research methods CHAPTER VI data processing, analysis and interpretation .pptx

Chapter VI: Data Processing, Analysis And Interpretation
6.1. Data Processing: Editing, Coding, Classification & Tabulation
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the
outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan.
Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding, classification and
tabulation of collected data so that they are ready to analysis.
The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with
searching for patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups. Thus, “in the
process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with
original or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance
to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions
Processing Operations
With this brief introduction concerning the concepts of processing and analysis,
we can now proceed with the explanation of all the processing operations.

Cont …
1. Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (especially in
surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter
of fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires and/or
schedules. Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other
facts gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been well
arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
2. Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to
answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes.
Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem under consideration. They
must also possess the characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e., there must be a class for
every data item) and also that of mutual exclusively which means that a specific
answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a given category set. Another rule to
be observed is that of unidimensionality by which is meant that every class is defined
in terms of only one concept. Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it
the several replies may be reduced to a small number of classes which contain the
critical information required for analysis. Coding decisions should usually be taken at
the designing stage of the questionnaire. This makes it possible to precode the
questionnaire choices and which in turn is helpful for computer tabulation as one can
straight forward key punch from the original questionnaires.

Cont …
3. Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which
must be reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful
relationships. This fact necessitates classification of data which happens to be the
process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics. Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class.
4. Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for
the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This
procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of
summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form
of statistical tables) for further analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an
orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows. Tabulation is essential because
of the following reasons.
1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a
minimum.
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.
4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.

Cont …
• Generally accepted principles of tabulation: Such principles of tabulation,
particularly of constructing statistical tables, can be briefly states as follows:
1. Every table should have a clear, concise and adequate title so as to make the table
intelligible without reference to the text and this title should always be placed
just above the body of the table.
2. Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference.
3. The column headings (captions) and the row headings (stubs) of the table should
be clear and brief.
4. The units of measurement under each heading or sub-heading must always be
indicated.
5. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed directly
beneath the table, along with the reference symbols used in the table.
6. Source or sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be
indicated just below the table.

6.2. Data Analysis and Interpretation
• By analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or measures along with
searching for patterns of relationship that exist among the data groups.
Analysis, particularly in case of survey or experimental data, involves
estimating the values of unknown parameters of the population and testing
of hypotheses for drawing inferences. Analysis may, therefore, be categorized
as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis (Inferential analysis is often
known as statistical analysis). “Descriptive analysis is largely the study of
distributions of one variable. This study provides us with profiles of companies,
work groups, persons and other subjects on any of a multiple of characteristics
such as size. Composition, efficiency, preferences, etc.”. This sort of analysis
may be in respect of one variable (described as unidimensional analysis), or in
respect of two variables (described as bivariateanalysis) or in respect of more
than two variables (described as multivariate analysis). In this context we work
out various measures that show the size and shape of a distribution(s) along
with the study of measuring relationships between two or more variables.

Cont …
We may as well talk of correlation analysis and causal analysis.
Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or more
variables for determining the amount of correlation between two
or more variables. Causal analysis is concerned with the study
of how one or more variables affect changes in another variable.
It is thus a study of functional relationships existing between
two or more variables. This analysis can be termed as regression
analysis. Causal analysis is considered relatively more important
in experimental researches, whereas in most social and business
researches our interest lies in understanding and controlling
relationships between variables then with determining causes
per se and as such we consider correlation analysis as relatively
more important.

Cont …
6.2.1. Analysis of qualitative data (Reading assignment)
• 6.2.2. Analysis of quantitative data
• Statistics in Research
• The role of statistics in research is to function as a tool in designing research,
analyzing its data and drawing conclusions.
• There are two major areas of statistics viz., descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics. Descriptive statistics concern the development of certain indices from
the raw data, whereas inferential statistics concern with the process of
generalization. Inferential statistics are also known as sampling statistics and are
mainly concerned with two major type of problems: (i) the estimation of
population parameters, and (ii) the testing of statistical hypotheses.
• The important statistical measures that are used to summarize the
survey/research data are: (1) measures of central tendency or statistical
averages; (2) measures of dispersion; (3) measures of asymmetry (skewness);
(4) measures of relationship; and (5) other measures.

