Provisions

Provisions
Depreciation.—
(1) Subject to this section, a person shall be allowed a
deduction for the depreciation of the person‘s depreciable
assets used in the person‘s business in the tax year.
(2) Subject to sub-section (3), the depreciation deduction for a
tax year shall be computed by applying the rate specified in
Part I of the Third Schedule against the written down value of
the asset at the beginning of the year.
(3) Where a depreciable asset is used in a tax year partly in
deriving income from business chargeable to tax and partly for
another use, the deduction allowed under this section for that
year shall be restricted to the fair proportional part of the
amount that would be allowed if the asset 4[was] wholly used
to 5[derive] income from business chargeable to tax.

Provisions
Depreciation.—
(5) The written down value of a depreciable asset of a person
at the beginning of the tax year shall be
(a) where the asset was acquired in the tax year, the cost of
the asset to the person as reduced by any initial allowance in
respect of the asset under section 23; or
(b) in any other case, the cost of the asset to the person as
reduced by the total depreciation deductions (including any
initial allowance under section 23) allowed to the person in
respect of the asset in previous tax years.
(6) Where sub-section (3) applies to a depreciable asset for a
tax year, the written down value of the asset shall be
computed on the basis that the asset has been solely used to
derive income from business chargeable to tax.
(7) The total deductions allowed to a person during the period
of ownership of a depreciable asset under this section and
section 23 shall not exceed the cost of the asset.

Provisions
Depreciation.—
(8) Where, in any tax year, a person disposes of a
depreciable asset, no depreciation deduction shall be
allowed under this section for that year and
(a) if the consideration received exceeds the written
down value of the asset at the time of disposal, the
excess shall be chargeable to tax in that year under
the head ―Income from Business‖; or
(b) if the consideration received is less than the
written down value of the asset at the time of
disposal, the difference shall be allowed as a
deduction in computing the person‘s income
chargeable under the head ―Income from Business ‖
for that year.

Provisions
Depreciation.
(9) Where sub-section (3) applies, the written down value of
the asset for the purposes of sub-section (8) shall be
increased by the amount that is not allowed as a deduction as
a result of the application of sub-section (3).
(10) Where clause (a) of sub-section (13) applies, the
consideration received on disposal of the passenger transport
vehicle for the purposes of sub-section (8) shall be computed
according to the following formula —
A x B/C
where –
A is the amount received on disposal of the vehicle;
B is the amount referred to in clause (a) of sub-section (13);
and
C is the actual cost of acquiring the vehicle.

Provisions
Depreciation.
(11) Subject to sub-sections (13) and (14), the rules
in Part III of Chapter IV shall apply in determining the
cost and consideration received in respect of a
depreciable asset for the purposes of this section.
(12) The depreciation deductions allowed to a
leasing company or an investment bank or a
modaraba or a scheduled bank or a development
finance institution in respect of assets owned by the
leasing company or an investment bank or a
modaraba or a scheduled bank or a development
finance institution and leased to another person shall
be deductible only against the lease rental income
derived in respect of such assets.

Provisions
Depreciation.
(13) For the purposes of this section, —
(a) the cost of a depreciable asset being a passenger transport vehicle
not plying for hire shall not exceed one and half million rupees;
(b) the cost of immovable property or a structural improvement to
immovable property shall not include the cost of the land;
(c) any asset owned by a leasing company or an investment bank or a
modaraba or a scheduled bank or a development finance institution
and leased to another person is treated as used in the leasing
company or the investment bank or the modaraba or the scheduled
bank or the development finance institution‘s business; and]
(d) where the consideration received on the disposal of immovable
property exceeds the cost of the property, the consideration received
shall be treated as the cost of the property.

Provisions
Depreciation.
14) Where a depreciable asset that has been used by a person in Pakistan is
exported or transferred out of Pakistan, the person shall be treated as having
disposed of the asset at the time of the export or transfer for a consideration
received equal to the cost of the asset.
(15) In this section, —
“depreciable asset” means any tangible movable property, immovable property
(other than unimproved land), or structural improvement to immovable
property, owned by a person that —
(a) has a normal useful life exceeding one year;
(b) is likely to lose value as a result of normal wear and tear, or obsolescence; and
(c) is used wholly or partly by the person in deriving income from business
chargeable to tax,
but shall not include any tangible movable property, immovable property, or
structural improvement to immovable property in relation to which a
deduction has been allowed under another section of this Ordinance for the
entire cost of the property or improvement in the tax year in which the
property is acquired or improvement made by the person; and ―structural
improvement‖ in relation to immovable property, includes any building, road,
driveway, car park, railway line, pipeline, bridge, tunnel, airport runway, canal,
dock, wharf, retaining wall, fence, power lines, water or sewerage pipes,
drainage, landscaping or dam.

