom. It is of little use to ask who is his master,—no answer is to be had from
those whom shame has made dumb.
Whoso does not take to the race-course the horses that are most noble by
birth ought to repent of it.
In being present we have experienced the greatest gratification, without
speaking of the glory and advantages we have carried off.
In exchange for the seven reeds planted at the end of the course and carried
off by the first seven as they arrived, we have received magnificent presents, such
as it is seemly to offer.
Striped calico from Yemen, dyed of various colours, and haïks of silk and of
wool.
We carried off all these stuffs spread out over our horses, with borders red as
blood.
In addition to all this they gave us silver coins by thousands, but this silver we
never keep for ourselves. We distribute it among the servants who tend our
horses, though we ourselves tend these with our own hands far more carefully
than they do.
These are horses that never drink any but the purest water, and never feed on
any but the choicest food.
The Mussulman law distinguishes three ways of offering prizes for
horse racing. The first is positively permitted, the second is so
conditionally, and the third is utterly prohibited. In the first case,
some one entirely without interest in the result of the race offers a
prize, saying: Whoever shall be victor in the race shall gain the
prize. Kings, chiefs, and great personages whose rank or fortune
places them in an exalted position, sometimes propose prizes in this
manner, which is sanctioned without any condition. In the second
case, an individual interested in the race, says: I offer a prize which
shall be given to the one first in. This mode is allowed, with the
condition that if the donor himself is the first to arrive at the goal,
the prize shall be given to the assembly. The third manner is that by
which every one interested in the race offers a prize for the benefit
of him by whom he is beaten. This style of racing is nothing more

than a wager, and consequently is absolutely forbidden. Much more
is betting by persons not concerned in the race formally prohibited.

ABD-EL-KADER ON THE ARAB HORSE.
Having known the Emir Abd-el-Kader during the time I held the
office of French Consul at Mascara, from 1837 to 1839, and having
again met him at Toulon in 1847, whither I had been ordered on
special duty at the time of his first landing in France, I had full
opportunity in my numerous interviews with him to appreciate his
intimate acquaintance with all that related to the history of his
country, as well as to all questions of horse-flesh. I did not hesitate,
therefore, to ask his opinion on a subject of a purely scientific
nature, which may nevertheless be of great moment, not only for
the future interests of our colony, but for those of the country at
large. The following is his reply, written under date of the 8th
November, 1851.
Glory to the one God, whose reign alone endureth for ever!
Peace be with him who equals in good qualities all the men of his time, who
aims only at what is good, whose heart is pure and his word abiding, the wise, the
intelligent, the Lord General Daumas, on the part of your friend Sid-el-Hadj Abd-
el-Kader, son of Mahhi-Eddin.
Behold the reply to your inquiries:—
1st. You ask me how many days an Arab horse can march without rest and
without suffering too severely. Know, then, that a horse sound in every limb, that
eats as much barley as his stomach can contain, can do whatever his rider can ask
of him. For this reason the Arabs say: Give barley and over-work him. But
without tasking him overmuch, a horse can be made to do sixteen parasangs day
after day.[54] It is the distance from Mascara to Koudiat-Aghelizan on the Oued-
Mina; it has been measured in cubits. A horse performing this journey every day,
and having as much barley as it likes to eat, can go on, without fatigue, for three
or four months, without lying by a single day.
2nd. You ask me what distance a horse can accomplish in a day. I cannot tell
you very precisely, but it ought to be about fifty parasangs, or the distance from

Tlemcen to Mascara. However, an animal that has performed such a journey ought
to be carefully ridden on the following day, and allowed to do only a very much
shorter distance. Most of our horses used to go from Oran to Mascara in a single
day, and could repeat the journey for two or three consecutive days. On one
occasion we started from Saïda about eight in the morning to fall upon the Arbâa,
who were encamped at Aaïn-Toukria, among the Oulad-Aïad near Taza, and we
came up with them at break of day.
3rd. You ask for examples of the temperance of the Arab horse, and for proofs
of his power of enduring hunger and thirst. Know that when we were established
at the mouth of the Melouïa, we used to make razzias into the Djebel-Amour,
following the route of the Sahara, and on the day of attack pushing forward at the
gallop for five or six hours at a stretch—the entire expedition, going and returning,
being completed in twenty to twenty-five days at the outside. During this space of
time our horses had no barley except what they carried with them, about enough
for eight ordinary feeds. Nor did they find straw, or anything except the alfa and
shiehh, and grass in the spring time. And yet, on rejoining our people, we
performed the fantasia on our horses, and some among us burnt powder. Many,
too, who were not fresh enough for the latter exercise, were quite able to go upon
an expedition. Our horses would go a day or two without water, and once they
found none for three days. The horses of the Sahara do far more than that, for
they go three months without touching a grain of barley. Straw they meet with
only when they go to the Tell to buy grain, and for the most part feed on the alfa,
the shiehh, and sometimes the guetof. The shiehh is better than the alfa, but not
so good as the guetof. The Arabs say:
The alfa is good for marching,
The shiehh is good for fighting,
And the guetof is superior to barley.
In certain years the horses of the Sahara have gone the whole twelve months
without a grain of barley to eat, especially when the tribes have not been suffered
to enter the Tell. At such times the Arabs give dates to their horses, which is a
fattening food, and keeps them in condition for marching or fighting.
4th. You ask why, seeing the French do not mount their horses before they are
four years old, the Arabs mount theirs at a very early age. Know that the Arabs
say that horses, like men, are more easily taught when quite young. They have a
proverb:
The lessons of infancy are engraved upon stone,
The lessons of ripe age pass away like birds' nests.
They likewise say:
The young branch is made straight without much trouble,