Cont …
Amongst the measures of central tendency, the three most important ones are
the arithmetic average or mean, median and mode. From among the measures
of dispersion, variance, and its square root; the standard deviation are the most
often used measures. For comparison purpose, we use mostly the coefficient of
variation. In respect of the measures of skewness and kurtosis, we mostly use
the first measure of skewness based on mean and mode or on mean and
median. Other measures of skewness, based on quartiles or on the methods of
moments, are also used sometimes. Kurtosis is also used to measure the
peakedness of the curve of the frequency distribution. Amongst the measures of
relationship, Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is the frequently used
measure in case of statistics of variables, Multiple correlation coefficient,
partial correlation coefficient, regression analysis, etc., are other important
measures often used by a researcher.

Cont …
• Measures of Central Tendency
• Measures of central tendency (or statistical averages) tell us the point about
which items have a tendency to cluster. Such a measure is considered as the
most representative figure for the entire mass of data. Measure of central
tendency is also known as statistical average. Mean, median and mode are the
most popular averages. Mean, also known as arithmetic average, is the most
common measure of central tendency and may be defined as the value which we
get by dividing the total of the values of various given items in a series by the
total number of items.
• Measures of Dispersion
• Averages can represent a series only as best as a single figure can, but it
certainly cannot reveal the entire story of any phenomenon under study.
Especially it fails to give any idea about the scatter of the values of items of a
variable in the series around the true value of average. In order to measure this
scatter, statistical devices called measures of dispersion are calculated.
Important measures of dispersion are (a) range, (b) mean deviation, and (c)
standard deviation.

Cont …
(a) Mean deviation is the average of difference of the values of items from some
average of the Series.
(b) Standard deviation is most widely used measure of dispersion of a series and is
commonly denoted by the symbols’ (pronounced as sigma). Standard deviation
is defined as the square-root of the average of squares of deviations, when such
deviations for the values of individual items in a series are obtained from the
arithmetic average. The standard deviation (along with several related measures
like variance, coefficient of variation, etc.) is used mostly in research studies
and is regarded as a very satisfactory measure of dispersion in a series.
• Measures of Asymmetry (Skewness)
• When the distribution of item in a series happens to be perfectly symmetrical,
we then have the following type of curve for the distribution:

Cont …
• Such a curve is technically described as a normal curve and the relating distribution as
normal distribution. Such a curve is perfectly bell shaped curve in which case the value of
X or M or Z is just the same and skewness is altogether absent. But if the curve is
distorted (whether on the right side or on the left side), we have asymmetrical distribution
which indicates that there is skewness. If the curve is distorted on the right side, we have
positive skewness but when the curve is distorted towards left, we have negative
skewness.
• Measures of Relationship
• So far we have dealt with those statistical measures that we use in context of univariate
population i.e., the population consisting of measurement of only one variable. But if we
have the data on two variables, we are said to have a bivariate population and if the data
happen to be on more than two variables, the population is known as multivariate
population. If for every measurement of a variable, X, we have corresponding value of a
second variable, Y, the resulting pairs of values are called a bivariate population. In
addition, we may also have a corresponding value of the third variable, Z, or the forth
variable, W, and so on, the resulting pairs of values are called a multivariate population.
In case of bivariate or multivariate populations, we often wish to know the relation of the
two and/or more variables in the data to one another.

Cont …
• Simple Regression Analysis
• Regression is the determination of a statistical relationship between two or
more variables. In simple regression, we have only two variables, one
variable (defined as independent) is the cause of the behavior of another one
(defined as dependent variable). Regression can only interpret what exists
physically i.e., there must be a physical way in which independent variable
X can affect dependent variable Y. The basic relationship between X and Y is
given by
Ϋ = a + bX
• Where the symbol $ Y denotes the estimated value of Y for a given value of
X. This equation is known
• as the regression equation of Y on X (also represents the regression line of Y
on X when drawn on a
• graph) which means that each unit change in X produces a change of b in Y,
which is positive for direct and negative for inverse relationships.

6.3. Interpretation
• After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to accomplish the task of
drawing inferences followed by report writing. This has to be done very carefully,
otherwise misleading conclusions may be drawn and the whole purpose of doing
research may get vitiated. It is only through interpretation that the researcher can expose
relations and processes that underlie his findings. In case of hypotheses testing studies, if
hypotheses are tested and upheld several times, the researcher may arrive at
generalizations. But in case the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he would try
to explain his findings on the basis of some theory.
6.3.1. Meaning of Interpretation
• Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of
research findings. The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz., (i) the effort to
establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given study with those of
another, and (ii) the establishment of some explanatory concepts. “In one sense,
interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially
overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to include
the results of other research, theory and hypotheses.”1 Thus, interpretation is the device
through which the factors that seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in
the course of the study can be better understood and it also provides a theoretical
conception which can serve as a guide for further researches.