Provisions
Initial allowance.—
(1) A person who places an eligible depreciable asset into
service in Pakistan for the first time in a tax year shall be
allowed a deduction (hereinafter referred to as an ―initial
allowance‖) computed in accordance with sub-section (2),
provided the asset is used by the person for the purposes
of his business for the first time or the tax year in which
commercial production is commenced, whichever is later.
(2) The amount of the initial allowance of a person shall be
computed by applying the rate specified in Part II of the
Third Schedule against the cost of the asset.
(3) The rules in section 76 shall apply in determining the cost
of an eligible depreciable asset for the purposes of this
section.

Provisions
Initial allowance.—
(4) A deduction allowed under this section to a leasing company or an
investment bank or a modaraba or a scheduled bank or a
development finance institution in respect of assets owned by the
leasing company or the investment bank or the modaraba or the
scheduled bank or the development finance institution and leased to
another person shall be deducted only against the leased rental
income derived in respect of such assets.]
(5) In this section, “eligible depreciable asset” means a depreciable asset
other than —
(a) any road transport vehicle unless the vehicle is plying for hire;
(b) any furniture, including fittings;
(c) any plant or machinery that has been used previously in Pakistan; or
(d) any plant or machinery in relation to which a deduction has been
allowed under another section of this Ordinance for the entire cost of
the asset in the tax year in which the asset is acquired.

Provisions
First Year Allowance.— (1) Plant, machinery and
equipment installed by any industrial undertaking
set up in specified rural and under developed
areas, and owned and managed by a company
shall be allowed first year allowance in lieu of
initial allowance under section 23 at the rate
specified in Part II of the Third Schedule against
the cost of the “eligible depreciable assets” put to
use after July 1, 2008.
(2) The provisions of section 23 except sub-sections
(1) and (2) thereof, shall mutatis mutandis apply.
(3) The Federal Government may notify “specified
areas” for the purposes of sub-section (1)

Provisions
Accelerated depreciation to alternate energy
projects.—
(1) Any plant, machinery and equipments installed for
generation of alternate energy by an industrial
undertaking set up anywhere in Pakistan and
owned and managed by a company shall be
allowed first year allowance in lieu of initial
allowance under section 23, at the rate specified
in Part II of the Third Schedule against the cost of
the eligible depreciation assets put to use after
first day of July, 2009.
(2) The provisions of section 23 except sub-sections
(1) and (2) thereof, shall mutatis mutandis apply

Provisions
Intangibles.
(1) A person shall be allowed an amortisation deduction in accordance with this
section in a tax year for the cost of the person‘s intangibles–
(a) that are wholly or partly used by the person in the tax year in deriving income
from business chargeable to tax; and
(b) that have a normal useful life exceeding one year.
(2) No deduction shall be allowed under this section where a deduction has been
allowed under another section of this Ordinance for the entire cost of the
intangible in the tax year in which the intangible is acquired.
(3) Subject to sub-section (7), the amortization deduction of a person for a tax year
shall be computed according to the following formula, namely:—
A/B
where —
A is the cost of the intangible; and
B is the normal useful life of the intangible in whole years.
(4) An intangible —
(a) with a normal useful life of more than ten years; or
(b) that does not have an ascertainable useful life,
shall be treated as if it had a normal useful life of ten years.

Provisions
Intangibles.
(5) Where an intangible is used in a tax year partly in deriving income from
business chargeable to tax and partly for another use, the deduction
allowed under this section for that year shall be restricted to the fair
proportional part of the amount that would be allowed if the intangible
were wholly used to derive income from business chargeable to tax.
(6) Where an intangible is not used for the whole of the tax year in deriving
income from business chargeable to tax, the deduction allowed
under this section shall be computed according to the following
formula, namely: —
A x B/C
where —
A is the amount of 1[amortization] computed under sub-section (3) or (5),
as the case may be;
B is the number of days in the tax year the intangible is used in deriving
income from business chargeable to tax; and
C is the number of days in the tax year.