But the old wood can never be straightened.
In the very first year, the Arabs teach the colt to let itself be led by the reseum,
a species of cavesson. They call it then djeda, and begin to fasten and bridle it. As
soon as it has become teni, that is, as soon as it has entered on its second year,
they ride it a mile or two, or even a parasang, and after it has completed eighteen
months they do not fear to fatigue it. When it has become rebâa telata, that is,
when it has entered on its third year, they tie it up, cease to ride it, cover it with a
good djellal, and get it into condition. They say:
In his first year, tie him up lest he should meet with an accident;
In his second year, ride him until his back bends;
In his third year, again tie him up, and after that, if he does not
suit you, sell him.
If a horse is not ridden before his third year, it is certain that he will never be
good for anything but to gallop, which he does not need to learn, as it is his
nature to do so: an idea thus expressed by the Arabs: The noble horse gallops
according to his race—that is, a thoroughbred horse has no occasion to be taught
to gallop.
5th. You ask me how it is, seeing that the foal derives more qualities from its
sire than from its dam, that mares are always higher priced than horses. The
reason is this. He who buys a mare does so with the expectation that he will not
only be able to make use of her for the saddle, but will also obtain from her a
numerous stock; while he who buys a horse cannot hope to get any other
advantage out of him than by riding him.
6th. You ask me if the Arabs of the Sahara keep registers to establish the
descent of their horses. Know that the inhabitants of the Algerian Sahara do not,
any more than those of the Tell, concern themselves with these registers. The
notoriety of the fact suffices them; for pedigree of their blood horses is as well
known to every one as that of their masters. I have heard it said that some
families possessed these written genealogies, but I cannot answer for the fact.
Such books, however, are kept in the East.
7th. You ask me which are the tribes of Algeria the most renowned for the pure
breed of their horses. Know that the best horses of the Sahara are unquestionably
those of Hamyân. They possess none but excellent animals, because they never
employ them to till the ground, or as beasts of burden. They employ them solely
on expeditions and in battle. These are superior to all others in endurance of
hunger, thirst, and fatigue. Next in order come the horses of the Harar, the Arbâa,
and the Oulad-Naïl. In the Tell, the horses in the first rank for nobility of race, for
height and beauty of mould, are those of the Shelif, especially those of the Oulad-
Sidi-Ben-Abd-Allah, near the Mina, and those of the Oulad-Sidi-Hassan, a section
of the Oulad-Sidi-Dahhou, who dwell in the highlands of Mascara. The fleetest in

the race-course, and at the same time of a beautiful shape, are those of the
Flittas, the Oulad-Sherif, and the Oulad-Lekreud. The best for traversing stony
ground, without being shod, are those of the Hassasna in the Yakoubia. The
following words are ascribed to Mulay-Ishmael, the celebrated Sultan of Morocco.
May my horse have been reared in the Mâz,
And watered in the Biaz.
The Mâz is a district of the Hassasna, and the Biaz is the stream known by the
name of Foufet, that flows through their territory. The horses of the Oulad-Khaled
are also famous for the same qualities. In reference to this tribe Sidi-Ahmed-Ben-
Youssel has said: The long locks and the long djellals will lie seen in the midst of
you to the day of the resurrection, thus eulogising their women and their horses.
8th. You say that people maintain against you that the horses of Algeria are not
Arabs but Barbs. It is a theory that turns against its own authors, for the Barbs
were originally Arabs. A well-known writer has said: The Berbers inhabit the
Mogheb. They are all sons of Kaïs-Ben-Ghilan. It is likewise stated that they spring
from two great Hemiarite tribes, the Senahdja and the Kettama, who came into
the country at the time of the invasion of Ifrikesh El Malik. According to both
these opinions, the Berbers are decidedly Arabs. Historians, moreover, establish
the descent of most of the Berber tribes from the Senahdja and the Kettama. The
arrival of these tribes was anterior to Islam. Since the Mussulman invasion the
number of Arabs who have emigrated into the Mogheb is beyond computation.
When the Obeïdin [the Fatimites] were masters of Egypt, immense tribes passed
into Africa, among others the Riahh, and spread themselves from Kaïrouan to
Merrakesh [Morocco]. It is from these tribes that are descended the Algerian tribes
of the Douaouda, the Aïad, the Mâdid, the Oulad-Mahdi, the Oulad-Iakoub-Zerara,
the Djendel, the Attaf, the Hamïs, the Braze, the Sbeha, the Flittas, the Medjahar,
the Mehal, the Beni-Aâmer, the Hamian, and many more. Without doubt the Arab
horses were dispersed through the Mogheb in like manner with the Arab families.
At the time of Ifrikesh-ben-Kaïf, the empire of the Arabs was all powerful. It
extended as far west as the confines of the Mogheb, just as in the time of Shamar
the Hemiarite it extended eastward to the frontiers of China, as it is related by
Ben-Kouteïba in his book entitled El Marif.
It is quite true, however, that although the Algerian horses come of Arab stock,
many have degenerated from their nobleness from being employed much too
often in the plough, in carrying and drawing heavy loads, and in other kinds of
labour, and from other causes which did not exist among the Arabs of the olden
times. It is sufficient, they say, for a horse to have walked over ploughed land to
lose something of his excellence, and by way of illustration they relate the
following anecdote:
A man was riding one day, mounted on a thoroughbred, when he met his
enemy also mounted on a noble courser. The one turned and fled, while the other