Cont …
• Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and utility
of research findings lie in proper interpretation. It is being considered a basic
component of research process because of the following reasons:
(i) It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract
principle that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his
findings with those of other studies, having the same abstract principle, and
thereby can predict about the concrete world of events. Fresh inquiries can
test these predictions later on. This way the continuity in research can be
maintained.
(ii) Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can
serve as a guide for future research studies; it opens new avenues of
intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge.
(iii) Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his
findings are what they are and can make others to understand the real
significance of his research findings.

Cont …
(iv) The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into
hypotheses for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the
transition from exploratory to experimental research. Since an exploratory study
does not have a hypothesis to start with, the findings of such a study have to be
interpreted on a post-factum basis in which case the interpretation is technically
described as ‘post factum’ interpretation.
6.3.2. Technique of Interpretation
• The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and
dexterity on the part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through
practice and experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from
experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation. The technique of
interpretation often involves the following steps:

Cont …
(i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found
and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes
and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of
his diversified research findings. In fact, this is the technique of how
generalization should be done and concepts be formulated.
(ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while
interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor
in understanding the problem under consideration.
(iii) It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone
having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to
point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will
result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research
results.
(iv) Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all
relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in
no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear
to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.

CHAPTER 7: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS: REPORT WRITING
7.1. Role of Written Report
• Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the
research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or
written. As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well
designed and conducted research study, and the most striking generalizations
and findings are of little value unless they are effectively communicated to
others. The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made
known to others. Research results must invariably enter the general store of
knowledge.

7.2. Types of Reports
(A) Technical Report
• In the technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the methods employed, (it)
assumptions made in the course of the study, (iii) the detailed presentation of
the findings including their limitations and supporting data.
• A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three
pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study,
formulation of the problem in operational terms, the working hypothesis, the
type of analysis and data required, etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations.
For instance, in sampling studies we should give details of sample design
viz., sample size, sample selection, etc.
4. Data: Discussion of data collected their sources, characteristics and
limitations. If secondary data are used, their suitability to the problem at
hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in which data were
collected should be fully described.

Cont …
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and
presentation of the findings of the study with supporting data in the form of
tables and charts be fully narrated. This, in fact, happens to be the main body
of the report usually extending over several chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications
drawn from the results be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and
attached.
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to
questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique
of analysis and the like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.

Cont …
(B) Popular Report
• The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness.
The simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of
technical, particularly mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and
diagrams. Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an
occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of the popular
report. Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy
implications. We give below a general outline of a popular report.
1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings
of most practical interest and on the implications of these findings.
2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the
findings of the study is made in this section of the report.
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented
along with the specific objectives of the project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and
techniques used, including a short review of the data on which the study is based,
is given in this part of the report.

Cont …
5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the
results of the study are presented in clear and non-technical terms with
liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like
ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms,
etc. is presented in the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not
detailed if the report is entirely meant for general public.

7.3. Principles of report preparation
• Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the
readers of the report. A good research report is one which does this task
efficiently and effectively. As such it must be prepared keeping the following
precautions in view:
1. While determining the length of the report (since research reports vary greatly in
length), one should keep in view the fact that it should be long enough to cover
the subject but short enough to maintain interest. In fact, report-writing should
not be a means to learning more and more about less and less.
2. A research report should not, if this can be avoided, be dull; it should be such as
to sustain reader’s interest.
3. Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in a research
report. The report should be able to convey the matter as simply as possible.
This, in other words, means that report should be written in an objective style in
simple language, avoiding expressions such as “it seems,” “there may be” and
the like.

Cont …
4. Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of the main findings and as
such the report must provide a ready availability of the findings. For this purpose, charts,
graphs and the statistical tables may be used for the various results in the main report in
addition to the summary of important findings.
5. The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be appropriate and in
accordance with the objective of the research problem.
6. The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be prepared strictly in
accordance with the techniques of composition of report-writing such as the use of
quotations, footnotes, documentation, proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in
footnotes and the like.
7. The report must present the logical analysis of the subject matter. It must reflect a structure
wherein the different pieces of analysis relating to the research problem fit well.
8. A research report should show originality and should necessarily be an attempt to solve
some intellectual problem. It must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add
to the store of knowledge.
9. Towards the end, the report must also state the policy implications relating to the problem
under consideration. It is usually considered desirable if the report makes a forecast of the
probable future of the subject concerned and indicates the kinds of research still needs to
be done in that particular field.