Provisions
Intangibles.
(7) The total deductions allowed to a person under this section in the
current tax year and all previous tax years in respect of an intangible
shall not exceed the cost of the intangible.
(8) Where, in any tax year, a person disposes of an intangible, no
amortisation deduction shall be allowed under this section for that
year and
(a) if the consideration received by the person exceeds the written down
value of the intangible at the time of disposal, the excess shall be
income of the person chargeable to tax in that year under the head
“Income from Business”; or
(b) if the consideration received is less than the written down value of the
intangible at the time of disposal, the difference shall be allowed as a
deduction in computing the person‘s income chargeable under the
head “Income from Business” in that year.

Provisions
Intangibles.
(9) For the purposes of sub-section (8) —
(a) the written down value of an intangible at the time of disposal shall be the cost
of the intangible reduced by the total deductions allowed to the person under
this section in respect of the intangible or, where the intangible is not wholly
used to derive income chargeable to tax, the amount that would be allowed
under this section if the intangible were wholly so used; and
(b) the consideration received on disposal of an intangible shall be determined in
accordance with section 77.
(10) For the purposes of this section, an intangible that is available for use on a day
(including a non-working day) is treated as used on that day.
(11) In this section,
“cost” in relation to an intangible, means any expenditure incurred in acquiring or
creating the intangible, including any expenditure incurred in improving or
renewing the intangible; and
“intangible” means any patent, invention, design or model, secret formula or
process, copyright , trade mark, scientific or technical knowledge, computer
software, motion picture film, export quotas, franchise, licence, intellectual
property, or other like property or right, contractual rights and any expenditure
that provides an advantage or benefit for a period of more than one year
(other than expenditure incurred to acquire a depreciable asset or
unimproved land).

Provisions
Pre-commencement expenditure.—
(1) A person shall be allowed a deduction for any precommencement expenditure in accordance with this
section.
(2) Pre-commencement expenditure shall be amortized on a
straight-line basis at the rate specified in Part III of the
Third Schedule.
(3) The total deductions allowed under this section in the
current tax year and all previous tax years in respect of
an amount of pre-commencement expenditure shall not
exceed the amount of the expenditure.
(4) No deduction shall be allowed under this section where a
deduction has been allowed under another section of this
Ordinance for the entire amount of the precommencement expenditure in the tax year in which it is
incurred.

Provisions
Pre-commencement expenditure.—
(5) In this section, “pre-commencement
expenditure” means any expenditure
incurred before the commencement of a
business wholly and exclusively to derive
income chargeable to tax, including the
cost of feasibility studies, construction of
prototypes, and trial production activities,
but shall not include any expenditure which
is incurred in acquiring land, or which is
depreciated or amortised under section 22
or 24.

Provisions
Scientific research expenditure.—
(1) A person shall be allowed a deduction for scientific research
expenditure incurred in Pakistan in a tax year wholly and exclusively
for the purpose of deriving income from business chargeable to tax.
(2) In this section —
“scientific research” means any activity undertaken in Pakistan in the fields
of natural or applied science for the development of human
knowledge;
“scientific research expenditure” means any expenditure incurred by a
person on scientific research [undertaken in Pakistan] for the
purposes of developing the person‘s business, including any
contribution to a scientific research institution to undertake scientific
research for the purposes of the person‘s business, other than
expenditure incurred –
(a) in the acquisition of any depreciable asset or intangible;
(b) in the acquisition of immovable property; or
(c) for the purpose of ascertaining the existence, location, extent or quality
of a natural deposit; and
“scientific research institution” means any institution certified by the Board
as conducting scientific research in Pakistan

Provisions
Employee training and facilities.
A person shall be allowed a deduction for any
expenditure (other than capital expenditure)
incurred in a tax year in respect of
(a) any educational institution or hospital in Pakistan
established for the benefit of the person‘s
employees and their dependents;
(b) any institute in Pakistan established for the
training of industrial workers recognized, aided,
or run by the Federal Government or a Provincial
Government] or a Local Government; or
(c) the training of any person, being a citizen of
Pakistan, in connection with a scheme approved
by the 4[Board] for the purposes of this section.