gave chace. The latter was distanced, and despairing to overtake the former, cried
out to him:
I demand of thee in the name of Allah, has thy horse ever been in the plough?
He has ploughed for four days.
Ah! mine has never been in the plough. By the head of the Prophet, I am
certain to overtake thee.
He then followed up the pursuit and towards the end of the day the pursued
began to lose ground and the pursuer to gain upon him. At last the latter
succeeded in coming up with and combating him whom he had at first despaired
of overtaking.
My father—Allah be merciful to him!—was in the habit of saying: 'There was no
blessing for our land since we converted our coursers into beasts of burden and
tillage. Did not Allah create the horse for riding, the ox for the plough, and the
camel for the transport of burdens? There is nothing to be gained by changing the
ways of Allah.'
9th. You ask me further what is our practice with regard to the keep and
maintenance of our horses. Know that the master of a horse gives him very little
barley to begin with, and goes on increasing the quantity little by little, until he
fails to consume it all, when the quantity is reduced and afterwards maintained at
the exact measure of his appetite. The best time of day for giving barley is the
evening. Unless on a journey, it is useless to give it in the morning. The best way
is to give it to the horse saddled and girthed, just as the best way of watering him
is with the bridle on. There is a saying.
Water with the bridle,
And barley with the saddle.
The Arabs greatly prefer a horse that eats little, provided he does not lose
strength. Such a one, say they, is a priceless treasure. To water a horse at sunrise,
makes him lose flesh. To water him in the evening, puts him into good condition.
To water him in the middle of the day, keeps him as he is. During the great heats
which last for forty days, the Arabs water their horses only every second day: a
custom, they assert, attended with beneficial effects. In summer, autumn, and
winter they throw an armful of straw to their horses; but the substance of their
keep is barley, in preference to every other kind of food. They say: Had we not
seen that horses come from horses, we should have said that it is the barley that
produces them. Again:
Of forbidden flesh, choose the lightest, that is, choose a horse that is light and
nimble—horse-flesh being forbidden to Mussulmans.
No one becomes a horseman until he has been often thrown.
Thoroughbred horses have no vice.

A horse in a leading-string is an honour to his master.
Horses are birds without wings.
No distance is far for a horse.
Whoso forgets the beauty of horses for that of women will never prosper.
Horses know their riders.
The pious Ben-el-Abbas—Allah be good to him!—hath said:
Love horses and take care of them,
Spare no trouble;
By them comes honour, by them comes beauty.
If horses are forsaken of men,
I will receive them into my family,
I will share with them the bread of my children;
My wives clothe them with their veils,
And cover themselves with the horse-cloths;
I ride them every day
Over the field of adventures;
Carried away in their impetuous career
I combat the most valiant.
I have finished the letter which our brother and companion, the
friend of all men, the Commandant Sidi-Bou-Senna [Boissonnet], will
cause to be delivered into your hands. Peace!

THE WAR HORSE.
AN ARAB CHAUNT.
My steed is black as a night without moon or stars;
He was foaled in vast solitudes;
He is an air-drinker, son of an air-drinker.
His dam also was of noble race,
And our horsemen of the days of powder have surnamed him Sabok.
[55]
The lightning flash itself cannot overtake him:
Allah save him from the evil eye!
His ears vie with those of the gazelle,
His eyes are the eyes of a woman with wiles,
His forehead resembles that of a bull,
His nostrils the cavern of a lion.
His neck, shoulders, and croup are long,
He is broad in the seat, in the limbs and flanks,
He has the tail of a viper, the thighs of an ostrich,
And his vigorous heels are lifted above the ground.
I reckon upon him as upon my own heart.
Never has mortal mounted his equal.
His flesh is firmer than that of the zebra;
He has the short gallop of the fox,
The easy and prolonged running of the wolf;
He accomplishes in one day a five days' march;
And when he stretches out at full speed,
he strikes the girts with his hocks.

You would say that it was a dart hurled by fate,
Or a thirsty pigeon that precipitates itself
Upon the water preserved in the hollow of a rock.
Yes, Sabok is a war horse!
He loves the chace of savage animals,
He sighs only for glory and booty,
And the cries of our virgins excite his ardour.
When I urge him into the midst of dangers,
His neighing summons the vultures
And makes my enemies tremble;
On his back, death cannot overtake me,
It fears the sound of his hoofs.
Aâtika[56]
said to me: Come and be without a companion!
Docile as the sabre one draws from the sheath,
Sabok hears my spurs, and divines my thoughts;
He cleaves through space like a falcon regaining its nest,
And when I arrive near her whose eyes are languishing,
Alone, in the midst of peril, patient and immovable,
He champs his bit until my return.
By the head of the Prophet, this horse is the resource of caravans,
The ornament of a tent, and the honour of my tribe.
I am an Arab. I know how to command and to combat,
My name protects the feeble and the afflicted,
My flocks are the reserve of the poor,
And the stranger in my tent is named The Welcome One.
The Almighty hath loaded me with his gifts,
But time turns upon itself, and turns back,
And if I must drink one day of the two cups of life,
I will show that adversity cannot humiliate my soul.
My virtue shall be resignation,
My fortune, contempt of riches,
My happiness, the hope of another life;
And if poverty were to grasp me by the throat,

I would not the less glorify Allah.