Cont …
10. Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data in the
report.
11. Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report and must
necessarily be given.
12. Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as such must
be prepared and appended at the end. Report must be attractive in
appearance, neat and clean, whether typed or printed.
14. Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting the research study may also be stated in the
report.
15. Objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the methods employed
and the analysis techniques adopted must all be clearly stated in the
beginning of the report in the form of introduction.

Different Steps in Writing Report
• Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The
usual steps involved in writing report are: (a) logical analysis of the subject-matter;
(b) preparation of the final outline; (c) preparation of the rough draft; (d) rewriting
and polishing; (c) preparation of the final bibliography; and (f) writing the final
draft. Though all these steps are self explanatory, yet a brief mention of each one of
these will be appropriate for better understanding.
• Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily
concerned with the development of a subject. There are two ways in which to
develop a subject (a) logically and (b) chronologically. The logical development is
made on the basis of mental connections and associations between the one thing
and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in developing
the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or
occurrence. The directions for doing or making something usually follow the
chronological order.
• Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report
“Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. They
are an aid to the logical organization of the material and a reminder of the points to
be stressed in the report.

Cont …
• Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject
and the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for
the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the context of his
research study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting
the material for his study along with various limitations faced by him, the
technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations
and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned.
• Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most
difficult part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the
writing of the rough draft. The careful revision makes the difference between a
mediocre and a good piece of writing. While rewriting and polishing, one
should check the report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation.
The researcher should also “see whether or not the material, as it is presented,
has unity and cohesion; does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a
definite pattern, like a marble arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of
moldering cement and loose brick.”4 In addition the researcher should give due
attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He
should check the mechanics of writing grammar, spelling and usage.

Cont …
• Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the
preparation of the final bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally
appended to the research report, is a list of books.
• The entries in bibliography should be made adopting the following order:
• For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:
1. Name of author, last name first.
2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.
4. Number of volumes.
• Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should
be written in a concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding
vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may be”, and the like ones.
While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology
and technical jargon.

7.4. Contents of Report
• Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed
enough about the study so that he can place it in its general scientific context,
judge the adequacy of its methods and thus form an opinion of how seriously
the findings are to be taken. For this purpose there is the need of proper
layout of the report. The layout of the report means as to what the research
report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report should
comprise (A) preliminary pages; (B) the main text; and (C) the end matter.
Let us deal with them separately.
(A) Preliminary Pages
• In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by
acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should
be a table of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the
decision-maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate
the required information in the report.

Cont …
(B) Main Text
• The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along
with all details. Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first
page of the main text and then follows the other details on pages numbered
consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main section of the
report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report should have
the following sections:
(i) Introduction; (ii) The results; (iii) The implications drawn from the results;
and (iv) The summary.
(i) Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research
project to the readers. It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of
research i.e., enough background should be given to make clear to the reader
why the problem was considered worth investigating. A brief summary of
other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be
seen in that context. The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of
the major concepts employed in the study should be explicitly stated in the
introduction of the report.

Cont …
• The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained.
• would like to know in detail about such thing: How was the study carried
out? What was its basic design? If the study was an experimental one, then
what were the experimental manipulations? If the data were collected by
means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions were
asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an
appendix)? If measurements were based on observation, then what
instructions were given to the observers? Regarding the sample used in the
study the reader should be told: Who were the subjects? How many were
there? How were they selected? All these questions are crucial for estimating
the probable limits of generalizability of the findings. The statistical analysis
adopted must also be clearly stated. In addition to all this, the scope of the
study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various
limitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be
narrated.

Cont …
(ii) Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting
data in the form of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is
the next step in writing the main text of the report. This generally comprises
the main body of the report, extending over several chapters. The result
section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of
the data rather than the raw data. All the results should be presented in
logical sequence and splitted into readily identifiable sections. All relevant
results must find a place in the report. But how one is to decide about what is
relevant is the basic question. Quite often guidance comes primarily from the
research problem and from the hypotheses, if any, with which the study was
concerned. But ultimately the researcher must rely on his own judgment in
deciding the outline of his report. “Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he
states clearly the problem with which he was concerned, the procedure by
which he worked on the problem, the conclusions at which he arrived, and
the bases for his conclusions.

Cont …
(iii) Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, the researcher
should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. He
should, state the implications that flow from the results of the study, for the
general reader is interested in the implications for understanding the human
behavior.
(C) End Matter
• At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all
technical data such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical
derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of sources consulted should also
be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along
with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which they are
mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the report.
The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the
contents in the report.

THANK YOU FOR YOUR
ATTENTION!!
END OF THE COURSE

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