Provisions
Profit on debt, financial costs and lease
payments.
(1) Subject to this Ordinance, a deduction shall be
allowed for a tax year for
(a) any profit on debt incurred by a person in the tax
year to the extent that the proceeds or benefit of
the debt have been used by the person for the
purposes of business;
(b) any lease rental incurred by a person in the tax
year to a scheduled bank, financial institution, an
approved modaraba, an approved leasing
company or a Special Purpose Vehicle on behalf
of the Originator for an asset used by the person
for the purposes of business

Provisions
Profit on debt, financial costs and lease payments.
(c) any amount incurred by a person in the tax year to a modaraba or a
participation term certificate holder for any funds borrowed and used
by the person for the purposes of business;
(d) any amount incurred by a scheduled bank in the tax year to a person
maintaining a profit or loss sharing account or a deposit with the bank
as a distribution of profits by the bank in respect of the account or
deposit;
(e) any amount incurred by the House Building Finance Corporation
(hereinafter referred to as “the Corporation”) constituted under the
House Building Finance Corporation Act, 1952 (XVIII of 1952), in the
tax year to the State Bank of Pakistan (hereinafter referred to as “the
Bank”) as the share of the Bank in the profits derived by the
Corporation on its investment in property made under a scheme of
partnership in profit and loss, where the investment is provided by the
Bank under the House Building Finance Corporation (Issue and
Redemption of Certificates) Regulations, 1982;

Provisions
(f) any amount incurred by the National Development Leasing
Corporation Limited (hereinafter referred to as “the
Corporation”) in the tax year to the State Bank of Pakistan
(hereinafter referred to as “the Bank”) as the share of the
Bank in the profits derived by the Corporation on its
leasing operations financed out of a credit line provided
by the Bank on a profit and loss sharing basis;
(g) any amount incurred by the Small and Medium Enterprises
Bank (hereinafter referred to as “the SME Bank”) in the
tax year to the State Bank of Pakistan (hereinafter
referred to as the “Bank”) as the share of the Bank in the
profits derived by the SME Bank on investments made in
small business out of a credit line provided by the Bank
on a profit and loss sharing basis;

Provisions
(h) any amount incurred by a person in the tax year to a
banking company under a scheme of musharika
representing the bank‘s share in the profits of the
musharika;
(i) any amount incurred by a person in the tax year to a
certificate holder under a musharika scheme approved by
the Securities and Exchange Commission and Religious
Board formed under the Modaraba Companies and
Modaraba (Floatation and Control) Ordinance, 1980
(XXXI of 1980) representing the certificate holder‘s share
in the profits of the musharika; or
(j) the financial cost of the securitization of receivables
incurred by an Originator in the tax year from a Special
Purpose Vehicle being the difference between the
amount received by the Originator and the amount of
receivables securitized from a Special Purpose Vehicle.

Provisions
(2) Notwithstanding any other provision in this Ordinance,
where any assets are transferred by an Originator, as a
consequence of securitisation, to a Special Purpose
Vehicle, it shall be treated as a financing transaction
irrespective of the method of accounting adopted by the
Originator.
“approved leasing company” means a leasing company
approved by the Board for the purposes of clause (b) of
sub-section (1); and
“approved modaraba” means a modaraba approved by the
Board for the purposes of clause (b) of sub-section (1).

Provisions
Bad debts.
(1) A person shall be allowed a deduction for a bad
debt in a tax year if the following conditions are
satisfied, namely:(a) the amount of the debt was –
(i) previously included in the person‘s income from
business chargeable to tax; or
(ii) in respect of money lent by a financial institution
in deriving income from business chargeable to
tax;
(b) the debt or part of the debt is written off in the
accounts of the person in the tax year; and
(c) there are reasonable grounds for believing that
the debt is irrecoverable.

Provisions
Bad debts.
(2) The amount of the deduction allowed to a person under this section for
a tax year shall not exceed the amount of the debt written off in the
accounts of the person in the tax year.
(3) Where a person has been allowed a deduction in a tax year for a bad
debt and in a subsequent tax year the person receives in cash or
kind any amount in respect of that debt, the following rules shall
apply, namely:–
(a) where the amount received exceeds the difference between the whole
of such bad debt and the amount previously allowed as a deduction
under this section, the excess shall be included in the person‘s
income under the head “Income from Business” for the tax year in
which it was received; or
(b) where the amount received is less than the difference between the
whole of such bad debt and the amount allowed as a deduction
under this section, the shortfall shall be allowed as a bad debt
deduction in computing the person‘s income under the head “Income
from Business” for the tax year in which it was received.