PART SECOND
THE MANNERS OF THE DESERT

THE EMIR ABD-EL-KADER ON THE HORSE.
It is certain that the Arabs are the most experienced horsemen in
the world. They know a horse thoroughly and minutely, and can rear
and train one better than any other people. It is also certain that the
Arab horses are better than those of all other nations. A sufficient
proof of this is that they always finish by overtaking the gazelle, the
ostrich, and the wild ass, which they sometimes pursue to a great
distance.
He has chased the onager, the buffalo, and the ostrich, without
once pulling up, and without a single drop of sweat moistening his
coat.
The nature of the horses of the Sahara is a consequence of the
life led by their masters. The Saharenes are obliged to accustom
their horses to support hunger through the scarcity of food, and
likewise thirst through the scarcity of water, which is frequently not
to be found within a couple of day's march of the encampment.
Endurance of fatigue and speed are the result of the countless
quarrels of these Arabs, their incessant hostile excursions, and their
fondness for the chace of the swiftest animals, such as the ostrich,
the gazelle, and the wild ass, which some among them hunt the
whole year round without interruption.
The Most High hath said: Put on foot all the forces you can
dispose of, and hold in readiness a large number of horses, to
intimidate the enemies of Allah and your own, and yet others, whom
you know not but who are known to Allah. Whatever you shall have
expended in the service of Allah, shall be recompensed to you. You
will not be forsaken.

And the Prophet never ceased to repeat:
Whoso possesses an Arab horse and honours him, will be
honoured of Allah.
Whoso possesses an Arab horse and contemns him, will be
contemned of Allah.

THE SAHARA
BY ABD-EL-KADER.
Glory to God alone!
O thou who takest up the defence of the hader[57]
And condemnest the love of the bedoui[58]
for his boundless
horizons!
Is it for their lightness that thou findest fault with our tents?
Hast thou no word of praise but for houses of wood and stone?
If thou knewest the secrets of the desert, thou wouldst think like
me:
But thou art ignorant, and ignorance is the other of evil.
If thou hadst waked up in the middle of the Sahara,
If thy feet had trampled this carpet of sand,
Sprinkled with flowers like to pearls,
Thou wouldst have admired our plants,
The singular variety of their hues,
Their grace, their delicious perfume;

Thou wouldst have drawn in this balmy breath which
doubles life, for it has not passed over the impurity of
cities.
If, going out some splendid night,
Cooled by an abundant dew,
From the summit of a merkeb,[59]
Thou hadst cast thy eyes round thee,
Thou wouldst have seen far away and on all sides
troops of wild animals
Browsing the fragrant shrubs.
At that moment all care would have fled from before
thee.
Overflowing joy would have filled thy soul.
What a charm, too, in our hunting! At sunrise,
Through us every day brings terror to the savage
beast.
And the day of the rahil,[60]
when our red haouadjej[61]
are
fastened on our camels,
Thou wouldst have said that a field of anemones were
bedecking themselves, under the rain, with their richest
colours.
Upon our haouadjej recline our virgins;
Their taka[62]
are closed by houri eyes.
The conductors of their animals raise their shrill
chaunt;
The tone of their voice finds the door of the soul.

We, swift as the air, on our generous coursers,
The shelils[63]
waving over their croups,
We give chace to the houache.[64]
We overtake the ghezal,[65]
that fancies itself far from us.
It escapes not from our horses at full speed,
With thin flanks.
How many delim[66]
with their females became our prey!
Although their running is not less rapid than the
flight of other birds.
We return to our families at the hour of halt,
On a new camping ground, free from pollution.
The earth exhales the odour of musk,[67]
But purer than it,
It has been cleansed by the rains
Of evening and morning.
We pitch our tents in circular groups;
The earth is covered with them, as is the firmament
with stars.
They of old time have said, who are no more, but our
fathers have repeated it,
And we say as they did, for truth is always truth:
Two things are beautiful in this world,
Beautiful verses and beautiful tents.
In the evening, our camels come up to us;
At night the voice of the male is heard like distant
thunder.

Light ships of the land,
Safer than ships,
For a ship is inconstant;
Our maharis[68]
rival in speed the maha.[69]
And our horses—is there a glory like unto theirs?
Always saddled for the fight,
When any one invokes our aid,
They are the promise of victory.
Our enemies have no place of refuge against our blows,
For our coursers, celebrated by the Prophet,
swoop upon them like the vulture.
Our coursers have the purest milk to drink,
The milk of the camel, more precious than that of the cow.
Our first care is to divide the booty we have taken from the enemy.
Equity presides at the distribution.
Every one receives the due reward of his valour.
We have sold our rights of citizenship. We have no reason to regret
the bargain.
We have gained honour, of which the hader knows nothing.
We are Kings. There is none to be compared with us.
Is it life to undergo humiliation?
We suffer not the insults of the unjust. We leave him and his land.
True happiness is in wandering life.

If contact with our neighbour annoys us,
We withdraw from him—neither he, nor we, have anything to
complain of.
What fault, then, hast thou to find with the bedoui?
Nothing but his love of glory, and his liberality that knows no
stint.
Under the tent, the fire of hospitality is kindled for the
traveller.
He finds, whoever he may be, a sure remedy against cold and
hunger.
Ages have told of the salubrity of the Sahara.
All disease and sickness dwell only beneath the roof of cities.
In the Sahara, whoever is not reaped by the sword sees days
without
number;
Our old men are the most aged of all men.

THE RAZZIA.
The most frequent and almost daily incident of Arab life is the
razzia. Glory is a fine ting, no doubt, and in the Sahara hearts are as
open to its fascination as elsewhere. But there, the idea of glory is to
injure the enemy and destroy his resources, and at the same time
augment one's own. Glory is not smoke, but plunder. The thirst for
revenge is also a motive; but what vengeance is sweeter than to
enrich oneself with the spoils of one's enemy? This threefold craving
for glory, revenge, and plunder, could not possibly be gratified more
promptly or efficaciously than by the razzia—the invasion by force or
stratagem of the ground occupied by the foe, which contains all that
is dear to him, his family and his fortune.
In the desert, there are three kinds of razzia. First of all there is
the tehha [the falling, from the verb tahh, it is fallen], which
takes place at the fedjeur, or dawn of day. In a tehha, the object is
not pillage, but massacre: no thought is given to riches, but all to
vengeance. The next is the khrotefa, which comes off at el aasseur,
or two or three in the afternoon, and means nothing but rapine. And
lastly, the terbigue, which is neither war, nor an affair of brigandage,
but, at most, a thievish operation. The terbigue is attempted at nous
el leïl, or midnight. When a razzia is determined upon, those who
propose to take part in it say to one another Rana akeud, we are a
knot. The enterprise is arranged, the association formed, and a
compact concluded—compact of life and death.
THE TEHHA.

When a tehha is contemplated, the sheikh issues orders to shoe
the horses, to prepare food, and to provide a supply of barley for
five or six days, more or less. These provisions are put into a
semmât, or wallet, each taking his own. Previous to setting out, two
or three mounted scouts are sent forward to reconnoitre the position
of the enemy they propose to attack. The scouts are men of
intelligence, well mounted, acquainted with the country, and
circumspect. They take every precaution and make a great circuit, so
that in the event of a surprise, they will appear from a quarter
whence those whom they intend to assail are accustomed to see
only friends appear. On arriving near to their destination, they place
themselves in ambush, and one of them, separating from the band,
penetrates on foot to the very heart of the douar, without exciting
the slightest suspicion. As soon as they have obtained the necessary
information respecting the numbers and disposition of the enemy,
they retrace their steps and rejoin the goum, who await them at a
spot previously agreed upon. Like the scouts they, too, have
followed a path little calculated to inspire with apprehension those
whom they propose to surprise. All necessary intelligence having
been obtained, and the foe being now near at hand, it is arranged to
fall upon him at the dawn of day, because at that hour they will find
The wife without her girdle,
And the mare without her bridle.
Before dashing into the mêlée, the leaders address to their
followers a few impassioned words: Listen. Let no one think of
despoiling the women, driving off the horses, entering the tents, or
alighting for purposes of plunder, before taking many lives. Bear in
mind that we have to do with 'children of sin,' who will defend
themselves vigourously. These people have butchered our brethren.
No mercy! Kill! Kill! if you desire at the same time to take revenge
and the goods of your enemies. I tell you again they will not give
these up to you without a struggle. The goum then breaks up into
three or four bands, with a view to strike terror into the assailed
from several different quarters at the same time. As soon as they are

within range they open fire, but not a cry is uttered until their fire-
arms have made themselves heard.
These razzias are for the most part frightful scenes of carnage.
The men, taken off their guard, are nearly all put to the sword, but
the women are merely stripped of their clothing and jewels. If time
permit, the victors carry off with them the tents, the negroes, the
horses, and the flocks, leaving the women and the children, for in
the desert no one ever burdens himself with prisoners. On their
return the flocks are committed to the custody of a few horsemen,
while the others form themselves into a strong rearguard to cover
the retreat. On reaching the douar, the combatants divide among
themselves the flocks and the booty captured without personal risk,
and give to the sheikh, over and above his share, thirty or forty
ewes, or three or four camels, as the case may be, besides
bestowing a special gratuity on the horsemen who were sent
forward as scouts.
Previous to attempting an enterprise of this kind each tribe places
itself under the protection of a particular marabout to whom it is in
the habit of applying in difficult circumstances. In the eyes of the
Saharene, to plunder an enemy, though an incident of no uncommon
occurrence, is an affair by no means devoid of solemnity. It is thus
that the tribe of the Arbâa regard as their regular and accredited
marabout Sidi-Hamed-ben-Salem-Ould-Tedjiny. A successful razzia is
celebrated by great rejoicings. In each tent an ouadâa, or feast, is
prepared in honour of the marabouts, to which are invited the poor,
the tolbas, or men of letters, the widows, the farriers, and the free
negroes.
The tehha is usually achieved with five or six hundred horses, and
not unfrequently foot-soldiers accompany the expedition, mounted
on camels. Sometimes the tribe that is to be attacked has received
timely warning, and been able to adopt measures for defence. The
horses are saddled, the arms ready to the hand. A combat takes
place, instead of a massacre, and many fall on both sides. The
assailants, however, have usually the advantage, as they are not