Provisions
Provision regarding consumer loans.—
(1) A non-banking finance company or the House Building
Finance Corporation shall be allowed a deduction, not
exceeding three per cent of the income for the tax year,
arising out of consumer loans for creation of a reserve to
off-set bad debts arising out of such loans.
(2) Where bad debt can not be wholly set off against reserve,
any amount of bad debt, exceeding the reserves shall be
carried forward for adjustment against the reserve for the
following years.
Explanation.— In this section, “consumer loan” means a loan
of money or its equivalent made by a non-banking finance
company or the House Building Finance Corporation to a
debtor (consumer) and the loan is entered primarily for
personal, family or household purposes and includes
debts created by the use of a lender credit card or similar
arrangement as well as insurance premium financing

Provisions
Profit on non-performing debts of
development finance institution.
(1)

a

banking

company

or

A banking company or development finance institution or NonBanking Finance Company (NBFC) or modaraba shall be allowed a
deduction for any profit accruing on a non-performing debt of the
banking company or institution or Non-Banking Finance Company
(NBFC) or modaraba] where the profit is credited to a suspense
account in accordance with the Prudential Regulations for Banks or
Non-Banking Finance Company or modaraba Non-bank Financial
Institutions, as the case may be, issued by the State Bank of
Pakistan or the Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan.

(2) Any profit deducted under sub-section (1) that is subsequently
recovered by the banking company or development finance
institution or Non-Banking Finance Company (NBFC) or modaraba]
shall be included in the income of the company or institution 6[or
Non-Banking Finance Company (NBFC) or modaraba chargeable
under the head “Income from Business” for the tax year in which it is
recovered.

Provisions
Transfer to participatory reserve.—
(1) Subject to this section, a company shall be allowed a
deduction for a tax year for any amount transferred by the
company in the year to a participatory reserve created
under section 120 of the Companies Ordinance, 1984
(XLVII of 1984) in accordance with an agreement relating
to participatory redeemable capital entered into between
the company and a banking company as defined in the
Banking Tribunals Ordinance, 1984.
(2) The deduction allowed under subsection (1) for a tax year
shall be limited to five per cent of the value of the
company‘s participatory redeemable capital.
(3) No deduction shall be allowed under subsection (1) if the
amount of the tax exempted accumulation in the
participatory reserve exceeds ten per cent of the amount
of the participatory redeemable capital.

Provisions
Transfer to participatory reserve.—
(4) Where any amount accumulated in the
participatory reserve of a company has been
allowed as a deduction under this section is
applied by the company towards any purpose
other than payment of share of profit on the
participatory redeemable capital or towards any
purpose not allowable for deduction or exemption
under this Ordinance the amount so applied shall
be included in the income from business of the
company in the tax year in which it is so applied.

Tax Accounting
Method of accounting.
(1) Subject to this Ordinance, a person‘s income
chargeable to tax shall be computed in
accordance with the method of accounting
regularly employed by such person.
(2) Subject to sub-section (3), a company shall
account for income chargeable to tax under the
head “Income from Business” on an accrual
basis, while other persons may account for such
income on a cash or accrual basis.
(3) The Board may prescribe that any class of
persons shall account for income chargeable to
tax under the head “Income from Business” on a
cash or accrual basis.

Tax Accounting
(4) A person may apply, in writing, for a change in
the person‘s method of accounting and the
Commissioner may, by order in writing, approve
such an application but only if satisfied that the
change is necessary to clearly reflect the
person‘s income chargeable to tax under the
head “Income from Business”.
(5) If a person‘s method of accounting has changed,
the person shall make adjustments to items of
income, deduction, or credit, or to any other
items affected by the change so that no item is
omitted and no item is taken into account more
than once.

Tax Accounting
Cash-basis accounting.
A person accounting for income chargeable
to tax under the head “Income from
Business” on a cash basis shall derive
income when it is received and shall incur
expenditure when it is paid.

Tax Accounting
Accrual-basis accounting.
(1) A person accounting for income chargeable to tax under
the head “Income from Business” on an accrual basis
shall derive income when it is due to the person and shall
incur expenditure when it is payable by the person.
(2) Subject to this Ordinance, an amount shall be due to a
person when the person becomes entitled to receive it
even if the time for discharge of the entitlement is
postponed or the amount is payable by installments.
(3) Subject to this Ordinance, an amount shall be payable by a
person when all the events that determine liability have
occurred and the amount of the liability can be
determined with reasonable accuracy.

Tax Accounting
Accrual-basis accounting.
(5) Where a person has been allowed a deduction for any expenditure
incurred in deriving income chargeable to tax under the head
“Income from Business” and the person has not paid the liability or a
part of the liability to which the deduction relates within three years of
the end of the tax year in which the deduction was allowed, the
unpaid amount of the liability shall be chargeable to tax under the
head “Income from Business” in the first tax year following the end of
the three years.
(5A) Where a person has been allowed a deduction in respect of a trading
liability and such person has derived any benefit in respect of such
trading liability, the value of such benefit shall be chargeable to tax
under 3[the] head “Income from Business” for the tax year in which
such benefit is received.]
(6) Where an unpaid liability is chargeable to tax as a result of the
application of sub-section (5) and the person subsequently pays the
liability or a part of the liability, the person shall be allowed a
deduction for the amount paid in the tax year in which the payment is
made.

Tax Accounting
Stock-in-trade.— (1) For the purposes of determining a person‘s income
chargeable to tax under the head “Income from Business” for a tax
year, the cost of stock-in-trade disposed of by the person in the year
shall be computed in accordance with the following formula, namely:–
(A + B) – C
where —
A is the opening value of the person‘s stock-in-trade for the year;
B is cost of stock-in-trade acquired by the person in the year; and
C is the closing value of stock-in-trade for the year.
(2) The opening value of stock-in-trade of a person for a tax year shall be
(a) the closing value of the person‘s stock-in-trade at the end of the
previous year; or
(b) where the person commenced to carry on business in the year, the fair
market value of any stock-in-trade acquired by the person prior to the
commencement of the business.

Tax Accounting
Stock-in-trade.
(3) The fair market value of stock-in-trade referred to in clause (b) of subsection (2) shall be determined at the time the stock-in-trade is
ventured in the business.
(4) The closing value of a person‘s stock-in-trade for a tax year shall be
the lower of cost or net realizable value of the person‘s stock-in-trade
on hand at the end of the year.
(5) A person accounting for income chargeable to tax under the head
“Income from Business” on a cash basis may compute the person‘s
cost of stock-in-trade on the prime-cost method or absorption-cost
method, and a person accounting for such income on an accrual
basis shall compute the person‘s cost of stock-in-trade on the
absorption-cost method.
(6) Where particular items of stock-in-trade are not readily identifiable, a
person may account for that stock on the first-in-first-out method or
the average-cost method but, once chosen, a stock valuation method
may be changed only with the written permission of the
Commissioner and in accordance with any conditions that the
Commissioner may impose.

Tax Accounting
Stock-in-trade.
“absorption-cost method” means the generally accepted accounting
principle under which the cost of an item of stock-in-trade is the sum
of direct material costs, direct labour costs, and factory overhead
costs;
“average-cost method” means the generally accepted accounting principle
under which the valuation of stock-in-trade is based on a weighted
average cost of units on hand;
“direct labour costs” means labour costs directly related to the
manufacture or production of stock-in-trade;
“direct material costs” means the cost of materials that become an integral
part of the stock-in-trade manufactured or produced, or which are
consumed in the manufacturing or production process;

Tax Accounting
Stock-in-trade.
(7) In this section,
“factory overhead costs” means the total costs of manufacturing or producing
stock-in-trade, other than direct labour and direct material costs;
“first-in-first-out method” means the generally accepted accounting principle under
which the valuation of stock-in-trade is based on the assumption that stock is
sold in the order of its acquisition;
“prime-cost method” means the generally accepted accounting principle under
which the cost of stock-in-trade is the sum of direct material costs, direct
labour costs, and variable factory overhead costs;
“stock-in-trade” means anything produced, manufactured, purchased, or otherwise
acquired for manufacture, sale or exchange, and any materials or supplies to
be consumed in the production or manufacturing process, but does not
include stocks or shares; and
“variable factory overhead costs” means those factory overhead costs which vary
directly with changes in volume of stock-in-trade manufactured or produced.

Provisions

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Provisions