embarrassed with women and children like their adversaries; and it
rarely happens that they return home without booty.
Perhaps I cannot do better than reproduce in this place one of
those popular chaunts which so well depict the rage and the varying
fortune of these bloody struggles, that generally originate in love or
jealousy.
My horse is whiter than snow,
Whiter than the winding-sheet of men;
He will bound like a gazelle,
And will bear me to the tent of thy father.
O Yamina, fools are they who foster thy pride,
Greater fools they who tell me to forget thee!
Would that I were the pin[70]
of thy haïk;
A lock of thy black hair,
The meroueud[71]
that blackens thy eyes,
Or, still better, the carpet thou tramplest under foot.
I watered my horse at the fountain-head,
Then lightly leaped on his back.
My chabir are glued to his flanks,
And I have faith in my arms as I have faith in my own heart
They betrayed me for the moon of my soul,
But time shall betray them also.
By Allah, O ye vultures!
Why hover ye in the air?
I ask of Allah to grant us one of those bloody combats,
In which every one can die in health and not of disease.
You will pass days and nights in gorging yourselves!
Our lives and those of our horses,
Do they not belong to our maidens?
Away, strangers, away!
Leave the flowers of our plains
To the bees of the country.

Away, strangers, away!
O the generous One! Behold, then, the night
In which our goums shall burn powder
Close to the very douar of Yamina,
While the women are yet without their girdles,
And the horses have iron fastenings on their feet,
Before the aâtatouche[72]
has been placed on the backs of
camels,
And the horsemen have drawn on their temag.
Grant that I may receive seven balls in my burnous,
Seven balls in my steed,
And that I may place seven[73]
in the body of my rival.
The best of all loves is that which causes gnashing of teeth.
Strike out, young men, strike out![74]
The bullets do not slay;
It is fate alone that takes life.
Strike out, young men, strike out!
The horse of Kaddour is dead, the horse of Kaddour is dead!
Publish it through your tribes, for they will rejoice at it;
But, if you are not Jews,
Add that, bleeding and wounded,
He was able to save his master and bear him out of the mêlée.
He was not one to be false to his ancestors,
Never had he been trained to flee,
He knew only how to throw himself on the foe.
Merouan is dead for Yamina—his days were counted!
O my heart! why art thou so bent
To make the waters flow back to the mountains?
Thou art the madman who giveth chace to the sun!
Believe me; cease to love a woman
Who will never say to thee, Yes.
The seed sown in a sebkha[75]

Will never produce ears of corn.
THE KHROTEFA.
The object of the razzia called khrotefa is to carry off a flock of
camels grazing at a distance of seven or eight leagues from the
tribe. From a hundred and fifty to two hundred horsemen join
together as a knot and set out on the expedition. The
reconnaissance is conducted in the same manner as for the tehha,
only the arrangements are made with a view to arrive at the
appointed spot towards el aasseur—three or four in the afternoon—
and not at the fedjeur, or dawn of day.
When the razzia has been accomplished, and four, five, or six ybal
—or flocks of one hundred camels each—have been driven off, they
divide into two parties. The one, consisting of the weakest horses,
goes forward with the booty, while the other forms a sort of
rearguard whose duty it is, if necessary, to make head against the
enemy. After appointing a rendez-vous for the morrow, the parties
separate; but, in order to throw out the pursuers, those who are to
check the enemy follow a different path to that taken by the drivers
of the flocks.
In these forays the shepherds are usually spared; nor do they,
indeed, take much trouble to defend property that does not belong
to them. But the noise and shouting soon give the alarm. Every one
saddles his horse and gallops forward; then they halt and rally, and
finally appear in force upon the ground. Here again the assailants
have every chance in their favour. They are on the look-out, and
ready to receive the enemy. Their horses have had time to rest,
while those of the tribe that has been plundered are exhausted and
blown. Musket shots are nevertheless exchanged, but night
supervenes; and, as soon as the darkness has thickened so that the
eye begins to grow black, the plunderers decamp and go off at full
gallop to rejoin their comrades, whom they overtake at sunrise. The
pursuit lasts but a short time. The conviction that the camels cannot

be recovered, and the fear of falling into an ambuscade, soon induce
the plundered tribe to return to their tents.
Although the actual fighting incidental to this kind of expedition is
devoid of animation and soon interrupted by nightfall, they who take
part in it do not the less run considerable risk. A horseman may
receive a wound sufficiently severe to disable him from continuing
his march. In that case he is lost, unless he happen to be a
personage of distinction, for then he is certain not to be deserted.
Some strong, vigourous fellow takes charge of him, lifts him up,
places him across his saddle, and carries him home dead or alive. As
for slight wounds, with the Arab saddle they do not give much
trouble, nor do they prevent the return to the goum. On rejoining
the tribe, the spoils are divided among those who shared in the
khrotefa.
THE TERBIGUE.
In a terbigue not more than fifteen to twenty horsemen make a
knot, and propose to drive off the flocks from the very middle of a
douar. They send some of their party to reconnoitre the tribe, and
arrive close to the tents on one of the darkest nights. An isolated
douar is selected, to which they approach as near as two or three
hundred paces. Three of them dismount and stop, while one goes
round to the opposite side, and makes a noise to attract the
attention of the dogs. The people of the tribe fancy it is a passing
hyæna, or a jackal, and take no notice of it. In the meanwhile the
two other robbers penetrate into the interior of the douar, loosen
the fastenings of ten, fifteen, or twenty camels, according as fortune
favours them, and knock their shoes together, to frighten the
liberated animals and cause them to run away. They then make off
as quickly as they can, rejoin their horses, and all assist in collecting
the scattered camels. After that they separate into two bands, one
of which conducts the captured animals, while the others, lagging a
little behind, allow themselves to be pursued in a different direction.
If by chance they have succeeded in letting loose the faâle, or

stallion, their success is certain, for all the females strive to follow
him.
Since, in these operations, the secret is generally well kept, they
seldom fail, nor are accidents at all common. Should the douar be on
its guard, the attacking party at once retires. They who venture
upon such enterprises are usually well mounted, and speedily
escape from a pursuit that is rendered almost impossible by the
obscurity which effaces all traces and inspires dread of ambush. For
a razzia of this sort, they do not hesitate to go thirty or forty
leagues.
Sometimes incidents of a grotesque nature characterise the
terbigue. When a party of horsemen does not care to leave a
reserve to fight the enemy, they conceal themselves in an
ambuscade seven or eight hundred steps from the douar; while the
most experienced robber of the band strips himself naked, and,
taking only his sword with him and tying his shoes to his head to
look like enormous ears, penetrates into the douar. He carries in his
hand an old saddle-bow, which he shakes in all directions, every now
and striking the earth. To this dull sound he joins cries of alarm and
terror: The goum! the goum! up! up! We are betrayed! The
clamour, the jumping about, the strange aspect of the individual,
and the noise of the saddle which he keeps on shaking, strike terror
into the animals. Horses, sheep, and camels rush pell-mell out of the
douar, and are caught by the concealed horsemen. The others rush
out of their tents, snatch up their guns, and spring into the saddle;
but flocks and plunderers are already far away, fleeing at full speed,
and protected by the night.

THE KHRIANA, OR THEFT.
The terbigue is, in fact, a robbery, but it is at the same time
almost a warlike operation—it is, at least, a razzia. The strength of
the party that executes the enterprise, the importance of the wrong
inflicted upon an entire division of a tribe, the high qualities of the
perpetrators of the robbery, who, after all, are real warriors,—all
these circumstances taken together, if they do not suffice as a
justification in the eyes of scrupulous Europeans, are esteemed in
the desert as extremely plausible motives. Since a few brave and
reckless fellows have imperilled their lives to injure a hostile tribe,
there cannot be otherwise than joy and triumph in that to which
they belong.
In the khriana, however, we descend a step lower, and arrive at a
mere marauding expedition, executed by professional thieves. It is
no longer war, even in miniature—it is nothing more than theft. It is
no longer a subject of rejoicing for a whole tribe, though still a
matter for praise and congratulation among friends; always provided
the robbery has not been committed on their own or on a friendly
tribe—which would be a disgrace—but absolutely on an enemy. They
say, Such a one is a brave man—he robs the enemy. As may
readily be imagined, all thefts are not managed in the same manner,
but are adapted to the nature of the capture that is proposed to be
made.
HORSE-STEALING.
This species of theft is practised towards the end of the
Mussulman month. When the moon is scarcely visible, five or six

men, having a proper understanding between themselves, take a
supply of provisions with them in their wallets, and go forth in
search of adventures. Before starting, they give alms to the poor,
and intreat them to intercede with Allah for the success of their
enterprise. They then swear by some well-known marabout,
generally Sidi Abd-el-Kader, that, if they succeed, they will do him
homage by putting aside a portion for the unfortunate. O Sidi Abd-
el-Kader, they exclaim, if we return with joy, loaded with spoils and
free from accident, we will give thee thy lance's share, if it please
Allah!
On leaving the douar the robbers travel in broad daylight, but, as
they approach the tribe they propose to rob, they proceed only at
night, and conceal themselves, when two or three leagues from the
tents, in the bed of a river, or among the herbage, or in the
mountains. As soon as the darkness has become dense, they issue
from their hiding-place and try the different douars one after the
other, stopping at last at that which seems the least securely
guarded, and where the dogs are the least wakeful. If the robbers
are six in number, four of them remain about fifty paces from the
douar, silent and motionless, while the two others, the most daring
and adroit, make their way into the interior. Before separating, they
agree upon a pass-word; and then the two thieves go to work. If
they find the dogs on the watch, they return for a third companion,
whom they station a little way off, in front of the tent guarded by the
vigilant dogs, and they themselves enter the douar from another
quarter. They agree upon the tent they propose to rob; and while
one of them, called the gaad, remains as a sentinel beside it, the
other, the hammaze, pushes on to the horses. If the latter comes
upon a horse or a mare, fastened only by leather thongs ropes, he
unties or cuts the knot, seizes the animal by the goulada, or
necklace of talismans, and leads it to the side opposite to where the
dogs are held engaged by the layahh,[76]
the third accomplice who
was stationed for that purpose in front of the tent. The gaad stays
behind ready to shoot with a pistol, or to knock down with a stone
or stick, the first man who comes out of the tent, and then to

mislead the rest by flying in a direction different to that taken by his
comrade with the horse. He then rejoins the layahh, and the two
quickly come up with the hammaze, when all three return to their
expectant companions. A second robbery is committed, if the douar,
buried in sleep, has had no suspicion of what was going on;
otherwise they prepare for flight. One of them, placing his folded
haïk on the back of the horse so as to use it for stirrups, starts
forward at a gallop, after naming a rendez-vous for the morrow or
the day after. The others, to escape from the pursuit which is sure to
be instituted in the morning, hide themselves during the whole of
the first night. The one who mounted the horse only continues his
flight if the theft has been committed in the first hours of the night;
otherwise, he passes the whole of the morrow concealed in a dry
and stony spot, where the animal would leave no trace.
Should the fastenings of the horse, instead of being woollen, be of
iron, the operation is more difficult. The preliminary arrangements
are the same, but, once fairly at work, the hammaze cautiously
raises the clog up to the knee, and binds it there with his camel's
rope, which he throws round the animal's neck, and leads it out very
slowly. As soon as he has rejoined his comrades and is sufficiently
far from the scene of his exploits, he bethinks him of giving his prize
the liberty that is still wanting. He therefore removes the clog by
means of a small saw, or picklock; at the worst he turns the padlock
to the outside of the animal's legs and shatters it with a pistol ball,
or else fills it with powder and blows it open. The explosion,
however, rouses the owners of the animal, who set out in search of
it, but nearly always in vain. The night is dark, and the robbers
separate; though, if things come to the worst, they abandon their
prize to save their lives.
Sometime the master of a tent is troubled by the barking of the
dogs, and awakens his people by calling out to them, El hayi rah
hena, there is somebody here. They go out, and, finding nothing,
they conclude that a hyæna, or a jackal, has occasioned the uproar,
and so turn in again. The thieves then come out of their hiding-

places, and perhaps proceed to some other douar that is less upon
the watch.
In preparing for a khriana, each one provides himself with a pistol
which he secretes under his burnous, a knife, a thick cudgel with a
cord at one end, and a poniard. If a robber fancies that the dogs will
distinguish him because of the whiteness of his garments, he leaves
them with his comrades, and enters the douar entirely naked, his
knife in one hand and the cudgel in the other. It is a popular belief in
the Sahara that a man in a complete state of nudity is invisible in a
dark night. A vicious horse, or one that is thoroughbred, or entire, is
safe from robbers. Their habit of neighing on seeing a man would
betray the plunderers. To avoid being scented by the dogs the
precaution is taken to stalk up the wind. There are likewise other
details which should not be neglected—the absence of moonlight,
for instance. The twenty-first of the Mussulman month is the right
time for setting out, and the night of the twenty-second is usually
the most favourable for the execution of the enterprise. Dust and a
high wind are useful allies, but rain is treacherous, for, by moistening
the soil so as to retain foot-marks, it favours the pursuit. The cold
season is the best for robberies of this character. There is a common
saying: In winter, cattle-stealing, because the dog sleeps in the
tent. In summer, theft in the tent, because the dog goes away to
sleep.
Like all other Arabs, the robber believes that Allah does not
disdain to give him warnings—whence superstitious hopes and fears.
If, on leaving the douar, he meets a black mare, dirty, lean, and
altogether in bad condition, it is an evil omen and he goes back
again. Another bad sign is to hear yourself called by people who
know not whither you are going. To see two partridges is an
auspicious augury, but one by itself portends calamity. To find
yourself, on starting, confronted by a cheerful, courageous person,
well dressed, and well mounted, infallibly betokens success. An old
woman, blind or maimed, and covered with rags, will certainly
prevent you from succeeding. Start, however, with perfect
confidence, if you have met a beautiful woman, richly dressed, to

whom you have said: Open thy girdle, Fatma, for that will bring us
good fortune. She will not refuse to open to you the door to riches.
It is equally desirable to see on one's road a woman carrying milk,
and to drink a mouthful of it.
On their return, the robbers divide their spoils. The vow made to
the marabouts who were invoked is scrupulously fulfilled. The chief
of the douar, and the woman who opened her girdle, each receives
a present. The share that falls to the lot of the hammaze is the
largest; for it is he who has played the most important part, and
incurred the greatest risks.
CAMEL-STEALING.
Camel-stealing is practised in the same manner as horse-stealing.
They choose full grown camels,—or, at least, such as no longer cry—
or she-camels with foal. Having removed the clogs, the robbers prick
the animal with a poniard or knife to make it go off, and get on its
back as soon as they are far enough away from the tents. All that
night they travel on, and if at daybreak they do not feel that they
have gone sufficiently far to escape the pursuit of horsemen, they
halt and conceal themselves in a spot the soil of which does not
retain foot-marks. The pursuers give up the chace if they find no
traces of the fugitives. In the other event they often recover what
they have lost; and, unless the robbers let go their prize and hide
themselves, they may pay for their daring with their life.[77]
This is
the supreme moment for invocations and vows. O Sidi Abd-el-
Kader, cries the robber, on seeing the enemy close at hand, and in
dread of discovery, if thou wilt save us yet this one time, we will
make in thy honour an ouadâa for the poor. In the Sahara, Sidi
Abd-el-Kader-el-Djilaly is the patron of robbers. This very
undesirable patronage is due to the charity of the holy marabout,
who shrinks from leaving in trouble those who invoke his name.
SHEEP-STEALING.

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